Make-Up

Make-up water is described as the final treated water that is mixed with returne
d condensate to form the feedwater which enters the boilers. The pre-treatment s
ystem is the sub-system by which this make-up water is produced from the plant's
source water (which may or may not be treated befor reaching the boiler pretrea
tment system).
Indeed, it was not un-common in years past but a rare case today that the make-u
p water receives no pretreatment or is simply processed in a cold precipitation
softening process.
See Liquid/Solids Separation Page for more information on how we can help with o
peration of hot or cold precipitation softeners.
A step up but also much more commonly seen in older plants are hot process preci
pitation softeners. Although these hot precipitation softeners are labor intensi
ve and a high mainenance item, they are still occasionally installed in new plan
ts because of their unique ability to economically soften waters and reduce alka
linity and total solids. These are effective and reliable pre-treatment processe
s, but they can also be very system disruptive unless skillfully operated. If yo
ur facility utilizes one of these , you need the help of CRC to review their ope
ration and to train your staff in proper control procedures.
Today, most modern pre-treatment systems consist of either softening by sodium c
ycle ion- exchange or some other ion-exchange process to reduce hardness and alk
alinity or to remove essentially all dissolved solids. In addition, whether used
alone or in combination with one of the ion-exchange processes, membrane proces
ses like reverse osmosis have been found to add efficiency to the pre-treatment
process.
If not controlled and operated correctly,each of these unit processes pose poten
tial threats that could result in boiler operations failure. Ready access to qua
lified, water treatment engineers is advisable.
For information on how Cyrus Rice Water Consultants can help you in this pre-tre
atment area, see Water Purification Page
When Cyrus Rice Water Consultants survey your system, one of the things they wil
l determine is the recommended quality make-up water for your boilers. They can
help you achieve the minimum quality required if your current system does not me
et that minimum. Potential consequences of operation below minimum quality will
be presented along with modified operations recommendations. More often than not
, however, we find that pre-treatment systems have been up-dated beyond that nee
ded for boiler operations. Believe it or not, this too can be a problem if the i
nternal boiler water treatment program has remained unchanged from what it had b
een prior to the upgrade. But that's another problem we at CRC can solve for you
.
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.................Feedwater System
The whole is only as strong as the weakest of its parts, and this certainly appl
ies to the feedwater system of the overall boiler water cycle. The primary funct
ions of the equipment that comprise the feedwater system, aside from the pumps t
hemselves, are to pre-heat the water and to make it less corrosive. Both these f
unctions are normally accomplished with low pressure, saturated steam. Corrosion
is controlled by the removal of carbon dioxide and oxygen. To accomplish the ma
in function of oxygen removal, design and operational considerations must be suc
h to result in the optimum temperature, pressure, and surface contact area for r
elease and scrubbing of the gases An initial survey and continuing service revie
w by CRC will include consideration of all potential trouble spots. These includ
e the following::
Design versus Operational Conditions:
Feedwater Flow Rate
Feedwater Temperature
Heating Steam Temperature and Pressure
Quantity of vent
Significant deviation from design conditions can result in high oxygen levels in
the feedwater. This can happen just as easily if operating conditions are below
design as if they are over design. Most deaerators are designed for operation w
ith saturated steam; if operation has changed to the use of superheated steam, t
his too can result in high oxygen levels. If insufficient saturated steam is ava
ilable, oxygen removal suffers. Excess steam costs money. In industrial systems,
a good rule of thumb is to keep the deaerator at design pressure and temperatur
e and to keep the temperature in the storage section 2 degrees F below that temp
erature. If the temperature difference is greater than 2 degrees, insufficient s
team is being used; if less, then steam is being wasted.
Mechanical Condition-
Routine inspection of the deaerator to assure sprays and trays are in place, und
amaged, and free of restricting deposits is a must. Safe operation also demands
inspection for shell integrity.
Testing for Oxygen.
