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Andrew Feenberg
n 1938, the great J a p a n e s e novelist Yasunari Kawabata witnessed a t u r n i n g point in t h e history of the g a m e of Go. Kawabata was then a y o u n g r e p o r t e r covering the c h a m p i o n s h i p Go
match sponsored by his newspaper. H o n n i m b o Shusai, the "Invincible Master," who h a d r e i g n e d over the world of Go for a g e n e r a tion, was pitted against a y o u n g challenger. So p o p u l a r was Go that
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Diagram 1. F r o m Goodell.
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the field of play t h r o u g h such m e a n s as explicit rules a n d q u a n t i t a tive m e a s u r e s , a n d t h e artificial equalization of t h e players who, in
everyday life, a r e s u r e to be subtly d i f f e r e n t i a t e d in ways t h e g a m e
ignores. T h e s e f e a t u r e s of t h e g a m e indicate its r e m o t e n e s s f r o m
the s u r r o u n d i n g social w o r l d in which ambiguity a n d inequality
are the rule. A n d by this very t o k e n , these f e a t u r e s seem to e c h o
strangely o u r m o d e r n notions of scientific a n d political rationality.
We will r e t u r n to this s u r p r i s i n g coincidence.
A u t o n o m y is not an e n d in itself, b u t is linked to reflexivity.
Because t h e g a m e can be s e p a r a t e d f r o m its e n v i r o n m e n t , its c h a r acteristic situations can be endlessly retrieved a n d studied. Selfcriticism, repetition, a n d practice can r e f i n e specialized abilities.
P e r f o r m a n c e can b e j u d g e d , play can b e p e r f e c t e d , a n d d e g r e e s o f
competence m e a s u r e d in matches.
Reflection n o t only i m p r o v e s p e r f o r m a n c e b u t also situates
the a u t o n o m o u s g a m e in t h e player's life process. T h e act of play
is a practice of self-realization m o d i f y i n g t h e player t h r o u g h discipline. T h i s is t h e core of t h e n o t i o n of Way; in Western societies
the idea of "vocation" plays a similar role, describing t h e effect on
the subject of its own activity in a relatively a u t o n o m o u s d o m a i n .
T h e recontextualizing practice of t h e g a m e as a Way has t h e
paradoxical effect of r e i n f o r c i n g its a u t o n o m y . T h e g a m e is wholly
absorbed in a way of life t h a t is itself wholly a b s o r b e d in t h e g a m e .
As Kawabata says of t h e old Master, he was "a m a n so disciplined
in an art that he h a d lost t h e b e t t e r p a r t of reality" (32).
In effect, w h a t E r v i n g G o f f m a n calls "rules of irrelevance,"
which a n c h o r a t t e n t i o n on play a n d abstract it f r o m t h e social surround, have taken over his whole life (20). T h i s is a well-known
hazard of the g a m e . T h e r e is an ancient C h i n e s e tale of a woodcutter w h o comes u p o n two old m e n playing Go in t h e forest a n d
stops to watch. Eventually t h e g a m e e n d s a n d t h e players disappear into thin air. T h e a s t o n i s h e d w o o d c u t t e r discovers t h a t his
own hair has t u r n e d white d u r i n g t h e play, a n d t h e h a n d l e of his
axe has r o t t e d t h r o u g h . For Kawabata, t h e g a m e has a d e m o n i c
quality:
From the veranda outside the players' room, which was ruled
by a sort of diabolic tension, I glanced out into the garden,
beaten down by the powerful summer sun, and saw a girl of
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No-Mind:
T h e Way of t h e g a m e is n o t a b o u t victory b u t about selfrealization t h r o u g h discipline. Kawabata tells t h e story of two highr a n k i n g y o u n g players w h o ask t h e advice of a clairvoyant on how
to win. " T h e p r o p e r m e t h o d , said t h e m a n , was to lose all awareness of self while awaiting an adversary's play" (42).
O n e i m m e d i a t e l y recognizes h e r e t h e Zen concept of "nom i n d " as it a p p e a r s in J a p a n e s e martial arts. It describes the peculiar f o r m of self-forgetfulness involved in effective s p o r t or combat.
But this is surely an o d d application of B u d d h i s m , a religion of
ascetic d e t a c h m e n t f r o m t h e world. As S u z u k i explains it in Zen
and Japanese Culture, " n o n - a t t a c h m e n t " can be e x t e n d e d d o w n to
the level of attentive processes, f r e e i n g t h e actor f r o m inhibiting
c o n c e n t r a t i o n on e i t h e r self or other. T h i s l o o s e n i n g of focus banishes hesitation a n d fear a n d i m p r o v e s f i g h t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e .
