Reconstruction 6 .

1 ( W inte r 2 0 0 6 )
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Call for Papers "When a Killer Body Isn't Enough": Cross- Gender
Editorial Board I de nti fi ca ti on in Action- Adventure Video Games / Marc
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A b s t r a c t: W h i l e s p o r t s g a m e s t r y t o r e c r e a t e t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f a s t a d i u m o r o f t e l e v i s i o n
Tweet b r o a d c a s t s o f g a m e s , r o l e- p l a y i n g a n d a c t i o n- a d v e n t u r e g a m e s a t t e m p t t o d u p l i c a t e
cinematography through animation. For Tomb Raider, the virtual reality created by the
c i n e m a t i c a n i m a t i o n o f t h e g a m e p r o d u c e s a n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r m a l e- t o- f e m a l e c r o s s- g e n d e r
identification, a topic that has received little critical attention. The sense of
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n t e n d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r c o m e s f r o m p s y c h o a n a l y s t s J e a n L a p l a n c h e a n d J e a n-
Baptiste Pontalis, who describe identification as a "psychological process in which a subject
assimilates an aspect, a property, a characteristic of another and transforms himself [or
herself] totally or partially on the basis of this model." Indeed, psychoanalytic literature
considers such an identification to be atypical if not abnormal. Thus, Ouellette examines the
c r o s s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e ( m a l e ) a u d i e n c e a n d v i d e o g a m e i c o n L a r a C r o f t . W h i l e
the reverse phenomenon, females identifying with male protagonists, has been explored, this
study is (currently) alone. This chapter draws on previous works for its theoretical basis
while providing a challenge to the conception of the "male gaze." More and more video games
a l s o h a v e i n t e r a c t i v i t y a s a b u i l t- i n f e a t u r e , w h i c h a l t e r s t h e e x p e r i e n c e f r o m o n e o f p a s s i v e
viewing to active participation. This point is raised frequently in relation to the violence
contained in many video games. The combination, it is assumed, leads (young) game players to
become violent themselves. The argument that players of video games assume the violent
p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e i r o n- s c r e e n c o u n t e r p a r t s a s s u m e s a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h o s e p e r s o n a e ,
but this is as far as the critiques go. The need exists, therefore to consider the nature of
these identifications and what occurs when the player and the persona are of different
genders. This chapter should be of special interest to film scholars and those interested in
psychoanalytic theory as it challenges normative beliefs about media and its relation to its
audience.

I ntroduction

<1>The Tomb Raider s e r i e s o f v i d e o g a m e s i s o n e o f t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l e v e r , w i t h m o r e t h a n

s i x t e e n m i l l i o n c o p i e s h a v i n g b e e n s o l d w o r l d w i d e ( B a u m a n 5 2 ) . A l t h o u g h Tomb Raider' s f o r m u l a
- - s h o o t y o u r w a y t h r o u g h s e v e r a l p u z z l e- f i l l e d l e v e l s s e t i n b u i l d i n g s o r compounds - - comes
from earlier games such as Castle Wolfenstein (1983) and Doom (1993), there is one significant
difference: the female protagonist, Lara Croft. As Gary Eng Walk recognizes, "Lara Croft i s a
b o n a f i d e l e g e n d , a n i n d e l i b l e t a t t o o o n t h e b i c e p s o f ' 9 0 s p o p c u l t u r e . T h e r e a r e L a r a T-
Shirts. Watches. Posters. A coffee table book. A movie deal" (100). Walk does not mention that
t h e r e i s a l m o s t a s m u c h n e g a t i v e a t t e n t i o n d e v o t e d t o L a r a C r o f t . A c a d e m i c c r i t i c i s m o f Tomb
Rai der f o c u s e s m a i n l y o n t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s c h e s t , w a i s t , a n d hi p measurements, and what
Justine Cassell and Henry Jenkins call the game's "overt pandering to adolescent male
i n t e r e s t s i n ' t i t s a n d a s s ' " ( 3 2 ) . S u c h a s t a t e m e n t d i s c o u n t s p l a y e r s ' n e w- f o u n d a b i l i t y t o
i d e n t i f y with the protagonists because of advances in "virtual reality" technology. For
example, in a 1999 commercial, two gamers argue over which o n e g e t s t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f K e n
G r i f f e y J r . i n a g a m e o f Major League B a s e b a l l F e a t u r i n g K e n G r i f f e y J r ., o n t h e N i n t e n d o 6 4
platform. They exchange cries of "No! I'm Ken Griffey Jr." to indicate t h a t t h e l e v e l o f
"virtual reality" in the game enhances the role playing effect, such that the players ignore
the real Ken Griffey Jr. as he knocks on their door. To simulate baseball in as detailed a
fashion as possible, the game includes the possibility of trades, injuries, fatigue, and play
based on statistical models of actual baseball players. Those playing the video game can act
as owner, manager, and player. The virtual reality of the games improves with each successive
generation of consoles and video c a r d s .

<2> While sports games try to recreate the atmosphere of a stadium o r o f t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t s

o f g a m e s , r o l e- p l a y i n g a n d a c t i o n- adventure g a m e s a t t e m p t t o d u p l i c a t e c i n e m a t o g r a p h y t h r o u g h
a n i m a t i o n . F o r Tomb R a i d e r, t h e v i r t u a l r e a l i t y c r e a t e d b y t h e c i n e m a t i c a n i m a t i o n o f t h e game
produces an environment for male to female cross gender identification, a t o p i c t h a t h a s
recei ved l i ttl e cri ti cal attenti on. The sense of i denti fi cati on intended in this chapter comes
from Jean Laplanche and Jean- B a p t i s t e P o n t a l i s , w h o d e s c r i b e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s a
"psychological process in which a subject assimilates an aspect, a property, a characteristic
of another and t r a n s f o r m s h i m s e l f [ o r h e r s e l f ] t o t a l l y o r p a r t i a l l y o n t h e b a s i s o f t h i s
model" (184). Indeed, psychoanalytic literature considers such an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o b e
atypical if not abnormal. For example, in "Her Body, Himself: Gender in the Slasher Film,"
Carol Clover briefly examines the possi bi l i ty of such an i denti fi cati on between the l argel y
male audience a n d t h e f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r w h o u l t i m a t e l y d e f e a t s t h e m o n s t e r ( s ) o r " b a d g u y ( s ) "
in slasher films, a stereotypical figure she refers to as the "final girl" (216). Since she
was not aware of other settings and productions that achieved a similar effect, or of analyses
t h a t c o n s i d e r c r o s s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , C l o v e r c a l l s f o r m o r e r e s e a r c h i n t o t h i s
phenomenon. M o r e t h a n t e n y e a r s l a t e r , l i t t l e h a s b e e n d o n e t o h e e d C l o v e r ' s c a l l . I n B a d
Gi rl s and Si ck Boys (1999), Linda Kauffman merely echoes Clover's sentiments: "Since Laura
Mulvey's groundbreaking work on spectatorship, the male gaze has become a critical
commonpl ace, but Cl over suggests the n e e d f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a b o u t m e n ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h
women" ( 1 3 2 ) . J u s t i n e C a s s e l l a n d H e n r y J e n k i n s , i n F r o m B a r b i e t o M o r t a l Kombat, a c t u a l l y
c o n n e c t Tomb Raider w i t h C l o v e r ' s a n a l y s i s b u t p r o c e e d n o f u r t h e r . T h e y a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t
" A r g u m e n t s e x p l a i n i n g m a l e g a m e r s ' c l o s e t r a n s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h L a r a C r o f t s ( s i c )
c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l C a r o l C l o v e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e ' f i n a l g i r l ' convention in 1980s slasher
f i l m s . . . . [ h o w e v e r ] t h e s u c c e s s o f 'Tomb R a i d e r s' ( s i c ) h a s b e e n l i n k e d t o t h e e x a g g e r a t i o n
o f L a r a C r o f t s ' ( s i c ) f e m i n i n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " ( 3 0- 1 ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s o u t r i g h t d i s m i s s a l
o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c r o s s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d u r i n g g a m e p l a y , a n d a s a n u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r
in the success of the game, is as close to an analysis of the phenomenon as they get. Like
many critics, Cassell and Jenkins are far more interested in critiquing what they perceive to
be examples o f p a t r i a r c h a l h e g e m o n y t h a n i n a c t u a l l y a n a l y z i n g t h e t e x t . T h u s , I e x a m i n e t h e
cross gender identification between the (male) audience and Lara Croft. While the reverse
phenomenon, females identifying with male protagonists, has been explored, for example, by
Constance Penley, in Technoculture (1991) a n d e l s e w h e r e , t h i s s t u d y i s ( c u r r e n t l y ) a l o n e . T h i s
essay both draws on p r e v i o u s w o r k s f o r i t s t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s w h i l e p r o v i d i n g a c h a l l e n g e t o
the conception of the "male gaze" as well as the stability of gender as a construct.

<3> Admittedly, video games may appear at first glance to be a more f a n t a s t i c a n d ( t h e r e f o r e )

culturally less relevant site of popular culture, let alone masculinity, than even the
carnivalesque atmosphere of professional wrestling. However, as Elizabeth and Geoffrey Loftus
observe, video games probably have more power than other previous instruments o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n
(for example, TV) to affect socialization, because of the highly interactive nature of the
computers that underlies the games. Computers and computer games can literally replace other
peopl e i n many r e s p e c t s . I n d e e d w e f i n d s o m e s t r i k i n g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n s o c i a l i z a t i o n i n t h e
video arcades and socialization in more traditional settings. (89)

Furthermore, Fabian Blache and Lauren Fielder remind us that the

trend toward making game characters seem like "real" people i s i n c r e a s i n g l y

prevalent with each year that passes. Games are now seen, by those who play them, as
viable entertainment in lieu of activities like going to movies, so it stands to
reason that games are being made l e s s s u p e r f i c i a l i n s c o p e w i t h e a c h i n s t a l l m e n t o r
generation that passes. ( 1 )

M o r e a n d m o r e v i d e o g a m e s a l s o h a v e i n t e r a c t i v i t y a s a b u i l t- i n f e a t u r e , w h i c h a l t e r s t h e
experience from one of passive viewing to active participation. Thi s poi nt i s rai sed
frequently in relation to the violence contained in many video games. The combination, it is
assumed, leads (young) game players t o b e c o m e v i o l e n t t h e m s e l v e s . N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e t o p i c
has become the f o c u s o f m o s t a n a l y s e s o f v i d e o g a m e s . I n t h i s r e g a r d , E l i z a b e t h a n d G e o f f r e y
Loftus remark that "What are not usually considered are the indirect benefits that video games
can and do yield. These can be unexpected and enormously powerful" (8). The argument that
p l a y e r s o f v i d e o g a m e s a s s u m e t h e v i o l e n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f t h e i r o n- s c r e e n c o u n t e r p a r t s
assumes a n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h o s e p e r s o n a e , b u t t h i s i s a s f a r a s t h e c r i t i q u e s g o . T h e
n e e d e x i s t s , t h e r e f o r e t o c o n s i d e r t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and what occurs when
the player and the persona are of different genders.