Industrial deaerators should reduce the dissolved oxygen to 7 ppb or less. Your
operators should routinely determine the feedwater oxygen content to assure the
unit continues to operate properly. Your water consultant should establish the t
esting schedule, method of test, sample point, and instruct your operators in th
e fine points of this delicate testing.
Chemical Feed-
It is normal , and recommended, practice to feed an oxygen scavenger to the feed
water. Direct to the storage section of the heater is a common injection point.
With the emergence of modern treatment chemicals, the choice of feed is now much
more difficult than it had been when sulfite or hydrazine were the only choices
. Hydrazine, particularly catalyzed hydrazine, is still an effective treatment f
or higher pressure boilers but is now environmentally taboo in most systems. Sul
fite continues to be widely used in low pressure systems but has been displaced
in higher pressure systems with hydroquinone, erythorbate, or DEHA and kindred c
hemistries . These new chemistries are superior in many cases to sulfite because
they act as pasivating agents in addition to functioning as oxygen scavengers.
Sodium sulfite can have the additional disadvantage of interfering with the pH/p
hosphate balance in coordinated phosphate/pH control internal treatment modes.
Other Testing-
The feedwater provides the final source for determination of what contaminants m
ay actually be entering the boiler. Tests for control and for contaminant levels
should be performed on a established schedule basis. Operators should be traine
d as to how to respond to those test results. The sample points within the feedw
ater system are also very important and should be reviewed and changed as needed
by you water treatment consultant.
Attemperation/desuperheating Water
If feedwater is used for this purpose, be certain that feedwater source is upstr
eam from the chemical injection point or that the chemicals being used do not im
part any dissolved solids to the system.
As previously stated, there exists much potential for problems in the feedwater
system. Careful attention to it by a skilled water treatment engineer is recomme
nded.
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Condensate
In the section on "Heat Recovery", we discuss the economic advantages of increas
ing as much condensate as possible to the boiler cycle. In addition to the large
impact on system economics this heat savings can have, additional savings can b
e considrable based on the reduced make-up water requirements. Let Cyrus Rice Wa
ter Consultants do an up-to-date energy and material balance around the water si
de of your boiler systems to show you what potential dollars can be saved.
But there is more to returning condensate than just the required plumbing. If th
e source of the condensate is from process heaters, the iffect on system operati
ons caused by that contaminant needs to be accessed. A monitoring program needs
to be established so that the condensate can be dumped if and when necessary. A
routine composite and spot sampling program needs to be set up to determine the
pressence of contminants and to track down their source should they occur.
But even if no outside contamination takes place, corrosion products from the co
ndensate system itself are often the most serious threat to reliable boiler oper
ation. Condensat corrosion control is therefore essential to keeping your boiler
water-side surfaces clean. The discussion below is therefore limited to condens
ate corrosion control.
Condensate Corrosion--Factors and Control
Let CRC work with your staff in minimizing condensate corrosion.
Carbon Dioxide
Breakdown of carbonate and bicarbonate that enter the boiler is the main source
of carbon dioxide. Left unchecked, this can result in low pH condensate. This ha
s been observed as grooving in sections of condensate lines that are not complet
ely filled with water.
Oxygen
Oxygen can enter a condensate system by many sources even if the deaerating heat
er is functioning properly. The oxygen, at its worse, can result in deep pitting
of condensate lines. The combination of oxygen and carbon dioxide corrosion can
be particularly troublesome in causing corrosion products to be produced and tr
ansported to the boiler.
Velocity
Although often not controllable, high flow rates within the condensate system ca
n produce extremely severe corrosion conditions. This flow-assisted corrosion is
accelerated at low pH and can be minimized by keeping the pH above 9.0.
Other gases
Other gases that can be corrosive and present in the condensate system include a
mmonia, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide. The most common of these is ammoni
a. Copper corrosion can be as serious as iron corrosion and is made even more se
rious in the presence of copper complexing agents such as ammonia. Again, oxygen
in combination with these gases increases copper corrosion.
