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Intelligent Compaction
Roman Poudyal
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Abstract
Stabilizing soil is very important in every construction and compaction is one of the common
methods used for it. Proper compaction reaching the optimum density ensures strength of soil.
Compaction level during compaction is tested by post compaction in-situ spot tests. Such test
does not guarantee compaction level of whole area and also there is always chance of over or
under compaction. So, continuous monitoring of compaction level is very essential and
Intelligent Compaction is one such method. It provides continuous information of soil
compaction with hundred percent area coverage. This paper describes technology used, working
mechanism, parameter measured in intelligent compaction and its advantages and challenges.
1.0 Introduction
Soil compaction is process of soil densification by removing air voids between soil
particles with application of static, impact, kneading or vibratory loads. It is method mechanical
stabilization method of soil and is essential part of building foundations, roadways, walkways,
earth retaining structures and embankment construction where in-situ soil are removed and back
fill of soil is done for removing unsuitable soil or to raise the ground level. In such proper
densification of backfilled soil up to certain optimum density is required for achieving stable,
strong soil surface to construct structure. So, proper testing and check of compaction level with
compaction process to prevent over or under compaction of area is essential and development of
quick and reliable method for such test is also important.

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In late 1970s and early 1980s concept of intelligent compaction was developed in
Europe with research studies using vibration roller as means of checking compaction (Camargo
et al. 2006). Roller system with feedback loops in which vibration of rollers controlled by
sensors installed were developed in late 1980s, this developed new title in compaction process,
Intelligent Compaction (Camargo et al. 2006). IC can be define as ability of compaction device
in field to collect information, analyze information, make appropriate decision and execute the
decision while compaction process. Its the method of compaction with continuous monitoring of
present condition of soil. First development of IC begins with the work of Bomag in Germany,
Ammann in Switzerland and Geodynamik in Sweden (Scullion et al. 2006). Nowadays besides
these companies other company like Caterpillar, Dynapac, Sakai and HAMM-Wirtgen are also
involved in manufacturing and developing IC technology.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) defines Intelligent Compaction as, the
compaction of road materials, such as soils, aggregate bases, or asphalt pavement materials,
using modern vibratory rollers equipped with an integrated measurement system, Global
Positioning System (GPS) based mapping, onboard computer reporting system, and (optionally)
a feedback control. By integrating measurement, documentation, and control systems, the use of
IC rollers allows for real-time monitoring and just-in-time corrections in the compaction process.
IC rollers also maintain a continuous record of color- coded plots that include number of roller
passes, material stiffness measurements, and precise location of the roller(Xu et al. 2012).
Accelerometer equipped to vibratory roller used to calculate different IC measurement values by
measuring different frequencies and acceleration of roller. GPS system tracks the location of
roller and monitor displays current location and status of soil compaction. Variation in
compaction effort may be automatic or manual depending upon build of machine.
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IC technology addresses the issues present in soil aggregate or asphalt mixture
compaction and quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA) methods. By use of continuous
measurement and analyzing in real time IC improve quality, uniformity and performance of
compacted layer. With continuous monitoring compaction can be achieved in fewer passes
leading to cost and fuel efficiency. Comparison of soil compaction after each pass and indication
of present compaction level and need of further compaction in display monitor and automatic or
manual adjustment of vibration effort results in achievement of target compaction in shorter
period with less chances of over compaction (Federal Highway Website).
IC technology seems so promising and attractive because it provide real time evaluation
of compaction state through vibration or machine power monitoring but development of such
system with perfect efficiency is not easy. Heterogeneity of soil, variation of moisture content
and lift thickness of soil in compaction layer, soil type and mixture pattern, also the machine type
and operating mechanism are some factors which makes development of IC technology more
challenging and complex.
2.0 Present Method of Compaction and QC/QA
Present compaction method involves in-situ testing at selected location after compaction
of soil to check if the required compaction level has achieved. These provide no information
of compaction level until tests are done. Due to lack of real time measurement there is always
chance of over and under compaction of soil. Also in-situ spot test are done in limited location
which may not be representative of entire area. Most of test conducted are time consuming
and may result in delay or stop of construction work (Briaud and Seo 2003).
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a. Sand Cone Test b. Rubber Balloon Test c. Nuclear Gauge

d. Dynamic Cone
penetration
e. Falling Weight
Deflectometer
f. Plate Load Test
Fig. 1: Current in-situ test method
Sand cone test, rubber balloon test, nuclear gauge test, coring, dynamic cone penetration,
light weight deflectometer, falling weight deflectometer, plate load test are some common in-
situ test that are conducted for quality check or quality assurance of compaction area. Each of
these test devices are shown in Fig. 1. All these tests are post construction and done in random
location, which only covers approximately about 1:1,000,000 of fill volume which may cause
weak uncompact area unidentified (Xu and Chang 2013). So, for improvement in construction
quality, quality check and its measurement should be done covering all area.
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3.0 IC technology
To cover shortcoming of present compaction method and for development of better QC/QA
technique, IC technology seems best option. Smart controlling of compaction with real time
monitoring with hundred percent area coverage will result in efficient compaction. With
addition of some extra tools in present compaction device like accelerometer sensors, GPS,
on-board report system (display monitor) and data processing unit formed intelligent
compaction compactor.
3.1 Technology Involved and Working System
Accelerometer: As shown in Fig. 2 accelerometer is mounted on drum measure different
frequency, amplitude and acceleration of rollers (Xu and Chang 2013). It measures the
rebound of the drum when drum comes in contact with surface. With variation in hardness of
surface various frequencies are recorded by accelerometer as rebound varies as ground
hardness changes.