<4>Anal ysi s of medi a such as vi deo games requi res a comprehensi ve a p p r o a c h . G e o f f r e y R o c k w e l l

suggests that computer games are "the most popular form of fiction consumed through the
computer, if by fiction, one understands artifacts intended to delight rather than inform.
[Nevertheless] consumption of computer games far surpasses that of electronic texts or t h e
refined works of hypertext fictions" (1). Rockwell expresses surprise that the academic
community has largely ignored video games as a site of s t u d y , o t h e r t h a n t o p o i n t o u t t h e
"adolescent audience intended by most computer games, [and] the violent and sexist character
of many games" ( 1 ) . H e n r y J e n k i n s , o f M I T , o f f e r s f u r t h e r r e a s o n s f o r t h e l a c k o f s e r i o u s
attention paid to video games:

I don't think there's any question that video games became a media scapegoat in the
p o s t- C o l u m b i n e e r a . I t h i n k t h a t t h e r e [ i s ] a n e n o r m o u s a n x i e t y w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r e
about digital media in general. Computers w e r e n o t a c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e l i v e s o f
the current generation of parents when they were growing up, but they are a central
part of the lives of their children. (qtd. in Russo 57)

A s e v i d e n c e o f t h e t e c h n o p h o b i a , T o m R u s s o c i t e s a Washington P o s t s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d a f t e r t h e
Columbine shootings which asked the public w h a t t h e y t h o u g h t w a s a s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s e o f t h e
shooting: "The top answer was the Internet (82%), while the availability of guns was cited by
less than 60% of respondents" (57). An often unacknowledged reason for academic prejudice
against video games is, as Rockwell observes, "the g e n e r a l f a i l u r e o f t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e s
to deal with games of any sort as a form of human expression worthy of study" (1). In his own
s t u d i e s , Rockwell suggests a theoretical model which takes its cue from Marshall McLuhan's
observation:

Games are popular art, collective, social reactions to the main d r i v e o r a c t i o n o f

any culture. Games, like institutions, are extensions of the animal organism. Both
games and technol ogi es are counter- i r r i t a n t s o r w a y s o f a d j u s t i n g t o t h e s t r e s s o f
the specialized actions that occur in any social group. As extensions of the popular
response to the workaday s t r e s s , g a m e s b e c o m e f a i t h f u l m o d e l s o f a c u l t u r e . T h e y
incorporate both the action and the reaction of whole populations in a single
dynamic image. ( 2 0 8 )

Although computer games were not in mass circulation at the time McLuhan w a s w r i t i n g , t h e y
take his analogy to its obvious limit: if games are extensions of our social body in the way
mechanical technologies are extensions of our physical bodies, then video games are capable of
f u l f i l l i n g b o t h p a r t s of the analogy. Video games are simultaneously technological extensions
a n d s o c i a l e x t e n s i o n s ; a c t i o n a n d r e a c t i o n i n o n e i m a g e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y demand a
comprehensive analytical approach.

< 5 > U l t i m a t e l y , R o c k w e l l c o n t e n d s t h a t c o m p u t e r g a m e s c o n s t i t u t e a meta- g e n r e w h i c h

incorporates other genres of fiction and performance. Further, i f one substi tutes i nteracti on
for dialogue, then Mikhail Bakhtin's theory of the novel may be applied to video games. Such a
meta- g e n r e i s u n i f i e d b y w h a t B a k h t i n c a l l s t h e " c h r o n o t o p e , " o r t h e " s p a t i o- temporal
experience created by the author" (Rockwell 8). Since computer games u s e a n i n t e r f a c e - - t h e
j o y s t i c k , c o n t r o l l e r p a d , s t e e r i n g w h e e l , m o u s e , o r k e y b o a r d - - b a s e d o n r e a l- t i m e e x p e r i e n c e
w i t h i n a v i r t u a l w o r l d , Rockwell's analogy seemingly applies. The development of the Greek
n o v e l , B a k h t i n c l a i m s , r e s u l t e d i n a " n e w a n d l a r g e m u l t i- g e n r e d g e n r e , o n e w h i c h i n c l u d e d i n
itself various types of dialogues, lyrical songs, letters, speeches, descriptions of countries
and ci ti es, short stori es, and so forth. It was an encyclopedia of genres" (Bakhtin 1981, 65).
As Rockwell suggests, Bakhtin's point is that the novel is not necessarily a genre in and of
itself, but is instead a combination of a number of genres i n a " d i a l o g i z e d a r t i s t i c
whole" (8). This makes the task of the critic more involved, for "The basic tasks for a
s t y l i s t i c s i n the novel are, therefore: the study of specific images of languages and s t y l e s ;
the organization of these images; their typology (for they are extremely di verse); the
combination of images of languages within the novelistic whole; the transfers and switchings
of languages and voices; their dialogical interrelationships" (Bakhtin 1981, 50). This is not
to say that any critique of video games should consider all of the possible "aesthetic,
performative, and architectural theories," which would represent a regression into a m y r i a d o f
generic considerations (Rockwell 9). To prevent such regress, Rockwell suggests that Bakhtin's
notion of the chronotope should be the ultimate guide. In Bakhtin's words,

W e w i l l g i v e t h e n a m e chronotope ( l i t e r a l l y , " t i m e s p a c e " ) t o t h e i n t r i n s i c

connectedness of temporal and s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a r e a r t i s t i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d
i n l i t e r a t u r e . . . . we are borrowing it for literary criticism almost as a metaphor
(almost, but not entirely). What counts for us is the fact that it expresses the
inseparability of space and time . . . We understand the chronotope as a f o r m a l l y
constitutive category of literature. (Bakhtin 1986, 84)

R o c k w e l l n o t e s t h a t v i d e o g a m e r e v i e w e r s ( a n d a u t h o r s o f w a l k s- t h r o u g h ) h a v e e m p l o y e d ,
unbeknownst to them, a system of categorization based on the relationship between time and
space. He explains that

a typology that has emerged among game reviewers is the pace of the game ( i t s s e n s e
of time) and the types of settings. Briefly, action games are fast paced and take
place in stressful environments while in adventure games one is in a labyrinth with
plenty of time to solve puzzles. (10)

Based on his reading of Bakhtin, Rockwell formulates a fourfold approach f o r t h e c r i t i c i s m o f

video games. In this model the critic should consider:

1. The types of media and fiction integrated into the multimedia game and the ways
they are integrated into an artistic or entertaining whole.
2. The types of characters that interact in the game with special attention t o t h e
character the player is allowed to develop.
3. The types of interactions that can be performed in the game with special
attention to the interactive possibilities for the player and the ways the player
interacts with other characters.
4 . T h e c h r o n o t o p e o r s p a t i o- t e m p o r a l s e t t i n g t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e u n i t y t o t h e g a m e .
This is more than the physical setting of the game, it includes the experience of
time and pace in which the game unfolds. (10)

C l e a r l y , t h e n , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f f a s t- p a c e d a c t i o n a n d p u z z l e s o l v i n g m a k e s a c t i o n- a d v e n t u r e
games, such as Tomb Raider, S y p h o n F i l t e r, a n d P e r f e c t D a r k, h y b r i d s . T h e y r e p r e s e n t n o t s o
much a separate g e n r e a s a m e t a- g e n r e , o f t h e t y p e B a k h t i n a n d R o c k w e l l d e s c r i b e . A n i m p o r t a n t
part of the success of such a formula rests in its intertextuality, its incorporation of
familiar plots, themes, characterizations, and symbols that have been borrowed from other
genres or maintained throughout the genre. I n t h i s r e s p e c t , i t i s w o r t h r e c a l l i n g t h e c o n c e p t
of "generic verisimilitude," which describes one text's relationship to other members of its
class.

F r o m P i x e l t o P e r s o n a : A c t i o n- Adve nture V ide o G a me s

< 6 > A l t h o u g h t h e y d o r e p r e s e n t a s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t a n d a d v a n c e m e n t i n c o m p u t e r g a m e s , t h e Tomb

Rai der g a m e s i n c o r p o r a t e f e a t u r e s f o u n d i n m a n y o f t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s , i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t
g e n r e s . T h e a c t i o n- adventure g e n r e c o m b i n e s t h e g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s o f a r c a d e- s t y l e g a m e s w i t h
t h e s c e n a r i o s o f r o l e- p l a y i n g o r a d v e n t u r e g a m e s s u c h a s C a s t l e W o l f e n s t e i n a n d Doom. R e s i d e n t
E v i l ( 1 9 9 6 ) , r e l e a s e d s i x m o n t h s b e f o r e Tomb Raider, i n t r o d u c e d t h i r d- p e r s o n p e r s p e c t i v e a n d
a n o p t i o n a l f e m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t , J i l l V a l e n t i n e . Tomb Raider r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r a n d m o r e
i m p o r t a n t p a r a d i g m s h i f t i n t h a t i t w a s " t h e f i r s t h i t a c t i o n g a m e t o u s e a r e a l- t i m e 3 D
e n g i n e w i t h a t h i r d- p e r s o n p e r s p e c t i v e " ( R o u s e 9 ) . O n e o f t h e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
between Tomb Raider a n d e a r l i e r g a m e s i s t h a t t h e c a m e r a p o s i t i o n n e c e s s a r i l y m u s t c h a n g e . I n
a f i r s t- p e r s o n g a m e , t h e c a m e r a i s a l w a y s i n t h e r i g h t p o s i t i o n , i n w h a t f i l m c r i t i c s c a l l t h e
" I- c a m e r a , " f o r t h e f i r s t- p e r s o n , s i n g u l a r , p r o n o u n , p o s i t i o n . I n a t h i r d- p e r s o n g a m e , t h e
camera has to move in order t o p r o v i d e t h e b e s t a n g l e f r o m w h i c h t o v i e w t h e a c t i o n w h i l e
al ways remai ni ng w i t h i n t h e g a m e w o r l d . M o r e o v e r , v i e w s f r o m b e h i n d L a r a C r o f t c o m p r i s e t h e
majority of the game play and the "camera angle" is automatically adjusted to maintain this
position, affording the player an excellent view of the game world and the protagonist. In
fact, this feature of the game serves to minimize the available views and therefore the effect
of Lara's much maligned physique. In any case, the largest single difference is the increased
visibility of the protagonist achieved through the improved graphics engine: Lara Croft
becomes a real(istic) character and the presentation is meant to mimic cinematography.

