UV X-rays IR

Micro
Waves
Radio/Television
waves
g - rays
Wavelength (m)
10
-9
10
-10
10
-8
10
-7
10
-6
10
-3
10
-5
10
-4
10
1
10
-1
10
-2
1
Wave number cm
-1
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
1 10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
700 600 400
Sources of Light
Electromagnetic Spectrum
(m)
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
ultraviolet
visible
light infrared microwaves x-rays
High
Energy
Low
Energy
Sources of EMR
Deuterium Lamp UV
Mercury lamp UV
Xenon lamp UV-VIS
Tungsten Lamp VIS-NIR
Silicon carbide globar
Nernst
IR
Laser UV-VIS-NIR
Hollow-cathode lamp UV-VIS-NIR
Flame ,Furnaces, Plasmas UV- VIS-IR
X-ray tube X-Rays
A general rule:
The higher an objects temperature, the more intensely
the object emits electromagnetic radiation and the
shorter the wavelength at which emits most strongly
Radiation depending on Temperature
The example of heated iron bar.
As the temperature increases
The bar glows more
brightly
The color of the bar also
changes
The black body is important in thermal radiation theory
and practice.
The ideal black body notion is important in studying
thermal radiation and electromagnetic radiation
transfer in all wavelength bands.
The black body is used as a standard with which the
absorption of real bodies is compared.
Definition of a black body
A black body is an ideal body which
allows the whole of the incident
radiation to pass into itself (without
reflecting the energy ) and absorbs
within itself this whole incident
radiation. This propety is valid for
radiation corresponding to all
wavelengths and to all angels of
incidence. Therefore, the black body
is an ideal absorber of incident
radaition.
A blackbody is a hypothetical object
that is a perfect absorber of
electromagnetic radiation at all
wavelengths
The radiation of a blackbody is
entirely the result of its
temperature
A blackbody does not reflect any
light at all
Blackbody curve: the intensities of
radiation emitted at various
wavelengths by a blackbody at a
given temperature
The higher the temperature, the
shorter the peak wavelength
The higher the temperature, the
higher the intensity
Blackbody Radiation
Blackbody curve
Basic Laws of Radiation
1) All objects emit radiant energy.
2) Hotter objects emit more energy than colder
objects. The amount of energy radiated is
proportional to the temperature of the object
raised to the fourth power.
This is the Stefan Boltzmann Law
F = T
4
F = flux of energy (W/m
2
)
T = temperature (K)
= 5.67 x 10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
(a constant)
Basic Laws of Radiation
1) All objects emit radiant energy.
2) Hotter objects emit more energy than colder
objects (per unit area). The amount of energy
radiated is proportional to the temperature of
the object.
3) The hotter the object, the shorter the
wavelength () of emitted energy.
This is Wiens Law

max
3000 m
T(K)
Stefan Boltzmann Law.
F = T
4
F = flux of energy (W/m
2
)
T = temperature (K)
= 5.67 x 10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
(a constant)
Wiens Law

max
3000 m
T(K)
We can use these equations to calculate properties
of energy radiating from the Sun and the Earth.
6,000 K
300 K
T
(K)

max
(m)
region in
spectrum
F
(W/m
2
)
Sun 6000 0.5 Visible 7 x 10
7
Earth 300 10 infrared 460
Temperature Source
1,700 K Match flame
1,850 K Candle flame, sunset/sunrise
2,7003,300 K Incandescent lamps
3,000 K Soft White CFL
3,200 K Studio lamps, photo floods lights.
3,350 K Studio "CP" light
4,1004,150 K Moonlight
5,000 K Horizon daylight
5,000 K
tubular fluorescent lamps or cool
white/daylight compact fluorescent
lamps (CFL)
5,5006,000 K electronic flash
6,200 K Xenon arc lamp
6,500 K Daylight
5,50010,500 K LCD or CRT screen
An object can be heated to such a high
temperature that it emits visible light.
Such an object is called an
incandescent source of light. The
emission of visible light by a hot object
is called incandescence.
Both candle flames and light bulbs are
examples of incandescent sources.
Incandescent sources
Light bulbs contain a metal wire filament,
which is heated by electricity. The filament
becomes so hot, it glows white.