' " F r o m this absolute emptiness,' states T a k u a n , 'comes the most
w o n d r o u s u n f o l d m e n t of d o i n g ' " ( H e r r i g e l 104). 3
T h i s is n o t t h e place to discuss t h e religious implications of
n o - m i n d . W h a t interests me m o r e , in a n y case, is t h e s t r u c t u r e of
the c o n c e p t t h a t is d e r i v e d , by a subtle t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , f r o m the
traditional H i n d u a n d B u d d h i s t n o t i o n o f nonduality. According
to t h e traditional notion, conflict is illusory, as in E m e r s o n ' s f a m o u s
poem, "Brahma":
If the red slayer think he slays,
Or if the slain think he is slain,
They know not well the subtle ways
I keep, and pass, and turn again.
(qtd. in Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture 207)
Borges's story " T h e T h e o l o g i a n s " r e a c h e s a similar conclusion. H e r e is t h e heavenly c o d a to this a c c o u n t of a metaphysical
d i s p u t e t h a t e n d s tragically with o n e of t h e d i s p u t a n t s b u r n e d at
t h e stake: " I n Paradise, Aurelian l e a r n e d that, f o r the u n f a t h o m -
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Diagram 4.
the board w h e r e the Master plays poorly, m a k i n g the mistake that
costs him the game.
What is the m e a n i n g of this incident? T h e organizers of the
match granted each player 40 h o u r s to consider their moves. Sealing the final move of t h e day is s u p p o s e d to p r e v e n t the players
from a d d i n g the time between sessions to this already g e n e r o u s
total. But by tying the master up for a t u r n with his trivial sealed
play, Otake a p p e a r s to have f r o z e n the most i m p o r t a n t action so as
to have a leisurely look at it overnight. T h e Master is convinced
that Otake used the sealed play to gain time to reflect on the difficult position in the center of the b o a r d , time he desperately n e e d e d
as he was rapidly using up his allotment.
Despite the suspicious a p p e a r a n c e of move 121, it is not certain that the challenger actually used it to gain unfair advantage.
Although at o n e p o i n t the n a r r a t o r says that Otak "would avert
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Meta-Rules:
Etiquette or Equity
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Layers
of Meaning
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personal contest. But in m o d e r n times there is no longer any " m a r gin for r e m e m b e r i n g t h e dignity a n d the f r a g r a n c e of Go as an
art," a n d the challenger plays simply to win (52). As Kawabata
writes, " T h e Master s e e m e d like a relic left b e h i n d by Meiji" (63).
In fact he died shortly after the finish of the match. His challenger,
however decent a m a n , was the a g e n t of the m o d e r n world. His
victory would m e a n the e n d of the old J a p a n a n d the e m e r g e n c e
of a new spirit, d o m i n a t e d by business a n d the media.
For Kawabata t h e 1938 c h a m p i o n s h i p match was thus emblematic of the m o d e r n i z a t i o n of J a p a n . He repeats the usual contrast between m o d e r n i t y a n d tradition familiar f r o m J a p a n e s e literature: the struggle between ideals and interests, feeling a n d
reason, beauty a n d power, etc. But despite the cliches, his n a r r a t o r
cannot entirely d i s a p p r o v e of the m o d e r n ; it will bring, he says,
"new vitality in t h e world of Go" (145).
If the n a r r a t o r is ambivalent, t h e novel as a whole tends, as
we have seen, to soften the epochal differences between its two
principle characters. No d o u b t we a r e i n t e n d e d to discount the
r u m o u r s about the Master a n d to believe the worst of his challenger. But the ambiguities indicate that the p r o b l e m of m o d e r n ization is not j u s t a b o u t psychology or ethics; the g a m e has different potentialities that a r e reflected in historically typical f o r m s of
personality. T h e personal level thus d e p e n d s on an u n d e r l y i n g
change in the place of t h e g a m e in social life. 7 A perfectly respectable move f r o m o n e s t a n d p o i n t is an o u t r a g e f r o m the other. T h e
players are in effect playing d i f f e r e n t games. T h e i r e n c o u n t e r must
lead to a p r o f o u n d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a conflict of "doubles" in
which each participant operates according to a different code. 8
It is the j o u r n a l i s t n a r r a t o r w h o carries the b u r d e n of explaining these larger implications. He can do so because he embodies in his p e r s o n the very ambiguity of t h e match. On the o n e
hand, just as t h e Master reduces himself to n o t h i n g b e f o r e the
game, so the n a r r a t o r says, "I r e d u c e d myself to n o t h i n g as I gazed
at the Master" (115). On the o t h e r h a n d , his relation to Otak is
characterized by egalitarian affection a n d esteem. His doubleness
reflects the doubleness of J a p a n itself (Pilarcik 16-17).
T h e p r o f o u n d ambiguity of t h e n a r r a t o r ' s identity o p e n s a
space that encompasses all the lower fields in a sort of literary nomind. In his Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech, Kawabata endorses
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Cultural
Genealogy
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its situation. It is difficult to decide the relative i m p o r t a n c e of survivals as o p p o s e d to the m o r e basic cultural forms. T h a t ambiguity
emerges as a central t h e m e of Kawabata's novel. I want to t u r n
now to the task of u n r a v e l i n g it.