< 7 > I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s h i f t o f p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e g a m e p l a y i n Tomb R a i d e r h a s s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t

changes compared to previous games. In t h i s r e g a r d , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e i s t h e a u t o-
a i m i n g f e a t u r e i n Tomb R a i d e r. W h i l e t h i s p o i n t m i g h t s e e m c o u n t e r- i n t u i t i v e , i t d o e s m o v e
Tomb Raider a w a y f r o m t h e r e a l m o f t h e p u r e a c t i o n " s h o o t ' e m u p " a n d i n t o t h e a d v e n t u r e g e n r e .
Richard Rouse explains the difference:

I n Doom m u c h o f t h e c h a l l e n g e i s h i t t i n g y o u r d e m o n i c a d v e r s a r i e s , a n d t h e p l a y e r ' s
ability to determine exactly what [he or she is] shooting at is key to this style of
game play. When the player is no longer seeing through the eyes of [his or her] game
world character, aiming becomes m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t a n d c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e , a n d a
change to a style of game play in which aiming is not so central becomes necessary.
( 9- 1 0 )
R e s i d e n t E v i l , i n s p i t e o f i t s t h i r d- p e r s o n p e r s p e c t i v e , h a s g r e a t e r a f f i n i t i e s w i t h a c t i o n
" s h o o t e r s " l i k e Doom. I t s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n i n a d i f f e r e n t g e n r e , " s u r v i v a l h o r r o r , " w h i c h i t i s
s a i d t o h a v e i n i t i a t e d , r e f l e c t s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n ( Z D N e t ) . I n s t e a d o f e x t r a- t e r r e s t r i a l
mutants, pl ayers of Resident Evil (and the characters they control ) must eliminate zombies and
o t h e r m o n s t e r s b o r r o w e d f r o m h o r r o r m o v i e s . I n c o n t r a s t , Tomb Raider i s

more of an action adventure, with the player needing to figure out puzzles, and
d i v i n e m e a n s o f a t t a i n i n g d i f f i c u l t t o r e a c h p o s i t i o n s . T h o u g h Tomb R a i d e r h a s i t s
f a s t a c t i o n m o m e n t s , t h e s e a r e s e p a r a t e d b y l o n g p u z z l e- s o l v i n g passages. However,
the switch from pure action to action adventure was not done merely because the
d e v e l o p e r s f e l t l i k e i t ; t h e r e m o v e d v i e w o f a t h i r d- p e r s o n g a m e l e n d s i t s e l f m o r e
to navigating the player's surrogate through the world instead of aiming and
s h o o t i n g i t s i n h a b i t a n t s . (Rouse 9)

I t i s n o t u n t i l Tomb Rai der: The Last Revel ati on, t h e f o u r t h g a m e i n t h e s e r i e s , t h a t t h e

p l a y e r h a s t h e o p t i o n o f a i m i n g L a r a ' s g u n s . I n t h e t h i r d- p e r s o n p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s i n c r e d i b l y
d i f f i c u l t t o d o s o . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e g a m e- p l a y r e i n f o r c e s t h e c i n e m a t i c s t y l e o f p r e s e n t a t i o n
by c h a n g i n g t h e n a t u r e o f w h a t g a m e d e v e l o p e r s c a l l " p l a y e r i m m e r s i o n , " o r t h e w a y i n w h i c h
the player is drawn into the game world. Again Rouse a d d s i n s i g h t :

By being able to view their surrogate performing the actions they command, p l a y e r s
intuitively realize that the character doing all those cool moves is very much not
t h e m . I n a f i r s t- p e r s o n g a m e , t h e p l a y e r s e e s t h e i r a c t i o n s ( s i c ) c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e
movement of the camera through the worl d as vi ewed b y t h e i r ( s i c ) c h a r a c t e r . T h u s
the player is more drawn into the game and might - - for brief moments in time - -
even think they (sic) actually are in the game world. (10)

A s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , i n a f i r s t- p e r s o n g a m e , l i k e Doom, t h e p l a y e r s e e s t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f
t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d i t i s t h e r e f o r e m u c h e a s i e r t o become immersed in the game. A similar
t e c h n i q u e i s u s e d i n m o r e b e n e v o l e n t g a m e s , f o r i n s t a n c e i n F l i g h t S i m u l a t o r, i n o r d e r t o g i v e
the player the sense that he or she is really at the controls.

< 8 > I n a f i r s t- p e r s o n g a m e , t h e p l a y e r , f o r a l l i n t e n t s a n d p u r p o s e s , i s t h e c h a r a c t e r ; i n a
t h i r d- p e r s o n g a m e , t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n p l a y e r a n d c h a r a c t e r r e m o v e s t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y . A s w i t h
TV and movies, the player is invited to identify with the character rather than become the
c h a r a c t e r . A s T o b y G a r d , o n e o f t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n e r s o f Tomb Raider s u g g e s t s ,

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , i f i t ' s t h i r d- p e r s o n , t h e n y o u ' r e w a t c h i n g a n d c o n t r o l l i n g a
character external to yourself. This allows us to give that character more
personality of their (sic) own, and the player, suitably distanced, doesn't find it
d i s c o n c e r t i n g w h e n t h e c h a r a c t e r d o e s t h i n g s o f i t s o w n a c c o r d . I n a f i r s t- p e r s o n
game you can't do that because you're meant to be taking on that role, and as a
player you expect to put all the personality of that character in yourself. (qtd. i n
Rouse 10)

Indeed, the player is not only "suitably distanced" from the character in a game that uses a
t h i r d- p e r s o n p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e p l a y e r i s a l s o a t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e g a m e w o r l d .
Although the player still guides the protagonist around through the various levels of the
game, the vi ew- p o i n t f o r t h e g a m e i s a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t o f f i l m o r t e l e v i s i o n . I n t e r e s t i n g l y ,
i n t h e l a t e s t i n s t a l l m e n t , Tomb Rai der: The Last Revel ati on, t h e d e s i g n e r s i n c l u d e d f i r s t-
person perspectives when Lara performs certain functions, such as looking through binoculars
o r t h e s c o p e o f a c r o s s- b o w . H o w e v e r , s h e i s s u c h a w e l l- e s t a b l i s h e d c h a r a c t e r - - d u e t o
p r e v i o u s g a m e s , t h e a t t e n t i o n s h e r e c e i v e s , a n d t h e p r i m a r i l y t h i r d- p e r s o n p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e
r e s t o f t h e game(s) - - t h a t i t w i l l b e d i f f i c u l t f o r p l a y e r s t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r e L a r a
C r o f t . T h e y d o n o t s h a r e h e r p e r s o n a l i t y o r h e r g e n d e r b u t i n s t e a d s h a r e h e r p o i n t- o f- v i e w .
While their distantiation is still maintained in the newest edition, the immersion of the
players is greater, which results in an increased identification with the protagonist.

"B i g g e r A c t i o n , B e t t e r O u t f i t s : " F i l m T h e o r y a n d V i d e o Games

<9 > T h e i n f l u e n c e o f f i l m o n t h e a n i m a t i o n i n c o m p u t e r g a m e s s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r- e s t i m a t e d .
F o r e x a m p l e , i n The Last Express, d e s i g n e r J o r d a n M e c h n e r a d m i t s t h a t h e t r i e d t o m i m i c t h e
f i l m i n g t e c h n i q u e s u s e d i n H i t c h c o c k ' s Rear Window ( R o u s e 1 1 ) . Tomb Raider' s c r e a t o r s
similarly intended to animate the game as if it were being filmed. T h u s , i t i s e n t i r e l y
logical to apply methods and theories adapted from criticisms of film and spectatorship to
a n a l y z e a g a m e l i k e Tomb Raider a n d a c h a r a c t e r l i k e L a r a C r o f t . T h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l o f t h e
critical approaches for the consideration of gender in film is Laura Mulvey's critique of what
has come to be known as the "male gaze," in her essay, "Visual Pleasure and Narrative
Cinema" (1989). According to Mulvey, there are two contradi ctory aspects of l ooki ng i n
conventional cinema:

The first, scopophilic, arises from pleasure in using another person as an obj ect of
sexual stimulation through sight. The second, developed through narcissism and the
constitution of the ego, comes from identification with the image seen. Thus, in
terms, one implies a separation of the erotic identity from the object on the screen
(active scopophilia), the other demands identification of the ego with the object on
the screen through the spectator's fascination with and recognition of his like. The
first is a function of the sexual instincts, the second of ego libido. (18)

I n " V i s u a l P l e a s u r e , " M u l v e y c o n s i d e r s o n l y m a l e- c e n t r e d f o r m s . T h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s
that "in a world ordered by sexual imbalance, pleasure in looking has been split between
active/male and passive/female" (Mulvey 19). The split between active and passive roles
reduces female characters t o t w o r o l e s . T h e y a r e e i t h e r e r o t i c o b j e c t s f o r t h e c h a r a c t e r s o n
the screen o r t h e y a r e e r o t i c o b j e c t s f o r t h e s p e c t a t o r s . T h i s c r i t i q u e , n o t s o m u c h o f
cinema, but of the patriarchal apparatus that Mulvey perceives as being behind its production,
h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o a s u b s t a n t i a l b o d y o f s c h o l a r s h i p f o r t h e l a s t t w e n t y- f i v e y e a r s a n d h a s
only recently come to be questioned.
< 1 0 > A l t h o u g h h e w a n t s t o a n a l y z e Tomb Raider a n d i t s p r o t a g o n i s t i n t e r m s o f t h e g a z e , S t e v e
Spittle admits that the game "offers a much more ambivalent experience" for which the gaze is
unable to account. S p i t t l e e x p l a i n s t h a t

