The document summarizes key stages in the embryology and development of the amphioxus, including:
1) Fertilization occurs when the sperm enters the egg cytoplasm, causing the egg nucleus to undergo maturation and extrude a second polar body.
2) Cleavage is holoblastic and equal, forming a blastula through repeated latitudinal cell divisions.
3) Gastrulation occurs through the growth of the ectoderm over the blastopore, forming the neural tube and folding the ectoderm into neural folds.
4) Organogenesis follows, with the differentiation of the notochord, somites, gut, and gills, forming a free-swimming
The document summarizes key stages in the embryology and development of the amphioxus, including:
1) Fertilization occurs when the sperm enters the egg cytoplasm, causing the egg nucleus to undergo maturation and extrude a second polar body.
2) Cleavage is holoblastic and equal, forming a blastula through repeated latitudinal cell divisions.
3) Gastrulation occurs through the growth of the ectoderm over the blastopore, forming the neural tube and folding the ectoderm into neural folds.
4) Organogenesis follows, with the differentiation of the notochord, somites, gut, and gills, forming a free-swimming
The document summarizes key stages in the embryology and development of the amphioxus, including:
1) Fertilization occurs when the sperm enters the egg cytoplasm, causing the egg nucleus to undergo maturation and extrude a second polar body.
2) Cleavage is holoblastic and equal, forming a blastula through repeated latitudinal cell divisions.
3) Gastrulation occurs through the growth of the ectoderm over the blastopore, forming the neural tube and folding the ectoderm into neural folds.
4) Organogenesis follows, with the differentiation of the notochord, somites, gut, and gills, forming a free-swimming
Section in a vertebrate embryo showing the origin of primordial germ cells. Stages of sexual differentiation Types of eggs according the yolk distribution Isolecithal (homolecithal) Amphioxus Telolecithal (Mesolecithal) Frog yolk Telolecithal ( Macrolecithal, Megalecithal) Centrolecithal Bony fish, reptiles, birds oviparous mammals Insects , Arthropods yolk yolk Yolk Germinal disc ( , 1 - , 12mm diameter) (1.2 16 mm diameter) Chick Bony fishs Insect egg 1 - Cleavage 2 blastulation 3 gastrulation 4 Organogesis 1 - Cleavage Types of cleavage Plane of cleavage Micromere Macromere Meroblastic, discoidal, partial (chick) Holoblastic, equal (Amphioxus) Holoblastic, Unequal (Frog) 2- blastomere 4 - blastomere Latitudinal Meridional Holoblastic, equal (Mammal) Blastoderm yolk Stages of the embryonic development Amphioxus Fish (Sturgeon) Amphibia (Frog) Reptilia (Turtle) Bird (Chick) Mammal (Man) Shape of Sperms in Vertebrate Animal Gene expression and protein synthesis During development -Cell behavior provides the link between gene action and developmental processes. -Genes control behavior by controlling which proteins are made by a cell. -Differential gene activity control development. - Development is progressive and the fate of cells becomes determined at different times. - As embryonic development proceeds the organization complexity of the embryo becomes vastly increased over that of the fertilized egg. - Differentialk gene activity controls development. - Inductive interactions can make cells different from each cells. - The response to inductive signals depends on the state of the cell. An inducing signal can be transmitted from one cell to another in three main ways 1 Diffusion The signal can be a diffusible molecule, which interacts with a receptor on the target cell surface. 2- Direct contact The signal can be produced by direct contact between two complementary proteins at the cell surfaces. 3 Gap junction If the signal involves small molecules it may pass directly from cell to cell through gap junctions in the plasma membrane. Return chromosome number to diploid value Activation of development Basic steps: Sperm activation/capacitation Attraction of sperm to egg Binding/passing through egg envelope Fusion of plasma membranes Egg Activation Fertilization - Fertilization cone: -Fusogenic proteins Bindin Fertilin - Nucleus, mitochondria, and centriole all enter the egg Fertilization Scanning electron micrograph of an egg after the attraction of sperms. Egg Sperm Sperm Egg Sperm SEM showing the sperm incorporation into egg. Hypothetical pathway for calcium release IP3 Inositol triphosphate Dag diacylglycerol PIP3 phosphatdidylinositol Triphosphate Introduction Embryology deals with the development of the individual from the fertilized egg or, in rare instances, from the unfertilized egg to a stage resembling more or less closely the adult form. Ontogeny is a broader and more comprehensive term that includes both the embryonic period and the entire postembryonic development of the individual to its adult condition. In a general sense, ontogeny is the history of development of an organism from the fertilized egg to sexual maturity. Butterflies eggs Larvae (caterpillars) Pupa cases metamorphosis Butterflies Marsupial mammals (Kangaroo or opossum ) Immature embryo Postnatal in marsupial pouch Reproduction Multicellular animals (Metazoa) Sexual reproduction (syngamy) Asexual reproduction (agamy) Ex. Budding (Hydra) Strobilization (Aurelia) Constriction (annelid) The new individual is produced not by somatic cells of the parent but by sex cells, or gametes (sperm from male and ovum from femal) which differ essentially from somatic cells in having undergone meiosis a process in which the number of