The change from electrical energy to
visible light energy involves the following
energy transformation:
Electrical energy -> thermal energy -> visible
light energy
Incandescent sources
Spectral Lines
Bright spectrum lines can be seen when a chemical
substance is heated and valoprized (Kirchhoff, ~1850)
Kirchhoffs Laws on Spectrum
Law 1- Continuous spectrum: a hot opaque body, such as
a perfect blackbody, produce a continuous spectrum a
complete rainbow of colors without any spectral line
Law 2 emission line spectrum: a hot, transparent gas
produces an emission line spectrum a series of bright
spectral lines against a dark background
Law 3 absorption line spectrum: a relatively cool,
transparent gas in front of a source of a continuous
spectrum produces an absorption line spectrum a
series of dark spectral lines amongst the colors of the
continuous spectrum. Further, the dark lines of a
particular gas occur at exactly the same wavelength
as the bright lines of that same gas.
Each chemical element has its own unique set of spectral lines.
Kirchhoffs Laws on Spectrum
Three different spectrum: continuous spectrum, emission-line
spectrum, and absorption line spectrum
Electrons occupy
only certain orbits or
energy levels
When an electron
jumps from one orbit
to another, it emits or
absorbs a photon of
appropriate energy.
The energy of the
photon equals the
difference in energy
between the two
orbits.
Bohrs Model of Atom
Bohrs Model of Hydrogen
Deuterium Arc Lamp
Light sources
Black-body radiation for vis and IR but not UV
- a tungsten lamp is an excellent source of black-body radiation
- operates at 3000 K
- produces from 320 to 2500 nm
For UV:
- a common lamp is a deuterium arc lamp
- electric discharge causes D
2
to dissociate and emit UV radiation (160 325
nm)
- other good sources are:
Xe (250 1000 nm)
Hg (280 1400 nm)
D2 Lamps
Type of lamp is used for Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
most bulbs mainly show visible light and the intensity
of UV light is very small
D2 lamp, the intensity of the UV light is very high,
Which leads to a better signal to noise ratio for
measurements with UV light
Emits wavelengths from 160 nm to 400 nm
Deuterium is stored a controlled pressures
A deuterium lamp uses
a tungsten filament and anode placed on
opposite sides of a nickel box structure
designed to produce the best output
spectrum.
Unlike an incandescent bulb, the filament
is not the source of light in deuterium
lamps. An arc is created from the filament
to the anode
Since the filament must be very hot
before it can operate, it is heated for
approximately twenty seconds before
use.
Because the discharge process produces
its own heat, the heater is turned down
after discharge begins
Firing voltages are 300 to 500 volts, once the arc is created
voltages drop to around 100 to 200 volts.
[
The arc created excites the molecular deuterium contained
within the bulb to a higher energy state. The deuterium then
emits light as it transitions back to its initial state. This
continuous cycle is the origin of the continuous ultraviolet
radiation.
Because the lamp operates at high temperatures, normal glass
housings cannot be used for a casing. They would also block
UV radiation.
The typical lifetime of a deuterium lamp is approximately 2000
hours
D
2
lamp
Window Material
UV Glass, Synthetic Quartz, Synthetic Silica, MgF
2
Minimum wavelength
115nm, 160 nm, 185 nm
Maximum wavelength
Typically around 400 nm
Hollow Cathode Lamp
Conventional HCL
a tungsten anode and a cylindrical cathode
neon or argon at a pressure of 1 to 5 torr
The cathode is constructed of the metal whose
spectrum is desired or served to support a layer of
that metal
Hollow Cathode Lamp
Ne or Ar
at 1-5
Torr
Ionize the inert gas at a potential of ~ 300 V
Generate a current of ~ 5 to 15 mA as ions and
electrons migrate to the electrodes.
The gaseous cations acquire enough kinetic energy to
dislodge some of the metal atoms from the cathode
surface and produce an atomic cloud.