T h e a m b i v a l e n c e i n Tomb Raider l i e s i n t h e u n u s u a l t e n s i o n b e t w e e n i t s b a s i s i n t h e
male gaze and its simultaneous identification with an active female protagonist.
T h a t m y f e m a l e s t u d e n t s f e l t e m p o w e r e d b y , a n d a t t r a c t e d t o , Tomb Raider s u g g e s t s i t
does mark a shift in conceptions of subjectivity and identity. However, this shift
is not total and still appears to be rooted in existing gender definitions. (9)

L a r a C r o f t i s n o t j u s t t h e o n l y f e m a l e , s h e i s t h e o n l y p r o t a g o n i s t i n e v e r y v e r s i o n o f Tomb
Rai der. S i n c e h e r p r i m a r y r o l e w i t h i n t h e n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e g a m e i s t o k i l l t h e b a d
guys and monsters, Lara Croft fits the basic profile of a character traditionally found in
horror films:

the image of the distressed female most likely to linger in the memory . . . t h e o n e
w h o d i d n o t d i e : t h e s u r v i v o r , o r F i n a l G i r l . S h e i s t h e o n e who encounters the
mutilated bodies of her friends and perceives the full extent of the receding horror
a n d o f h e r o w n p e r i l ; w h o i s c h a s e d , c o r n e r e d , wounded; whom we see scream, stagger,
fall, rise, and scream again. (Clover 1987, 200)

In addition, the Final Girl is "presented from the outset as the main character. The practiced
viewer distinguishes her from her friends minutes i n t o t h e f i l m . S h e i s t h e g i r l s c o u t , t h e
bookworm, the mechanic. Unlike [other g i r l s ] s h e i s n o t s e x u a l l y a c t i v e " ( C l o v e r 1 9 8 7 , 2 0 4 ) .
This aspect of Lara's life is documented in the official biography Core Design released i n
1999. Rather than stay with her family, "An adventurous soul, Lara found the idea of being
sent away from home an exciting prospect. . . . Preferring her own company to that of others,
Lara would often take off at dawn, returning only at nightfall for supper" (Walk 103). In
f a c t , a s i s r e p o r t e d o n t h e C a n a d i a n B r o a d c a s t i n g C o r p o r a t i o n ' s p r o g r a m , U n d e r c u r r e n t s, t h e
m a k e r s a n d c r e a t o r s o f L a r a C r o f t a n d Tomb Raider were approached b y a d v e r t i s e r s f o r a
feminine hygiene product. Lara's handlers refused to allow her image to appear in the ads
partly for fear that it would alienate her largely male following, but partly out of fear that
it would alter the image of their star. As well, Lara conducts all of her archaeological
e x p e d i t i o n s a l o n e , e x c e p t f o r t h e f i r s t t w o l e v e l s o f t h e f o u r t h i n s t a l l m e n t , Tomb R a i d e r : T h e
Last Revelation (2000). Initially, she is accompanied during t h e t r a i n i n g l e v e l b y P r o f . v o n
Croy, of whom more will be said, and in the second level she has an Egyptian guide who
eventually runs away, screaming. N e i t h e r o f t h e s e i s a s u i t a b l e p a r t n e r , i n a n y s e n s e , f o r
Lara. While she i s p a r t l y a s e x u a l o b j e c t , s h e i s a n u n a t t a i n a b l e o b j e c t .

< 1 1 > M o r e o v e r , i n t h e m o s t r e c e n t r e l e a s e i n t h e Tomb Raider s e r i e s , L a r a ' s n o n- s e x u a l i m a g e

is furthered by the opening sequence in which she is depicted at the age of sixteen. She
a p p e a r s a l o n g w i t h h e r m e n t o r , P r o f . W e r n e r v o n C r o y , w h o a l s o s e r v e s t o r e i n f o r c e t h e n o n-
sexual, "look don't touch," nature of the relationship between Lara and her audience by
assuming a protective, fatherly, role in the initial sequences. In contrast, according to
M u l v e y , i n a n a n a l y s i s S p i t t l e ( a n d o t h e r s ) w o u l d l i k e t o a p p l y t o Tomb Raider, t h e
presentation begins with the woman as the obj ect of the combi ned gaze of the mal e spectator
and male protagonist a l i k e a n d " B y m e a n s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h [ t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ] , t h r o u g h
participation in his power, the spectator can indirectly possess her too" (Mulvey 21). This
analysis is based on the premise of a male spectator who i d e n t i f i e s w i t h a m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t
simply and wholly because they are both male. The spectator, then, cannot "possess" the
protagonist and c a n n o t i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e f e m a l e f i g u r e . Y e t i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e f e m a l e
p r o t a g o n i s t w i t h w h o m t h e p l a y e r o f Tomb Raider i d e n t i f i e s a n d i n w h o s e p o w e r h e ( o r s h e )
participates.

<12>Part of the problem with Mulvey's formulation arises because s h e a t t r i b u t e s a l l o f t h e

power in a given scene to the male protagonist and the male spectators on the basis of gender.
She does not consider power to be a separate category of analysis because she sees it as being
p a r t o f a n d determined by gender. Sean Nixon neatly summarizes what is lacking in Mulvey's
critique:

Historical and social factors which determine identity are - - i n t h e e n d - - reduced

to the cal cul us of psychosexual structures. In addi ti on, the emphasis on
psychosexual structures produces a reductive account of i d e n t i t y c o n c e i v e d
fundamentally in terms of sexual difference. In other words, psychoanalysis
privileges acquisition of gender and sexual identity as the bedrock of identity.
Other determinants upon identity (such as class) are effecti vel y si del i ned. (321)

Since gender is the "bedrock of identity," it is permanently fixed. Since gender is fixed, the
positions of men and women are fixed. Therefore, Mulvey adds that in psychoanalytic terms,

the female figure poses a deeper problem. She also connotes something that t h e l o o k
continually circles around but disavows: her lack of a penis, implying a t h r e a t o f
castration and hence, unpleasure. Ultimately, the meaning of woman is sexual
difference, the visually ascertainable absence of the penis, the material evidence
on which is based the castration complex essential for the organisation of entrance
to the symbolic order and the law of the father. Thus the woman as icon, displayed
for the gaze and enjoyment of men, the acti ve control l ers of the l ook, al ways
threatens to evoke the anxiety i t o r i g i n a l l y s i g n i f i e d . ( 2 1 )

However, Lara Croft's overtly feminine appearance immediately problematizes t h i s t y p e o f

analysis when coupled with her dexterity in performing tasks that are stereotypically male as
well as her insertion into a narrative formula that has been historically male. She is never a
passive object, but is instead an active (and violent) agent. The camera does follow her
a r o u n d , b u t i t i s in response to her movements. The player directs those movements, but Lara's
acti ons are l i mi ted and defi ned by the arti fi ci al i ntel l i gence bui l t i nto the game.

< 1 3 > M u l v e y m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t i s t h e o n- s c r e e n s u r r o g a t e o f t h e ( m a l e )
viewer. This is made possible, she says "through the processes s e t i n m o t i o n b y s t r u c t u r i n g
the film around a main controlling figure with whom the spectator can identify" (20). However,
such a position, based as it is on the study of only Hitchcock and von Sternberg, is
reductive. John Ellis offers a more nuanced approach to identification, involving two
d i f f e r e n t tendencies:

First, there is that of dreaming and fantasy that involves the multiple and
contradictory tendencies within the construction of the individual. Second, there is
the experi ence of narci ssi sti c i denti fi cati on wi th the image of a human figure
perceived as other. Both these processes are invoked i n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f
entertainment cinema. The spectator does not therefore " i d e n t i f y " w i t h t h e h e r o o r
heroine: an identification that would, if put in its conventional sense, involve
socially constructed males identifying with male heroes, and socially constructed
females identifying with women heroines. (43)

Heroes are not always in control nor are they always male. For example, the same can be said
of the spectator. Ellis elaborates:

The situation is more complex than this, as identification involves both t h e

recognition of self in the image on the screen, a narcissistic identification, and
the identification of self with the various positions that are involved i n t h e
f i c t i o n a l n a r r a t i o n : t h o s e o f h e r o a n d h e r o i n e , v i l l a i n , b i t- p a r t p l a y e r , a c t i v e a n d
passive character. Identification is therefore multiple and fractured, a sense of
s e e i n g t h e c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s o f t h e s p e c t a t o r ' s own psyche paraded before her or
him. (43)

In many genres, such as westerns and professional wrestling, the hero oscillates from beater
to beaten. Based on Mulvey's premise this requires either multiple changes in allegiance, so
that the viewer always aligns with the victor. This would require rapid changes in
identification; changes too rapid to be feasible. Additionally, the male as the focus of the
gaze, with a female controlling the gaze, commonly occurs in sports films (which typically
f e a t u r e f e m a l e c o a c h e s o r o w n e r s ) a n d a d v e r t i s e m e n t s f o r c l o t h e s o r c o s m e t i c s ( f o r men). When
involved in a video game, the player can spend hours viewing not j u s t t h e f e m a l e ' s b o d y , b u t
also her perspective, and we know that the constituent parts of socially constructed males
include those that are feminine.