Neutralizing Amines
Neutraliziang amines, when fed to the boiler, volatilize with the steam and ente
r the condensate system. These amines are weak bases and will therefor neutraliz
e any carbon dioxide presnet and will raise the pH of the condensate. If oxygen
levels are very low, these neutralizing amines can, by themselves, effectively c
ontrol condensate corrosion. However, knowing which ones to feed, how much, and
how to control can be a difficult and confusing decision for the typical user. T
here are more than a dozen amines in common use. Each amine is unique in certain
charactristics, each of which affect how the amine functions at a given point i
n a given condensate system. Those amine characteristics include basicity value,
molecular weight, distribution ratio, and hydrolytic thermal stability. Since i
t is necessary to prevent corrosion from the point of initial steam condensation
to the far ends and back of condensate systems, a blend of neutralizing amines
is normally fed.
Volatile Passivating Agents
If oxygen is present, the neutralizing amines alone will not control corrosion.
Fortunately, chemical treatments have been developed which will transport with t
he steam and will, in addition to possibly reacting with oxygen, function as pas
sivating agents to prevent corrosion. But as is often the case, such new alterna
tives bring with them a whole new set of potential problems and set of rules. Wh
ich product to use where, when, and how are questions that are best answered by
an expert in water treatment chemistry who is also highly knowledgable about you
r system. Control and testing are the main problems with these passivating agent
s. That is why corrosion monitoring, always important, becomes even more so when
treatment results depend on a passivation chemical.
MONITORING
Corrosion monitoring is a major task for any water system. Relative pure waters,
like condensate, make the task even more difficult. Some of the methods used an
d recommended by Cyrus Rice WaterConsultants include the following:
Test Coupons
Steel and copper corrosion coupons have been used in condensate sysstems for man
y years. While there are concerns as to how accurately they reflect the actual c
orrosion rate within a given system, the do provide a good relative measure of t
rends in long term corrosion. A consistent, continuing program using coupons at
the same locations and for the same duration of time is therefore most meaningfu
l. The locations and plumbing for the coupons must be carefully engineered to av
oid meaningless results.
pH Monitoring
While not a direct measurement of corrosion, continuous measurement of condensat
e pH can be very helpful in systems that depend on neutralizing amines for pH co
ntrol. Other monitors, such as for conductivity, are also helpful to guard again
st condensate contamination. Location of sample points and method of sampling ar
e critical and should be established by a qualified water treatment engineer.
Iron and Copper Testing
Another old but proven effective standby is iron and copper testing. The sample
points, method of collection, and analytical procedures are more critical in tra
ce metal testing than in any other analysis. Incorrect results are much worse th
an no results at all. The sample program should be established to collect sample
s at a pre-determined interval. The final feedwater represents the corrosion pro
ducts load actually entering the boiler and can be a good indicator of the expec
ted cleanliness of boiler surfaces over a period of time. Composite as well as s
pot samples should be taken. However, since the slightest change in flows can ma
ke sample results worthless, any composite samples collected should be collected
from a continuously flowing sample and with a proven condensate composite sampl
er.
Corrosion Test Monitors
Electronic corrosion test monitors have now been developed that can be effective
ly used in condensate systems. Older corrosion test meters were not capable of t
his because of the need for the water being tested to exhibit a minimum conducti
vity. As with any of the monitoring methods, results from these should be evalua
ted over a long period of time and compared with prior results versus actual ins
pections.
Membrance Filters
Membrane filers, like those available from Millipore, were developed originally
by B&W for monitoring of the corrosion test load in returned condensate. Many pl
ants have used this method quite successfully for years. But it requires time, s
kill, and careful dedication to record keeping for this type of monitoring to be
meaningful. While "standard" membrane stains are available, in practice, the ir
on concentrations from a given system need to be established over a long period
of time. This is done by determining iron concentrations analytically and assign
ing average values determined to actual membranc filters collected during the sa
me time period.
Monitoring of your condensate is essential toward protection of, not just the co
ndensate system itself, but more importantly, to the continued reliability of th
e system boilers.