Fig. 2: IC roller Parts
GPS
Display Unit
Accelerometer Control
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GPS System: Global positioning systems locate record current position of roller and provide
information to generate color coded map of compaction area with movement of roller in area
(Xu and Chang 2013). Coordinate system is needed to be set in GPS system based on local
datum point and it generates continuous map of roller movement. GPS must be check and
calibrated.
Onboard Display (Monitor): Roller passes, roller location, compaction level, temperature
profile (if temperature sensor are present) with compaction parameter are displayed in
monitor after analyzing data collected in control unit. Color coded map developed displays
level of compaction of different layer which helps in determining roller movement (Xu et al.
2012). As shown in Fig. 3 color coded map show trail with different color indicating number
of passes and required number of passes remaining to get target value.

Fig. 3: Color Map Display with color indication of roller passes
One control unit with all data processing and analyzing is also included and in addition to
these temperature sensor, slope sensor are also presents in some roller.
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3.2 Working System
Different roller equipment measures compaction level in terms of different roller
measurement value or intelligent compaction measurement value (ICMV). Stiffness (k
b
),
compaction control value (CCV), compaction meter value (CMV), vibration modulus (E
vib
),
machine drive power (MDP) are some ICMV values used by different manufacture
compactors (Rahman et al. 2007, Labuz et al. 2008). Mainly ICMV are based on two
principle a) Vibration harmonic-frequency based (CCV, CMV) and b) Mechanical-model
based (k
b
, E
vib,
MDP)(Xu et al. 2012).
Accelerometer keeps record of frequency, amplitude and speed of roller. Amplitude
measures control force and depth of application of roller. Frequency and speed determines its
impact level. ICMV determines from these parameter based on simple fact that on soft
material roller shows high amplitude and low frequency while in hard material low amplitude
and high frequency. More compacted (harder) the surface more rebound of roller occurs.

Fig. 4: Variation of amplitude and frequency as per ground hardness (Ammann)
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In mechanical model measurement of power required to move the vehicle forward is
done. The machine power used in sloping grade, acceleration, gravity and internal power
losses is subtracted from total machine power output to determine net power required to
move the machine through uncompact soil layer for compaction. This net power thus
obtained is believed to be used in soil compaction (White 2006). If ground is soft it will be
hard to move forward the vehicle and if it is hard it will be easier. So, in soft ground machine
drive power required will be high and in hard compacted ground it will be low.


a. b.
Fig. 5: Variation of power required to drive as per ground surface a) Soft surface: hard to
push more energy required, b) Hard surface: easy to push less energy required
Based on different research and field and lab test or from test section target ICMV value
is set to obtained required compaction level. Compaction curve between ICMV values and
roller passes can be used to determine required target value which is obtained in certain roller
pass. Color coded map on display shows different area with under or over pass to reach the
target value with the help of which uniform compaction can be achieved. For better
performance of IC technology well define relationship between soil index parameter and
ICMV should be developed (White et al. 2007).
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3.3 Intelligent Compaction Measurement Values (ICMVs)
Until now different machine have intelligent compaction measurement value (Fig. 6).
There is no uniformity in measurement output parameter. Different parameter are defined
based on certain theories and have been correlated with in-situ test result or traditional test
parameter(Rahman et al. 2007, Xu et al. 2012 and White et al. 2010).