<14>If she is asked to perform a task she is incapable of completing or which is not possible
at that point in the game, Lara Croft responds with an emphatic "No!" In the terms of the
game, Lara has ultimate say and therefore ultimate control over what happens. True, the
programmers c r e a t e d h e r l i m i t s , b u t f o r t h e p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s o f p l a y i n g t h e g a m e , t h e o n-
screen figure (and her capabilities) dictate the realm of possible movements and possible
events. Lara Croft is not the figure Laura Mulvey describes in the introduction to her famous
essay:

To summarize briefly: the function of woman in forming the patriarchal unconscious

is twofold: she firstly symbolizes the castration threat by her real lack of a penis
and secondly thereby raises her child into the symbolic. . . .Woman then stands in
patri archal cul ture as a si gni fi er for the male other, bound by a symbolic order in
which man can live out his fantasies and obsessions through linguistic command by
imposing them on t h e s i l e n t i m a g e o f w o m a n s t i l l t i e d t o h e r p l a c e a s b e a r e r , n o t
maker, o f m e a n i n g . ( 1 4- 1 5 )

Unquestionably, Lara Croft lacks a penis, but does not automatically represent t h e t h r e a t o f
castration. Instead, because of the structure of the game, Lara represents the obviation of
castration, for you cannot castrate that which cannot be castrated or is already castrated.
The fact that Lara is not sexually active means that she will not (be able to) raise a child
into the patriarchal order, even if the player of the game is a male. She will not, as Mulvey
maintains, "[turn] her chi l d i nto the si gni fi er of her own desi re to possess a p e n i s " ( 1 4 ) .
Furthermore, she does not lack a phallus. In the game, t h e p h a l l u s - - p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g i t i s
not a penis in the first place - - or Law of the Father, is represented by Lara's gun(s) and,
more f r e q u e n t l y , L a r a ' s a b i l i t y t o s o l v e t h e r e q u i r e d r i d d l e s . T h e l a t t e r f o r m , e s p e c i a l l y ,
signifies not servitude, but rather a mastery over the Symbolic Order.

<15>As the game progresses, Lara acquires larger and more powerful guns as wel l as more
valuable treasures and magical items. Ultimately, Lara uses the phallic objects to destroy the
bad guys and monsters. These acti ons c o n s t i t u t e t h e " c a s t r a t i o n , l i t e r a l o r s y m b o l i c , o f t h e
k i l l e r a t [ t h e Final Girl's] hands" (Clover 1987, 208). Thus, Lara Croft's presence not only
removes the threat of castration, it instead relocates the threat by projecting it onto its
real source: the bad guys. In Clover's terms, the importance of this act is that "At the
moment that the Final Girl becomes her own savior, she becomes a hero; and the moment that she
becomes a h e r o i s t h e m o m e n t t h a t t h e m a l e v i e w e r g i v e s u p t h e l a s t p r e t e n s e o f m a l e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " ( C l o v e r 1 9 8 7 , 2 1 8- 1 9 ) . C l o v e r m e a n s t h i s b o t h i n t e r m s o f i d e n t i f y i n g s t r i c t l y
w i t h o n- s c r e e n m a l e s a n d i n t e r m s o f n o t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e F i n a l G i r l a s a s e x u a l o b j e c t . T h e
viewer identifies with heroes, not sexual objects. Lara Croft's life is in danger from the
moment the game b e g i n s . T h e r e f o r e , m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f t h e g a m e s i s
predicated on Lara having already been a savior and/or being a savior again. Given the t y p e o f
scenario the games involve - - that the player spends most of the game stari ng at Lara Croft's
back, and/or solving puzzles - - the male spectator's gaze effectively ends when he stops
looking at Lara, opens the box and begins playing. In addition, as soon as the first puzzl e i s
solved, or the first enemy shot, male identification ceases to occur because the hero, the
possessor of the phallus, is not male.

<16>It is curious that Clover recognizes that the first significant mention of the concept of
male- t o- f e m a l e c r o s s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o m e s f r o m S u s a n B a r r o w c l o u g h ' s r e v i e w o f t h e
National Film Board of Canada's documentary, Not a Love Story (1982). This NFB production
purports to demonstrate the threat to society, and especially to women, posed by pornography.
A corollary goal of the documentary is a thorough and damning critique of p a t r i a r c h y .
Barrowclough suggests that

contrary to the assumption that the male uses pornography to confirm and c e l e b r a t e
his gender's sexual activity and dominance, is the possibility of his pleasure in
 identifying with a "feminine" [perspective.] . . . Whose part does he take when, as
often occurs in such representations, the woman is the . . . active, dominant or
aggressive partner? Does the p a s s i v e r o l e o f f e r f a n t a s y r e l i e f f r o m t h e s t r a i n s o f
phallic performance? ( 3 5 )

G i v e n t h e e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s o f Tomb Raider, t h e w o r d " p o r n o g r a p h y " c o u l d b e r e p l a c e d s e a m l e s s l y

by the words "video games" in the scenario Barrowclough describes. If she can recognize the
potential for such an identification in pornography, of all media, then the prospect of males'
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h L a r a C r o f t c a n n o t b e d e n i e d a n d c e r t a i n l y c a n n o t b e d i s m i s s e d o u t- o f- h a n d .
Criticizing the games on the mere basis of the protagonist's phenotypic qualities assumes too
much, explores too little, and obscures the complex relationships created by the games'
environment. I must ask, along with Barrowclough, "What are the connections between
representations of sexuality and sexual activity, between fantasy and enactment [because the]
ways meanings are produced and consumed - - a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r a s p e c t s o f s e x e d a n d
s e x u a l b e h a v i o u r - - demand an anal ysi s whi ch cannot b e c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n a m o r a l p a r a b l e o f t h e
l o s t s h e e p r e c l a i m e d f r o m t h e B i g B a d W o l f " ( 3 6 ) , o r i n t h i s c a s e , W o l f e n s t e i n, Doom, o r Tomb
Rai der.

"W h e n a K i l l e r B o d y I s n ' t E n o u g h : " T h e I m p a c t o f N a r r a t i v e o n G e n d er

< 1 7 > A l t h o u g h s p e c t a t o r s h i p i s c e n t r a l t o t h e i r c o n s u m p t i o n , w i t h o u t a p l o t t h e a c t i o n-
a d v e n t u r e o r a c t i o n- h o r r o r v i d e o g a m e s w o u l d n o t b e t e r r i b l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a r l y a c t i o n g a m e s
l i k e Space Invaders, M i s s i l e Command, a n d A s t e r o i d s. A s i n s i g n i f i c a n t a s i t i s , e v e n t h e s e
games have a modest plot: blast the objects before they hit the earth or your vehicle. The
importance of narrative, indeed its very existence, in video games is often overlooked by
critics and scholars. Carol Clover notes that the role of the Final Girl has changed
significantly as the horror film genre has progressed. The protagonist's position has shifted
from passive t o a c t i v e d e f e n s e . T h a t i s t o s a y , s h e n o l o n g e r f l e e s t h e m o n s t e r o r b a d g u y
u n t i l s h e i s s a v e d b y a m a n , à l a L i t t l e R e d R i d i n g H o o d. T h e v i d e o g a m e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e
f a i r y t a l e h e r o i n e i s P a u l i n e , t h e p r i n c e s s i n Donkey Kong, w h o m u s t b e r e s c u e d f r o m t h e
g o r i l l a b y M a r i o ( l a t e r o f Super Mari o and Mari o Bros. f a m e ) . A s t h e m o v i e f o r m u l a h a s
developed s u c c e s s i v e h e r o i n e s h a v e d e f e n d e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h f o r c e a n d u l t i m a t e l y h a v e k i l l e d
the assailants by themselves. For example, in the A l i e n s e r i e s , Ri pl ey ki l l s the mother of the
parasitic aliens and successfully defends the space station. A further progression can be seen
i n B u f f y t h e V a m p i r e S l a y e r a n d i n Tomb Raider. L i k e B u f f y , L a r a C r o f t ' s r o l e i s o n e o f p u r e
o f f e n s e . O t h e r a n a l o g u e s i n c l u d e t h e t i t l e c h a r a c t e r i n Xena, W a r r i o r P r i n c e s s, WWF superstar
C h y n a , a n d t h e c a s t o f C l e o p a t r a 2525. T h o u g h t h e y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e s h i f t t h a t h a s o c c u r r e d ,
Cassell and Jenkins express reservations regarding the new roles of female protagonists:

T h e s u c c e s s w i t h w o m e n o f s e l f- d e f e n s e c l a s s e s a n d o f f e m a l e- c e n t e r e d a c t i o n f i l m s ,
s u c h a s Thelma and Louise o r A l i e n s, s h o w s t h a t v i o l e n t i m a g e r y i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h
not only feminine taste but feminist politics. Female action protagonists, such as
t e l e v i s i o n ' s X e n a a n d t h e c o m i c- b o o k h e r o i n e , T a n k G i r l , h a v e a t t r a c t e d s t r o n g
female followings, including lesbians, who celebrate their refusal to conform to
t r a d i t i o n a l gender roles and their ability to hold their own against male opponents.
Much of what gets read as female empowerment within popular culture represents
feminist appropriation of violent images for their own ends. (29)

Part of the skepticism Cassell and Jenkins express results from the focus o f t h e i r c r i t i q u e .
They only consider the political impact of powerful female protagonists from an essentialist
viewpoint that is based on the visual aspects of the texts they cite. Rather than analyzing
games, thei r ul ti mate goal i s to find methods of encouraging more females to use computers.
Thus, they do not examine the impact of female protagonists on the narrative structure, n o r d o
they consider the identifications that arise from the insertion of female characters into
roles traditionally occupied by male heroes.

<18>Simply put, there is more to a character than her phenotype. In addi ti on, the character
should be investigated within the context of the narrative conventions of the genre. In this
regard, Lara Croft is a natural successor to the Fi nal Gi rl l i neage. In fact, Lara Croft i s
p a r t o f a m u c h l o n g e r l i n e t h a n j u s t t h a t o f t h e F i n a l G i r l , f o r , p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , Tomb
Rai der f o l l o w s t h e n a r r a t i v e c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e r o m a n c e . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e a r c h e t y p a l
taxonomies of Northrop Frye,

The essential element of plot in romance is adventure, which means that romance is
naturally a sequential and processional form . . . At its most n a i v e i t i s a n
endless form in which a central character who never develops or ages goes through
one adventure after another . . . We see this form in comic strips, where the
central characters persist for years in a state of refrigerated deathlessness. (Frye
1957, 186)

W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Tomb Rai der: The Last Revel ati on' s o p e n i n g s e q u e n c e , L a r a C r o f t d o e s n o t

a g e a t a l l . I n s p i t e o f t h e r e b e i n g a n e a r l y t w o- y e a r g a p b e t w e e n i n s t a l l m e n t s i n t h e Syphon
F i l t e r s e r i e s , t h e second game's story begins as the first game ends. The plot mechanism f o r
t h e t h i r d Syphon Filter game is the characters' testimony at a Senate hearing. As a result the
game contains episodes that take place before, duri ng, and after the previ ous two games. In
the wake of the 11 Sept. 2002 terrorist attacks on the U.S., the game's scenarios - -
t e r r o r i s t s a t t a c k i n g W a s h i n g t o n , D C , w i t h a v i r u s ; r a i d s i n A f g h a n i s t a n - - were considered
realistic enough for the game's release date to be moved from 23 Sept. to 23 Dec. 2002.
P e r f e c t D a r k i s d e r i v e d f r o m GoldenEye w h i c h i s i n t u r n b a s e d o n t h e J a m e s B o n d m o v i e o f t h e
same name. Ian Fleming's s u p e r s p y i s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t f a i t h f u l f o l l o w e r o f t h e f o r m u l a F r y e
f i n d s in romance. The movie version of the hero has been played by five actors who s p a n f o r t y
years, all without aging. One can assume that Mr. Bond's colleague, Joanna Dark, will enjoy a
s i m i l a r c a r e e r . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e f e m a l e protagonists in contemporary video games have been
i nserted i nto heroi c rol es hitherto occupied by males and have become fixtures in the genre.