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.....Boiler Water Internal Treatment
Corrosion Control
Coordinated Phosphate
Scale and Deposit Control
Conventional Phosphate
Chelating Agents
Polymer Tratmnet
CORROSION CONTROL
Since iron rapidly reacts with water at high temperature, it would not be possib
le to operate a boiler at high pressure for very long except for the protection
afforded by formation of a unifor magnetite layer. The job for internal treatmen
t therefore becomes one of promoting and maintaing that uniform layer. This job
is made difficult because either high or low pH can destroy the protective magne
tite. To further complicate matters, the process of generating steam can result
in concentration mechanisms that provide chemistry conditions different from tho
se found in the bulk boiler water. Caustic corrosion occurs in high pressure boi
lers due to this concentration phenomenon. Coordinated phosphate control was dev
eloped as a treatment scheme to prevent this type corrosion.
Coordinated Phosphate Control
There are several forms of this treatment approach commonly practiced. In this f
orm of treatment, phosphate is used as a buffering agent to assure tht boiler wa
ter pH will stay within the desired range. At lower pressues, the general term c
aptive alkalinity may be used and relatively broad control ranges are acceptable
. As operating presures increase, the allowable hosphate residual is reduced and
the control range is narrowed. Congruent control is the term usually given to t
his type treatment in high pressure boilers. Phosphate can be added in one or a
combination of several forms ranging from mono-sodium phosphat to tri-sodium pho
sphate. The mono form is the most acidic form and the tri- is the most alkaline.
By adjusting the type of phosphate fed, the pH of the boiler watter can be cont
rolled within a pre-defined range. This control range will have been defined suc
h that, in theory, no free caustic will be present even under conditions of a co
ncentrating mechanism.
The above is an over-simplification of a complicated treatment scheme. Be certai
n to retain a qualified water treatment consultant to review your bouler water n
eeds and to establish required control ranges.
Conventional Phosphate
In boilers operating under 900 psig, particularly in very low pressure boilers,
scale and deposits may be more of a problem than corrosion. In these cases, your
wate treatment consultant needs to advise you in regard to the preferred method
of internal treatment. The choices will usually be conventional phosphate, chel
ating agents, or "all polymer". A combined treatment of two or all three of thes
e chemistries is also possible. But the decision is not based only on operating
presuures. Depending on the make-up water characteristics, some form of coordina
ted phosphate treatment may still be needed.
Conventional phosphate is more often the choice when the make-up water is of sod
ium zeolite softening quality or worse . Under these conditions, scale and depos
its are the major threat and costs and other considerations make chelants or all
polymer not possible.
Phosphate is used as a precipitating agent to react with and cause calcium to pr
ecipitate in a non-adherent form. To assure that, sufficient alkalinity must be
maintained in the boiler water and the phosphate residual kept within prescribed
range. It may also be necessary to adjjust the silica concentration in referenc
e to the phosphate in order to assure precipitation of the magnesium in a non-ad
herent form. Supplemental use of polymers is now common practice.
Chelating Agents
The chelating agents NTA and EDTA came into use in the 1960's and have been the
salvation of many trouble plagued boiler water systems. Today, EDTA is the prefe
rred chelant because of cases of chelant corrosion which occurred with NTA when
the chemical was not properly controlled or was misapplied. EDTA is a safer chel
ant to use because it tends to decompose as its concentration increases, thus pr
oviding a built-in safe-guard against concentrated chelant attack. Any concentra
tion of free chelant may increase the risk of velocity related corrosion .
Chelants are usually used in boilers operating under 800 psig and with make-up w
ater of sodium zeolite quality. The chelating agents form soluble complexes with
calcium and magnesium, and to a lesser extent, iron oxide. These soluble comple
xes are removed in the blowdown water. Chelant treatment is almost always supple
mented with polymers . Sometimes, a small amount of phosphate is also used as a
tracer material. Your water treatment consultant needs to weigh this option clos
ely since it is possible for phosphate to successfully compete with the chelatin
g agent for calcium, thus negating some of the benefits of the chelating agent.