A portion of sputtered metal atoms is in excited states
and thus emits their characteristic radiation as they
return to the ground sate
Eventually, the metal atoms diffuse back to the cathode
surface or to the glass walls of the tube and are re-
deposited
Hollow Cathode Lamp
Infrared Sources
Infrared Sources
Most Common IR Sources
Nernst glower
cylinder of rare-earth oxides
glowbar
silicon carbide rod
50mm long by 5mm diameter
incandescent wire
nichrome wire
Infrared Sources
Special Application IR Sources
mercury arc
far-infrared
tungsten filament
near-infrared
carbon dioxide laser
tunable
The Nernst glower
Typically it is in the form of a cylindrical rod or tube having
a diameter of 1-2 mm and length of 20 mm sealed by a
platinum leads to the ends to permit electrical connection.
It is composed of a mixture of rare earth oxides such as
zirconium oxide (ZrO
2
), yttrium oxide (Y
2
O
3
) and erbium
oxide (Er
2
O
3
) at a ratio of 90:7:3 by weight.
They are operated by being electrically heated to about
1500 to 2000 C. Initially they required external heating
because the material is an insulator at room temperature.
Operates best in wavelengths from 2 to 14 micrometers
Produces black body radiation
The Nernst glower
Nernst glowers are fragile.
They have a large negative temperature coefficient of
electrical resistance and must be preheated to be
conductive.
Resistance decreases with increasing temperature the
source circuit must be designed to limit the current to
prevent rapid heating and destroying the source
Incandescent Wire Source
Lower intensity IR source but
longer life than the Globar or
Nernst glower.
A tightly wound spiral of nichrome
wire heated to about 1100 k by an
electric current.
A similar source is a rhodium wire
heater sealed in a ceramic
cylinder.
Incandescent wire sources are
longer lasting but of lower
intensity than the glower or globar.
The Tungsten Filament Lamp
Ordinary tungsten filament lamp (A
quartz halogen lamp contains a
tungsten wire filament and iodine
vapor sealed in a quartz envelope or
bulb), used for near IR region of
4000-12,800 cm
-1
(2.5-0.78 m)
In a standard tungsten filament lamp,
the tungsten evaporates from the
filament and deposits on the lamp
wall.
This process reduces the light output
as a result of the black deposit on the
wall and the thinner filament.
The halogen gas in a tungsten-
halogen lamp removes the
evaporated tungsten and redeposits
it on the filament, increasing the light
output and source stability
Spectrum of Tungsten lamp
Globar
Globar is a silicon carbide rod of 5 to 10 mm width and
20 to 50 mm length which is electrically heated up to
1,000 to 1,650 C
The globar source
A globar is a rod of silicon carbide (5
mm diameter, 50mm long) which is
electrically heated to about 1500 K.
Water cooling of the electrical
contacts is needed to prevent arcing.
no preheating necessary
The spectral output is comparable
with the Nernst glower, except at
short wavelengths (less than 5 m)
it emits radiation from 4 to 15
micrometers wavelength
Nernst Glower vs. Globar
The two light sources are similar in many ways, such
as the function and temperature range.
However, the Nernst glower is better used at shorter
IR wavelengths (near IR), whereas globar is better
used at longer IR wavelengths.
Advantages of Nernst
Requires less power than a globar
Lasts a lifetime
Operates in air
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Extremely fragile
Because it is operated in the air, which
is an advantage, if the temperature
becomes too high, it will burn out, which
is obviously a disadvantage.
The Mercury Arc.
Used for Far IR region (>50 m).
It is a high pressure mercury arc
which consist of a quartz - jacketed
tube containing Hg vapor at P > 1
atm.
When current passes through the
lamp, mercury is vaporized, excited,
and ionized, forming a plasma
discharge at high pressure (P>1 atm)
In the UV and visible regions, this
lamp emits atomic Hg emission lines
that are very narrow and discrete, but
emits an intense continuum in the far-
IR region.
Hg Lamp Spectrum
Wavelength (nm) Name Color
365.4 I-line ultraviolet (UVA)
404.7 H-line violet
435.8 G-line blue
546.1 green
578.2 yellow-orange
Summery of different IR sources
IR Laser Sources
A laser is a light source that emits very intense
monochromatic radiation.
Some lasers, called tunable lasers, emit more than one
wavelength of light, but each wavelength emitted is
monochromatic.
The combination of high intensity and narrow line width
makes lasers ideal light sources for some applications.
Two types of IR lasers are available: gas phase and solid-
state.