<19> Although seemingly lost on Cassell and Jenkins, the plot is an important part of the game
f o r p l a y e r s a n d d e s i g n e r s a l i k e . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e f o u r t h Tomb Raider, " T h e e n t i r e g a m e
takes place in Egypt. [This] allows us to focus a lot more on the game, the game play, and
most o f a l l , t h e s t o r y " e x p l a i n s A d r i a n S m i t h , C o r e ' s d i r e c t o r o f o p e r a t i o n s ( q t d . i n W a l k
102). Sharon Sherman draws on another archetypal theorist, Joseph Campbell, and his concept of
the "monomyth" to illustrate the intertextual allusions that structure the plots of video
g a m e s . I n The Hero with a Thousand Faces ( 1 9 7 3 ) , C a m p b e l l s u m m a r i z e s t h e p a t t e r n : " A h e r o
ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous
forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this
mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man" (30). In Sherman's
view, the journey described by Campbell is "so significant that popular culture creators from
Disney to George Lucas to Steven Spielberg to Nintendo game producers recreate the themes most
important to them from their own remembered childhood p a s t s a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , c r e a t e a n
intertextual framework instantly recognized and reinforced by children on a global scale never
d r e a m t o f b y h i s t o r i c- geographic r e s e a r c h e r s " ( 2 4 6 ) . T h e n o t i o n o f i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y t a k e s o n
g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h r e g a r d t o c r o s s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w h e n t h e m a t i c e l e m e n t s a n d
characterizations are added to the analysis. Frye's model of fiction also includes the quest
narrative. He writes that the "complete form of the romance is clearly the successful quest,
and such a completed form has three main stages: t h e s t a g e o f t h e p e r i l o u s j o u r n e y a n d t h e
preliminary minor adventures; the crucial struggle, usually some kind of battle in which
either the hero or his foe, or both, must die; and the exaltation of the hero" (Frye 1957,
1 8 7 ) . T h e f i n a l Tomb Raider g a m e , f o r i n s t a n c e , f o l l o w s t h i s s t r u c t u r e c l o s e l y : t h e g a m e
begins with a training level constructed around a flashback to the time when Lara was a
s i x t e e n- y e a r- o l d , t h e n t h e c r u c i a l s t r u g g l e r e q u i r e s t h a t L a r a r e t u r n t h e s p i r i t o f a n e v i l
Egyptian god to its resting place, and, curiously, both the gamer and Lara are exalted when
the game is finished. A special animated sequence, in which Lara is honoured, plays after each
successful completion. Other games treat their heroes similarly. However, the gamer is drawn
into the narrative as well. For many games, the only way to view certain scenes is to complete
the game. Syphon Filter I I a n d I I I players are able to access, or "unlock," new areas and
missions, view movies, and see the credits of the game.

<20>Since Lara Croft is, in a literary sense, the hero in a romance, i t i s f i t t i n g t h a t s h e

maintain the conventionalized attributes required of such a character. Consulting Frye again,
we learn the following about the hero of romance:

If superior in degree to other men and to his environment, the hero is t h e t y p i c a l

hero of romance, whose actions are marvellous but who is himself i d e n t i f i e d a s a
human being. The hero of romance moves in a world in which t h e o r d i n a r y l a w s o f
nature are slightly suspended: prodigies of courage and endurance, unnatural to us,
are natural to him, and enchanted weapons, t a l k i n g a n i m a l s , t e r r i f y i n g o g r e s a n d
witches, and talismans of miraculous power vi ol ate no rul e of probabi l i ty once the
postulates of romance have been established. (Frye 1957, 33)

C l e a r l y , i t n e v e r o c c u r r e d t o F r y e t h a t t h e r e c o u l d a r i s e a f e m a l e h e r o i n a romance. However,
the conventions of the genre, or mode, as Frye calls it, sti l l appl y. Lara Croft i s superi or
i n degree to other women and men. Her c u n n i n g , a s s u p p l i e d b y t h e g a m e r , a n d h e r p h y s i c a l
prowess - - i n c r e d i b l e e n d u r a n c e , s t r e n g t h e n o u g h t o c l i m b r o p e s a n d s w i n g h a n d- o v e r- h a n d , e t c .
- - set her apart. For Frye, the hero stands out because "The success of the hero derives from
a current of energy which is partly from him and partly outside him. It depends partly on the
merit of his courage, partly on certain things given him: unusual strength, noble blood, or a
destiny prophesied by a n o r a c l e " ( F r y e 1 9 7 5 , 6 7 ) . L a r a m e e t s a l l o f t h e s e c r i t e r i a , w h i c h
serves to solidify her position as a hero in a romance. For example, in Lara's o f f i c i a l
biography we learn that as

The daughter of Lord Henshingley Croft, Lara was brought up in the secure w o r l d o f
a r i s t o c r a c y - - wanting for nothing she was surrounded by servants, social events and
high society. Having attended Wimbledon High School for G i r l s f r o m t h e a g e o f e l e v e n
years, Lara's parents decided that since she was sixteen, she should broaden her
education by studying for her A levels at one of England's most prominent boarding
schools. (qtd. in Walk 103)

By making Lara of noble birth, Croft's creators present her as being like us, but somehow
above us; someone whom we should admire and aspire to b e .

<21>This is in keeping with the traditions of romance, for as Frye concludes, "The social
affinities of the romance, with its grave idealizing of heroism and purity, are with the
aristocracy" (Frye 1957, 306). In his subsequent study, The Secular Scripture ( 1 9 7 5 ) , F r y e
elaborates on the concept:

O n e v e r y o b v i o u s f e a t u r e o f r o m a n c e i s i t s p e r v a s i v e s o c i a l s n o b b e r y . N a i v e romance
confines itself largely to royal families; sentimental romance gives us patterns of
aristocratic courage and courtesy, and much of it adopts a " b l o o d w i l l t e l l "
convention, the association of moral virtue and social rank implied in the word
"noble." A hero may appear t o b e o f l o w s o c i a l o r i g i n , b u t i f h e i s a r e a l h e r o h e
is likely to be revealed at the end of the story as belonging to the gentry. . . .
Detective stories often feature an elegant upperclass amateur who is ever so much
smarter than the merely professional police. (161)

A s m u c h a s C o r r o s i v e S o f t w a r e ' s K a t e R o b e r t s m i g h t l a m e n t , " W o u l d Tomb Raider h a v e s o l d a s

many copies if Lara had been wearing a nice warm sweater and sweatpants," the convention would
never allow her to be anything but fantastic in every way (qtd. in Cassell and Jenkins 30). In
Frye's words,

The essential difference [in] romance lies in the conception of characterization.

The romancer does not attempt to create "real people" so much a s s t y l i z e d f i g u r e s
which expand into psychological archetypes. . . . The romancer deals with
i n d i v i d u a l i t y , w i t h c h a r a c t e r s in vacuo i d e a l i z e d by revery, and, however
conservative [the romancer] may be, something nihilistic and untamable is likely to
k e e p b r e a k i n g o u t . ( F r y e 1 9 5 7 , 3 0 4- 5 )

Within the confines of a video game which is clearly part of a subset of romance, a character
like Lara Croft is necessarily lacking in personality and overflowing in physicality.

<22>Lara undeni abl y has an exaggerated chest measurement and an i ncredi bl y n a r r o w w a i s t , b u t

so does Arnol d Schwarzenegger i n Commando, Running Man, a n d a l l o f h i s o t h e r m o v i e s . S y l v e s t e r
Stallone's character, Rambo, is a similarly portrayed action hero. Since she was originally
w r i t i n g i n 1 9 9 3 , t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d g a m e s t o w h i c h S h e r m a n c o u l d r e f e r w e r e t h e Mario B r o s.
series for the Nintendo 64. Nevertheless, Sherman recognizes the i mportance of the narrati ve
formula on intertextuality and identification: "Video game players share their identities as
Mario characters; they are, at once, acti ng as heroes i n a pl ot, yet al so as i ndi vi dual s, wi th
t h e i r s e l f- i d e n t i t i e s s h i f t i n g w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n " ( 2 5 1 ) . T h e f a m i l i a r i t y o f t h e
n a r r a t i v e f o r m u l a , s h e c o n t e n d s , i n c r e a s e s t h e p l a y e r s ' i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r o n- s c r e e n
surrogates. When asked how the character, Lara Croft, came about, Core Design Operation
Director Adrian Smith, responds:

I t ' s s t r a n g e w h e n p e o p l e a s k t h i s q u e s t i o n b e c a u s e r e a l l y w h a t c a m e about was a game

c a l l e d Tomb Raider. I t j u s t s o h a p p e n e d t h a t i t f e a t u r e d a f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r . . .
And what actual l y happened was that, when w e w e r e d e s i g n i n g t h e g a m e o f Tomb Raider,
we put down a load of d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f a t t r i b u t e s , d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t h a t w e w a n t e d
of a main character, and all these things turned into Lara. (44)

In response to the next logical question, "Why a female character instead of a male?" Smith
replies "A number of reasons. We literally wrote down a big list of things that we wanted the
c h a r a c t e r t o d o - - we wanted t o b e c o y , w e w a n t e d t o b e a g i l e . W h e n w e w r o t e t h i s l o n g l i s t
down it didn't really point towards a male character . . . All the attributes we put down
p o i n t e d u s t o w a r d s a f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r . W e d i d n ' t w a n t t o e n d u p w i t h an Arnold Schwarzenegger
type" (44). Perhaps the attributes of the character are "female," but she has been thrust into
a narrati ve structure that is dominated by male heroes. In the same interview, Smith goes some
way t o w a r d r e c o g n i z i n g t h e p a r a d o x o f L a r a ' s s i t u a t i o n . H e s a y s s i m p l y : " L a r a i s a f e m a l e
version of Indiana Jones and Indiana Jones, at the end of the day, i s an adventurer, j ust l i ke
Lara" (45). Thus the success of the game depends on players' familiarity with the genre to
which i t b e l o n g s a n d t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h a t g e n r e .