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Place
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Notes
1. For more on Go, see Korschelt.
2. For Kawabata's relation to this tradition, see his Nobel Prize Acceptance
Speech (Japan, the Beautiful and Myself), and Petersen, 129-32.
3. The reader interested in the concept of no-mind should consult Suzuki
(The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind), the chapters on swordsmanship in Suzuki (Zen and
Japanese Culture), and Herrigel. See also Loy, especially p. 123, for the issue of the
"third" point of view discussed below.
4. It is important not to miss the specific emphasis on winning characteristic
of traditional play. Ritual is, of course, significant for it to a degree that differentiates it from modern play, but it would be wrong to describe it as formalistic in
opposition to a modern instrumental interest in victory. One would have the same
problem distinguishing formal from instrumental motives in evaluating bull
fighting. And the same confusion Kawabata describes would arise, but in a ridiculous form, if a new style were introduced that consisted in shooting the bull.
5. Other recontextualizations are, of course, possible. For example, in the
course of history, technical systems have frequently been incorporated into social
life through guilds. Socialism might be interpreted as the demand for a similar
recontextualization of modern technology in democratic forms. See Feenberg
(Critical Theory of Technology chap. 7).
6. Cf. Latour:
If you take any black box and make a freeze-frame of it, you may
consider the system of alliances it knits together in two different ways:
first, by looking at who it is designed to enroll; second, by considering
what it is tied to so as to make the enrollment inescapable. We may on
the one h a n d draw its sociogram, and on the other its technogram. (138)
"Black box" here refers to facts and artifacts produced by scientific and technological research and development. They have an inextricably intertwined social
and scientific-technical logic. (The equivalent in Go would be the results of a
match.) In my book, I called this a "double aspect" theory (Critical Theory 81-82).
7. Pilarcik offers a skillful analysis of the various ways in which characterization is used to express the epochal transition. See especially her description of
the players use of time (12-13) and their strategies (14-15). Cf. Thomas Swann
(105-06). But for a novel in which the same transition is treated as essentially a
matter of changing character, compare Endo.
8. The concept of doubles employed here derives from Ren Girard. For
more on his approach, and applications to the role of economics in the novel, see
Feenberg ("Fetishism and Form").
9. Lukcs:
T h e writer's irony is a negative mysticism to be f o u n d in times without a god. It is an attitude of docta ignorantia towards meaning, a portrayal of the kindly and malicious workings of the demons, a refusal
to c o m p r e h e n d more than the m e r e fact of these workings; and in it
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For an extended discussion of this passage, see Bernstein (195 and ff.).
10. In the larger context of contemporary world literature, the novelistic turn
is reached by different peoples at times reflecting comparable levels of development and carried out with means supplied by their cultures. Thus, behind the
similarity of the Hungarian Lukcs and the Japanese Kawabata, writing a generation apart, lies a deeper cause in the rhythms of modernization in different parts
of the world. It is perhaps no coincidence that the Iwakura Mission, which visited
Europe during 1871-1873 in search of insight into how to modernize Japan focused on the example of Hungary, a country that seemed to point the way. Their
report notes: "The various nations who today are delayed in their enlightenment
will be deeply impressed by studying the circumstances of Hungary" (Soviak 15).
The artistic and theoretical opening made possible by the novel corresponds to a
moment of critique in a process of development undergone by both countries.
11. For a useful evaluation of related issues, see Johann Arnason.
12. See Nishida ("The Problem of Japanese Culture" and An Inquiry into the
Good), Abe, Watsuji, and Berque.
13. For more on the different moments of technical rationality, see Feenberg
(Critical Theory chap. 8).
Works Cited
Abe, Maso. "Nishida's Philosophy of 'Place.'" International Philosophical Quarterly
28.4 (1991): 355-71.
Arnason, Johann. "Modernity, Postmodernity and the Japanese Experience." Unpublished essay, 1992.
Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations. Trans. Harry Zohn. New York: Schocken, 1969.
Bernstein, Jay. The Philosophy of the Novel: Lukcs, Marxism and the Dialectics of Form.
Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1984.
Berque, Augustin. Vivre l'Espace au Japon. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France, 1986.
Borges, Jorge Luis. "The Theologians." Labyrinths. New York: New Directions,
1964. 119-26.
Caillois, Roger. "Les jeux dans le monde moderne." Profits 13 (1955): 26.
Dale, Peter. The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness. New York: St. Martin's, 1986.
Dore, Roland. Taking Japan Seriously: A Confucian Perspective on Leading Economic.
Issues. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1987.
Endo, Shusaku. When I Whistle. Trans. Van C. Gessel. New York: Taplinger, 1980.
Feenberg, Andrew. "Fetishism and Form: Erotic and Economic Disorder in Literature." Violence and Truth. Ed. Paul Dumouchel. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1988.
201-10.
. Critical Theory of Technology. New York: Oxford UP 1991.
Goffman, Erving. Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction. New York:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1961.
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