Fig. 6: Different ICMVs as per manufacturer.
Though output parameter differs from manufacture to manufacture, the main basis
concept of IC technology is same in all machines. Level of compaction in each pass of
machine over soil is recorded by sensor attached which is analyzed and compared with target
value which gives adjustment (increase or decrease in frequency, amplitude, and speed,
number of passes required) needed. This adjustment can be set to be done automatically or
manually. Here some of ICMV parameter and their determination techniques are explained.
Stiffness (K
b
): It is measured as function of the acceleration of the roller drum and
deformation of the compacted soil while vibratory roller moves down the compaction area.
Soil-drum interaction force (F
B
) is calculated by (Rahman et al. 2007):
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F
B
-muu + muiu
2
Cos(t)+ (mf + mu)g
Where, m
d
= mass of the drum (kg), x
d
= vertical displacement of drum (m),
d
=
acceleration of drum (m/s
2
), m
f
= mass of frame (kg), m
u
= unbalanced mass (kg), r
u
= radial
distance at which m
u
is attached (m), m
u
r
u
= static moment of rotating shaft (kg.m) and =
2. .f, f = frequency of rotating shaft (Hz)
Soil-drum interaction force can be also be written by considering subsoil as spring and
dashpot system (Rahman et al. 2007).
F
B
kbxu + ubu (2)
Where k
b
= soil stiffness,
d
= velocity of drum and d
b
= damping coefficient
By equating equation 1 and 2 soil stiffness is determined.
Vibration Modulus (E
vib
): It is calculate from soil stiffness from following equation based
on Hertz and Lundberg theories (Xu et al. 2012), Rahman et al. 2007)
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Where L = drum width, = Poissons ratio, m
f
= mass of frame, m
d
= mass of drum, R =
radius of drum, g = acceleration due to gravity, K
b
= soil stiffness
Machine Drive Power (MDP): It correlates properties of compacted soil with mechanical
performance of roller (White et al. 2010).
MDP = P
g
- w: [sino +
Ai
g
- (m: + b)
Where MDP = machine drive power (kJ/s), P
g
= gross power needed to move the machine
(kJ/s), W = roller weight (kN), A = machine acceleration (m/s
2
), g = acceleration of gravity
(m/s2), = slope angle (roller pitch from a sensor), v = roller velocity (m/s), and m (kJ/m)
and b (kJ/s) = machine internal loss coefficients specific to a particular machine(White et al.
2005).
MDP is relative value which compares material properties with calibration surface (generally
hard surface taking MDP = 0 kJ/s) so, positive MDP means less compacted and negative
MDP means more compacted than calibrated surface.
Compaction meter value (CMV): CMV depends on roller dimension (diameter, weight)
and its operational parameter (frequency, speed, amplitude).
CHI = C -
A
2
A

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Where C is a constant (300), A
2
= the acceleration of the first harmonic component of the
vibration, A

= the acceleration of the fundamental component of the vibration.(Sandstrm

and Geodynamik).
Compaction control value (CCV): With the increase in ground stiffness roller drum start to
enter in jumping motion which produce vibration acceleration at various frequency based on
this principle CCV is calculated as
CCI = _
A
0.5
+ A
1.5
+ A
2
+ A
2.5
+ A
3
+
A
0.5
+A

_ 1uu
Where A
0.5
, A
1.5
and A
2.5
= the acceleration at sub-harmonic frequencies, A

=
acceleration at fundamental harmonic frequency, A
2
and A
3
= acceleration at higher
harmonic frequencies.
4.0 Advantage of IC-Technology
With real time monitoring and proper compaction following advantages obtained in using IC
technology instead of traditional method:
Improve compaction with better density leading to better performance.
Improve efficiency: less construction time, proper material use, efficient machine use,
no over or under compaction.
Cost saving due to improve efficiency.
More controlled QC/QA due to more information.
Identification of weak and non-compacted area.
Well construction data record for analysis and future use and reference.
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5.0 Challenges with IC Technology
ICMVs values vary with machine and manufacture. There is no standard and
specification to streamline the IC measurement, data collection, and analysis and results
interpretation. Some challenges in IC technology development can be listed as:
Different ICMVs values.
No standard and specification for conducting IC, conducted as per procedure of
manufacture company.
Observation made, data collection, data analysis and result obtained varies from roller to
roller.
No well-established correlation between ICMVs values and soil property.
Compaction is controlled by moisture and density and it varies with soil so, IC
specification for type of soil is needed.
Huge data file.
IC technology cannot be purchased separately as add-in for improving ordinary roller.
Only available with purchasing of new roller.
More expensive than ordinary roller.
6.0 Conclusion and Research Need
Real time monitoring of compaction process and taking decision of compaction effort
after each roller pass make IC technology more sophisticated and more controlled process
than traditional techniques. With color coded map of roller route pass and count of each pass
helps uniform compaction of area without leaving any area untouched and also it prevents
chances of over or under compaction. Faster working speed and no delay due to conduction
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of in-situ test for quality check increase efficiency of work also it helps in appropriate
mobilization of machine and man power. It also reduces operational cost of soil compaction.
Different roller companies are developing different method for improvement of IC
technology it is getting more efficient and reliable.
IC technology though seems more promising and convenient method to control
compaction process of soil, it still lack well established method and technology. More
research and test experiment are needed to develop reliable correlation between intelligent
compaction roller measurement and soil parameter. Development of standards governing IC
technique, uniformity in machine development, data collection, data analysis and result
interpretation should be done. For this many tests in different soil and demonstration projects
condition and pattern need to be done for governing all possible condition. Training and
workshop on IC technology should be run more often to develop awareness and interest of
people on this technology.
Although there is currently no well-established correlation between ICMV (or stiffness
parameter) to density of soil mass, it is sure that it will be developed in near future. With new
technology development, faster computer, faster data processing, high accurate GPS and
highly sensitive and accurate sensor will make IC technology more reliable and accurate. So,
right now we can say that we dont have well established IC technology but we have well
established theory and concept and lots of researches are going on which surely develop
uniform and well accepted standard method.
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References
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