<23>Whereas Sharon Sherman sees the i denti fi cati ons produced from vi deo g a m e s a s b e i n g r e l a t e d
t o t h e i r i n t e r t e x t u a l a f f i n i t i e s w i t h q u e s t n a r r a t i v e s , Marsha Kinder asserts that they are
part of a much larger system. Typical of other critiques, Kinder describes identifications
produced by video games p r i o r t o t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h r e e- d i m e n s i o n a l v i r t u a l r e a l i t y
a n i m a t i o n s . T h u s , s h e f o r e s e e s n e i t h e r f e m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t s n o r c r o s s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s
arising from the intertexts she observes. Nevertheless, her approach points t o t h i s
eventuality. According to Kinder,

home video games cultivate a dual form of spectatorship, which positions young
spectators to combine passive and interactive modes of response as t h e y i d e n t i f y
w i t h s l i d i n g s i g n i f i e r s t h a t m o v e f l u i d l y a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t modes of image production
and other cultural boundaries but without challenging t h e r i g i d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
between genders on which patriarchal order is based. (30)

By "sliding signifiers," Kinder means the variety of shapes and forms - - e . g . , m u t a n t t u r t l e s ,

p u r p l e d i n o s a u r s , a n d Transformers - - t h a t c a r t o o n ( a n d v i d e o g a m e ) c h a r a c t e r s t a k e , a n d t h e
meanings they c a r r y . C l e a r l y , g e n d e r i s n o t a m o n g t h e m b e c a u s e f o r K i n d e r , g e n d e r i s a n
impermeable boundary. Yet she describes the situation of people identifying n o t j u s t w i t h r e a l
animals, but with cartoon animals on the Saturday morning shows. She claims that

by identifying with such anthropomorphized creatures, spectators are able t o

a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r o w n s l i p p e r i n e s s a s s i g n i f i e r s - - a s b o t h a n i m a l and human - -
w h i l e s t i l l a f f i r m i n g t h e i r o w n u n i q u e n e s s a s t h e a n i m a l who possesses the
functional difference of subjectivity. . . . For us adults in our congealed subject
positions, such identification helps us regain some of that l ost foetal fl exi bi l i ty
which is so central to [many toys and cartoon characters.] Instead of evoking a
single individual or species, all of these creatures evoke a system (of evolution,
reproduction, biological development, acculturation, or transmedial
i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y ) . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n with these creatures serves as an entrance into
these layer systems. (42)

Amazingly, Kinder admits that humans can identify with creatures not just outside of their own
s p e c i e s b u t w h o e x i s t o n l y i n f i c t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s h e d o e s n o t a l l o w f o r w i t h i n- s p e c i e s
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a c r o s s g e n d e r s . M e n c a n i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e o g r e i n D r e a m W o r k s ' m o v i e , Shrek, b u t
n o t with women!

<24>The most i mportant of the l ayer systems for Ki nder i s the "Oedi pal i zati on of Home Video
Games" (48). She notes that "The Oedipal dimension of video games helps account for choices
within its system of intertextuality. There is a heavy reliance on action genres (the epic,
romance quest, and western) i n w h i c h m a l e h e r o e s h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y g r o w n i n t o m a n h o o d a n d
replaced father f i g u r e s " ( 4 9 ) . A t t h e t i m e o f K i n d e r ' s w r i t i n g , 1 9 9 2 , i n m o s t video games,
"females are still figured as objects of the male quest" (49). With regard to the various
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles p r o d u c t i o n s , K i n d e r f i n d s " a n e t w o r k o f i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y t h a t c u t s
across several modes of image production, that appeals to diverse generations, classes and
ethnic subcultures"(52). At the heart of this intertext is the Oedipal struggle to replace the
f a t h e r . Tomb Raider i s s i m i l a r l y p o s i t i o n e d . T h e r e a r e a c t i o n f i g u r e s , a m o v i e s t a r r i n g O s c a r
w i n n e r A n g e l i n a J o l i e , p o s t e r s , w e b s i t e s , e t c . , d e v o t e d t o L a r a C r o f t a n d Tomb Raider. Y e t , a s
we d i s c o v e r i n Tomb Rai der: The Last Revel ati on, t h e s t o r y i s b a s e d o n t h e O e d i p a l d y n a m i c . I n
Tomb Raider, L a r a ' s f a t h e r i s d e a d a n d s h e h a s b e e n p l a c e d i n t h e c u s t o d y o f D r . W e r n e r v o n
Croy, who serves a s a f a t h e r- f i g u r e f o r t h e y o u n g e x p l o r e r . I n d e e d , h e i s a m e n t o r o f s o r t s
for her. Eventually, we learn that von Croy is evil. Rather than there being two father
figures, there is only the bad father. It is not even a case of the two fathers being
complicitous. Indeed, von Croy is not working for an "other side," so much as he is working
f o r h i m s e l f . T h i s i s t h e g r e a t e s t b e t r a y a l o f a l l - - h e h a s a b a n d o n e d h i s " c h i l d . " When von
Croy trains Lara to be an expert tomb raider - - t h a t i s , t o replace her figurative father - -
he does so only to take advantage of her physical prowess and her cunning. Dr. von Croy is old
and unable to perform many of the tasks requi red to obtai n the l ost treasures. He al so does
n o t need to be able to do so because he can have Lara do the work for him. Then he can
eliminate Lara and take all of the credit and resultant glory for himself.

<25>Until now, this section has been concerned primarily with illustrating t h e i n t e r t e x t u a l
framework within which video games with female protagonists operate. This framework, borrowed
f r o m f i c t i v e f o r m s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b a s e d o n m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t s , e n h a n c e s t h e c r o s s- g e n d e r
identifications by surrounding male players with an otherwise entirely familiar medium.
However, thi s argument o p e n s i t s e l f t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e f e m a l e i s m e r e l y m a s c u l i n i z e d a n d
t h a t t h i s s u b v e r t s t h e e f f e c t s o r p o s s i b i l i t y o f c r o s s- g e n d e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e r e
is an aspect of the Final Girl that indicates that she is not as masculinized as previously
supposed. Clover explains that the Final Girl is

boyish, in a word. Just as the killer is not fully masculine, she is not f u l l y
feminine - - not, in any case, feminine in the ways of [other females]. Her
smartness, gravity, competence in mechanical and other practical matters, and sexual
reluctance set her apart from the other girls and ally her, i roni cal l y, wi th the
very boys she fears or rejects, not to speak of the killer himself. (1987, 204)

As mentioned above, the Final Girl is not sexually active. Similarly, the heroines of the
games studied in this chapter are not romantically or sexually involved. What Clover does not
consider in her analysis is that the typical heroine of romance is an eternal virgin. Frye
wryly observes that "It looks as though there were some structural principle in this type of
story which makes it natural to postpone the first sexual act of the heroine, at l e a s t , u n t i l
a f t e r t h e b i r t h m y s t e r y i n t h e p l o t h a s b e e n s o l v e d " ( 1 9 7 5 , 7 2- 3 ) . I n h i s e x h a u s t i v e s t u d i e s ,
Frye notes that most romances end after t h e l o v e r s a r e u n i t e d , b u t b e f o r e t h e f i r s t s e x u a l
a c t . A n e x c e l l e n t c o n t e m p o r a r y a n a l o g u e i s P r i n c e s s L e i a o f Star Wars. T h e b i r t h m y s t e r y i s
not solved until the end of the last movie of the series and the series ends before a sexual
union. Moreover, the princess is cunning, adept with a laser pistol, and of noble birth.
S i m i l a r l y , L a r a C r o f t ' s o r i g i n s a r e n o t r e v e a l e d u n t i l t h e L a s t R e v e l a t i o n. L a r a a n d P r i n c e s s
Leia recall another of Frye's axioms: "we notice that one recurring theme in romance i s t h e
theme of incest, very often father and daughter . . . [and] what it shows us is that some
conventions of storytelling are more obsessive than others" (1975, 44). Lei a i s i nvol ved i n
two such themes: one with her father, Darth Vader, and the other wi th her brother, Luke
S k y w a l k e r . T h e f a m i l i a l t i e s a r e n o t r e v e a l e d u n t i l l a t e i n t h e s e r i e s . I n Tomb Raider, t h e
theme of incest is raised once the player becomes aware that von Croy is using Lara to achieve
his aims and the professor chastises her for being a girl. Nevertheless, it is clear as the
game progresses that he derives pleasure f r o m h e r s u f f e r i n g .