chromosomes is reduced to one-half of the diploid (2n) number found in somatic cells. Furthermore, the sex cells are generally capable of developing into a new individual only after two have united in a process called fertilization. ( eggs develop without fertilization) invertebrate animals (honeybee) Produced from fertilized eggs drones Produced from unfertlized eggs The new individual is derived from a blastem( a group of cells from the parent body) Chromosomes of the blastema is the same as in the other somatic cells of the parent (diploid set) 2n. Workers and Queens Daphnia honeybee Parthenogenesis O v u m Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Both include: Reduction in chromosome number by meiosis Acquisition of structural and functional characters Gametogenesis Ootid Mitosis Review Prophase Interphase Anaphase Metaphase Telophase Prophase I Leptotema Zygonema Pachynema** Diplonema** Diakenesis Meiosis Review Meiosis I Anaphase I and Telophase I Metaphase Meiosis II The ovulation in human Types of stem cells 1-Embryonic stem cells (ES cells) Totipotent stem cells Only the morula s cells are totipotent, able to become all tissues and a placenta -Pluripotent stem cells, originate as inner cells within a blastocyst and they can become any tissue in the body, excluding a placenta. -Human embryos reach the blastocyst stage 4-5 days post fertilization, at which time they consist of 50-150 cells. -They are able to differentiate into all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. -Multipotent stem cells Stem cells can produce only cells of a closely related family of cells (e.g. hematopoitic stem cells differentiate into red blood cells, while blood cells, platelets. Etc.). -2-Adult stem cells Eggs of amphioxus are released by rupture of follicular membranes and overlying tissues so that then find their way first into the atrium and then via the atriopore into the sea. By this time the first polar body has been separated off and comes to lie just outside the thin vitelline membrane. The egg of Amphioxus Second polar body First polar body Nucleolus Nucleus Yolk Unfertilized egg Fertilized egg Acrosome Head Tail Cenriole The sperm of Amphioxus Fertilization inAmphioxus After the entry of the sperm into the egg cytoplasm the egg nucleus completes its maturation division and the second polar body is extruded. Scheme of maturation, syngamy, karyogamy of the ovum. polar bodies Polar body 2 Blastomere stage Cleavage ( 2 blastomere stage) Holoblastic division Plane is latitudinal First cleavage 4 and 8 blastomere stage Plane of division is latitudinal Plane of division is latitudinal (vertical) Vertical at right angle to the first two and passes through just above the equater Micromere Macromere 16 and 32 blastomere stage The fourth cleavage divides each of the blastomeres by meridional furrows so that 8-micromeres and 8- macromeres are formed. Micromeres Macromere The fifth cleavage is latitudinal and the micromeres and the megameres are each divided into upper and lower tiers Micromeres Megameres Blastulation in Amphioxus T.S of the blastula The meridional cleavage of the sixth division give a total of 64- cells and after this stage the cleavages become some what irregular . Blastula from side W. M. of the blastula Micromere Blastocoel Blastocoel The blastula of amphioxus and its change in polarity during gastrulation The gastrula of amphioxus with a remnant of the blastocoel still present at the blastopore Gastrulation in Amphioxus Sagittal half of an early gastrula Sagittal half of a later gastrula Sagittal half of a completed gastrula Dorsal half of a completed gastrula Gastrulation in Amphioxus Longitudinal section of a post gastrula stage Gastrula of Amphioxus showing progressive overgrowth of the the ectoderm over the blastopore in the formation of the neural folds. T. S. through the amphioxus embryo in a-b the gastrula and (c f) postgastrula stages. Fig. f shows an earlier phase of the mesodermal somite on the left then on the right side. Neural tube formation Formation of the neural tube T. s. and Stereogram of a part of a post- gastrulation stage. T. S. to show the separation of the mesodermal pouches T. S. of a larva to show the formation of the coelom. Stereogram to show the arrangement of the mesodermal pouches. The gastrula of amphioxus. The ectoderm has grown over the blastopore in the formation of the neurocoel. The passage between the neurocoel and the archentron is the neuroentric canal. Amphioxus embryo with the neural tube, the notochord and the mesodermal somites differentiated. Longitudinal section of a post gastrula stage of Amphioxus Young larvae of Amphioxus Optical view of a young larva from the dorsal aspect Larval stage after opening of mouth and 3 gill slits. Larval stage after opening 4 gill slits. Embryo with the anterior gut diverticulum Three gill slits Four gill slits Fourteen somite larva of Amphioxus Partly dissected young Amphioxus Gonads A B A B Schematic section through the pharynx of Amphioxus with special emphasis on the mesodermal differentiation. Diagrammatic transverse section through the larva of Amphioxus during the formation of the atrium Nucleus Blood vessels Oocyte Follicle cells Stroma A section of the ovary of the frog containing young oocytes. All nuclei are stll located in the center of the oocytes and very little yolk has been formed. Primary spermatocyte Secondary spermatocyte Spermatogonia Spermatozoa Sertoli cells Interstecial cells spermatids Seminifrous tubule Seminifrous tubule membrane T. S. of the Testis of the Frog