It should be recognized, however, that even with phosphate as a tracer, a chelan
t treated boiler will be cleaner than the same boiler treated wtih conventional
phosphate.
If applied and controlled correctly, chelating agents will result in corrosion f
ree boiler surfaces that are much cleaner than that possible with phosphate trea
tment. .
All-Polymer Treatment
All-polymer treatment is the most modern internal treatment chemistry. The polym
ers that are used are multi-functional and act to keep precipitating cations lik
e calcium in a soluble form as well as to disperse any precipiatants that do for
m. The high polymer concentration that defines this program also is effective in
keeping incoming suspended matter, primarily iron oxide, from adhering on the h
eat transfer surfaces.
All polymer treatment is not normally applied to feedwaters containing more than
1 ppm hardness or to systems in which occasional high hardness contamination is
known to be a problem. If calcium hardness exceeds the capacity of the all-poly
mer, there exists the potential for calcium sulfate formation. This calcium sulf
ate that forms under the high temperature conditions of boiler waters is very ha
rd and adherent and could result in tube failure from uver-heating .
All-polymer treatment may be the most appropriate for your system. However, as w
ith all treatment altenatives, improperly applied or applied in the wrong situat
ion could result in un-planned boiler outages.
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Steam Purity
Need For Concern
Steam is generated in boilers and is used for many purposes. If it is used to tu
rn a turbine, then we are particularly concerned that the steam contain no conta
minants that could deposit on the turbine surfaces. Even the relatively pure wat
er that results from deionization pretreatment contains some amount of dissoved
salts. As the feedwater concentrates in the boiler, these salts increase in conc
entration. Steam that is generated will contain a small amount of water, the amo
unt being defined by the term steam quality. Whatever dissolved solids are conta
ined in the boiler water will be contained, in the same proportions, in the stea
m. The amount of entrained water will depend on boiler design, design and effect
iveness of the steam separation equipment, boiler operating pressure, foam-induc
ing contaminants in feedwater, and the presence or absence of chemical anti-foam
ing agents.
Volatile Contaminants
Certain substances, like silica, that are solids at ordinary temperatures can be
come volatile at boiler operating temperatures. Above 600 psig, you need to be c
oncerned about the relationship between total silica in the boiler water, operat
ing pressure, and boiler water alkalinity. Allowing silica to exceed pre-determi
ned limits could result in silica deposition in the turbines. Other salts also e
xhibit this volatility; however they are not of concern at the relatively low pr
essures encountered in industrial boilers.
Monitoring
Steam purity testing should be performed on a routine basis to assure system rel
iability. Recommended procedure is for continuous monitoring with a sodium analy
zer. At the very least, if there are power generating turbines or turbine pumps
in the system, routine grab samples should be analyzed for sodium. Sample points
, method of sampling, and analytical procedures must be conducted in accordance
with strict guidelines. Sodium is a pervasive substance and sample contamination
can be a major problem when looking for a few ppb. Procedures have been develop
ed to minimize this contamination potential.
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Boiler Blowdown Heat Recovery System
This section is limited to the potential dollars that can be saved by reducing b
oiler blowdown rate and by optimizing heat recovery of heat contained in the boi
ler blowdown. Cyrus Rice Water Consultants can perform these calculations for yo
u. Although not discussed here, an added consideration that Cyrus Rice can evalu
ate for you is the impact that varying the amount of returned condensate has on
your system energy balance.
All systems have some means of dissipating the pressure contained in boiler blow
down waters. In most cases, this is a blowdown flash tank and the low pressure f
lashed steam from this is usually recovered. Often, this low pressure steam is u
sed to provide heat and steam to the deaerating heater. If this is the case, 100
% of that energy is recovered.
Hot water is discharged from the flash tank at the saturation temperature corres
ponding to the pressure in the flash tank. If your plant does not already recove
r this heat in a heat recovery heat exchanger, you will be amazed at the Btu's t
hat is being sent to waste.
Contact Cyrus Rice Water Consultants and request they perform system wide energy
balances on your boiler water system and show you the potential for saving ener
gy dollars.
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