<26>Players of the video games cited are not merely rescuing the princess, n o r a r e t h e y
identifying with a merely masculine female. The student of romance k n o w s t h a t " v i r g i n i t y i s
f e m a l e h o n o r , t h e s y m b o l o f t h e h e r o i n e ' s s t u r d y m i d d l e- c l a s s i n d e p e n d e n c e . . . [ t h u s ] t h e
h e r o i n e ' s l i f e i s l i v e d o n t w o s o c i a l l e v e l s " ( F r y e 1 9 7 5 , 7 6 ) . T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e passage
from Frye relates to the tendency of the heroine to marry only on her terms, especially if an
elevation in social standing is involved. Lara Croft works alone. As well, Joanna Dark's name
i s d e f i n i t e l y m e a n t t o emphasize this point. Obviously, her name is derived from Jeanne d'Arc,
or Joan of Arc, the virgin warrior and heroine of the Hundred Years' War. Joan saved herself
for her fi gurati ve marri age wi th Chri st; no man i s good enough. Perfect Dark gets its name
from Joanna's rank in the spy servi ce: she i s "perfect," the hi ghest l evel . Pl ayers of the
games c i t e d a r e p o s i t i o n e d t o i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s d e s c r i b e d , i n c l u d i n g g u a r d i n g
t h e i r s e x u a l i t y . T h e l a s t f u n c t i o n i s n o t a s t h e " w h i t e k n i g h t " who saves the princess, such
a s D a r i n g D i r k o f D r a g o n ' s L a i r o r M a r i o o f Donkey Kong, i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s . T h e " w h i t e k n i g h t " i s
gone. He is superfluous. This brings us to one of Frye's more enigmatic p o i n t s : " t h e s o c i a l
reasons for the emphasis on virginity, however obvious, are still not enough for understanding
the structure of romance" (1975, 73). Rather than the author expressing social resistance,
Frye asserts, "it is the romantic convention [the author] is using that expresses the
resistance . . . [because] an element of social protest is inherent in romance" ( 1 9 7 5 , 7 7 ) . I t
is as the simultaneous hero and heroine of romance that Lara Croft, Joanna Dark, et al make
their most powerful statements. The intertexts with masculine elements necessarily evoke
identifications. However, contrary to the notion that they are merely heroes in drag, the
female protagonists maintain perhaps the most significant features of the heroines of romance.
T h i s m a k e s t h e i r g e n d e r o n e o f t h e s l i d i n g s i g n i f i e r s o f t h e g a m e a n d h a s a commensurate
effect on the identifications of the players.

C onclusions

< 2 7 > T h e h e r o i n e s o f v i d e o g a m e s h a v e c h a n g e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m t h e i r e a r l i e s t v i r t u a l f o r e-
mothers such as Ms. Pac- Man and Pri ncess Paul i ne from Donkey Kong. I n t e r m s o f t h e a n i m a t i o n s
possible, female heroines have kept pace with their male counterparts, but in terms of
characterizations the female protagonists have developed at a greater rate. Admittedly, the
first female video game characters were little more than "eye candy" for a male audience but
the criticism has not advanced to recognize hybrid games which feature all of the attributes
l i s t e d a b o v e . V i d e o g a m e s i n t h e a c t i o n- a d v e n t u r e c a t e g o r y , e s p e c i a l l y , c o n t a i n a l l o f t h e
features of games t h a t a r e s a i d t o b e m a s c u l i n e a s w e l l a s t h o s e t h a t a r e s a i d t o b e f e m i n i n e .
F o r e x a m p l e , Tomb Raider, i n v o l v e s c o m p e t i t i o n , c o n t r o l , a n d r e a c t i o n s . O n o c c a s i o n , t a s k s
must be completed within a given time. The player controls most of Lara Croft's movements.
Reactions are required when enemies o r o b s t a c l e s a p p e a r s u d d e n l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s t o r y i s
central to the game and gives it additional meaning. Lara must solve dozens of puzzles
i n v o l v i n g c o l l a b o r a t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d a n t i c i p a t i o n - - b o t h w i t h o n- screen c h a r a c t e r s a n d
the player. Moreover, aesthetics and imagery improve with each new generation of games and
hardware. Plots, too, become more sophisticated as desi gners are abl e to add more detai l to
t h e g a m e s . T h e S y p h o n F i l t e r, R e s i d e n t E v i l a n d P e r f e c t D a r k games have anal ogous features. I n
addition, all of the games mentioned also employ a female protagonist with whom the player
identifies. To paraphrase Carol Clover, what game designers, like film makers, "seem to know
b e t t e r t h a n c r i t i c s i s t h a t g e n d e r i s less a wall than a permeable membrane" (1987, 208).
Hybri d games necessari l y p r o d u c e h y b r i d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s - - u s i n g t h e c a t e g o r i e s a n d
conclusions l a i d o u t b y t h e s c h o l a r s c i t e d .

<28>Gi ven the wi despread appeal of vi deo games, there must be reasons f o r t h i s a p p e a l o t h e r
than sexually provocative female protagonists and other i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s t h a n t h o s e t h a t
produce mass murderers. Otherwi se, they woul d n o t h a v e r e a c h e d a p o s i t i o n s u c h t h a t i n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s , i n 1 9 9 9 , " t h e e l e c t r o n i c g a m e s i n d u s t r y w a s t h e s e c o n d- m o s t p o p u l a r f o r m o f
home entertainment a f t e r T V " ( Q u i t t n e r 3 0 ) . B o y s , i t i s a s s u m e d , p l a y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e m a l e
and the designers are male, the games are violent and men are violent. Yet more than half of
the top games feature female protagonists. As we have seen, female protagonists do not conform
to the rules of the gaze, as set out by Laura Mulvey. Rather, they are analogous to the Final
Girl of horror films. Carol Clover's model is especially apt with respect to Jill Valentine,
o f R e s i d e n t E v i l, a n d R e g i n a , o f D i n o C r i s i s, b e c a u s e t h e s e t w o g a m e s a r e , p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g ,
f r o m t h e a c t i o n- h o r r o r c a t e g o r y , w h i c h i s i n d i s p u t a b l y b a s e d o n t h e h o r r o r f i l m g e n r e . O t h e r
g a m e s w i t h f e m a l e p r o t a g o n i s t s , s u c h a s Tomb Raider a n d P e r f e c t D a r k, f o l l o w m o r e c l o s e l y t h e
narrative pattern of the romance. The major difference is that the hero is female, rather than
male. The character is, admittedly, fictive, but no more so than a character in a written
work. Clover would agree: "The s l a s h e r i s h a r d l y t h e f i r s t g e n r e i n t h e l i t e r a r y a n d v i s u a l
a r t s t o i n v i t e identifications with the female; one cannot help wondering more generally
whether the historical maintenance of images of women in fear and pain does not have more to
do with male vicarism than is commonly acknowledged" ( 1 9 9 2 , 6 2 ) . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e w h e n
the female protagonist otherwise matches the traditional Oedipal model found in other, more
conventional, narrative forms. The female protagonist, then, provides a buffer against
castration anxiety.

<29>Interacti vi ty does pl ay a part i n the game's progressi on. However, whether the game is
l i n e a r , i . e . , m o v i n g f r o m o n e t a s k t o t h e n e x t i n s u c c e s s i o n , o r n o n- l i n e a r , i . e . , a l l o w i n g
for various tasks to be completed at any ti me, the overal l pl ot i s sti l l the excl usi ve domai n
of the author. The player is confined to operating within the limits and towards the goal l a i d
out by the creator. Nevertheless, the interactivity of video games enhances t h e
identifications between players and characters. In 1983, when Loftus and L o f t u s w e r e w r i t i n g ,
t h e m o s t p o p u l a r a r c a d e g a m e s , s u c h a s Pac- Man, A s t e r o i d s, a n d Defender, w e r e t w o- d i m e n s i o n a l
and had rudi mentary g r a p h i c s . T h e m o s t p o p u l a r c o m p u t e r g a m e s w e r e t e x t- onl y adventure games.
However, their vision of the future of video games is prophetic. Based on their understanding
of the attraction of video games and the possibilities of improved animation, Loftus and
L o f t u s e n v i s i o n e d a g a m e t h e y c a l l " G r o u n d- l e v e l Pac- Man" w h i c h c o m b i n e d t h e f e a t u r e s o f
adventure games with t h e a c t i o n o f a r c a d e g a m e s ( 8 2 ) .

<30>Even though a game like Tomb Raider w a s n e a r l y a d o z e n y e a r s a w a y , L o f t u s a n d L o f t u s w e r e

certain that their vision would become a reality. Indeed, they emphasize that, in 1983, when
"people play a video game they often feel as if they are interacting with another
person" ( 8 6 ) . T h e i d e a l v i d e o g a m e a c c o r d i n g t o E l i z a b e t h a n d G e o f f r e y L o f t u s c o n t a i n s a l l o f
t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f Tomb Raider. T h e o n l y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e g a m e t h a t t h e y d i d n o t
foresee was the addition of a female protagonist. They noted among their research subjects
t h a t t h e " T u r t l e " i c o n , with which the language, Logo, is visually implemented, provided an
identificatory process for users: "The Turtle is like a person in many ways. It is i n a
particular position and can face different directions. It's something with which the child can
i d e n t i f y " ( 1 2 0 ) . L o f t u s a n d L o f t u s c i t e s o c i a l scientist G.H. Mead, who prophesied this power
long ago when he said: "It is possible for inanimate objects, no less than for human
organisms, to form parts of the generalized other for any given human individual, in so far as
he [or she] responds to such objects socially or in a social manner" (qtd. in Loftus and
Loftus 89). By "generalized other," the pair assert that Mead was referring to the social
group as a whole to which a person belongs. Obviously, Mead believed that inanimate objects
might belong to this "social group" (89). We should recall that "in psychoanalytic parlance
'objects' are people, aspects of people, or symbols of people" (Chodorow 42). A virtual
person, like Lara Croft, meets these criteria even by the standards of those like David
Grossman who would have video games banned.

<31>As sociologist Robert Connell has shown, grown men who have accepted t h e d o m i n a n t , o r
hegemonic, form of masculinity are capable of identifying with women given the right
circumstances. Several of Connell's research subjects initially embraced hegemonic masculinity
but eventually discarded t h i s p o s i t i o n i n g i n f a v o r o f o n e t h a t r i g h t l y i s c a l l e d p r o f e m i n i s t .
Rather t h a n b e i n g f i x e d , " I t a p p e a r s , t h e n , t h a t a n O e d i p a l s e p a r a t i o n o f b o y f r o m m o t h e r c a n
be renegotiated, and to some degree reversed, in later practice. T h i s [ i s ] n o t s h a l l o w
change" (Connell 124). Indeed, one of Connell's respondents went from an adolescent
"sol i dari ty wi th hi s mother to sol i dari ty, even identification, with other women. The shape of
[ t h e m a n ' s ] l i f e- h i s t o r y s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n
his adolescence w a s t h e e m o t i o n a l b a s i s o f h i s d i s s i d e n t g e n d e r p o l i t i c s i n e a r l y
a d u l t h o o d " ( 1 2 4- 5). The common thread among Connel l 's accounts i s emoti onal and o f t e n p h y s i c a l
- - that is, complete absence - - distance from the f a t h e r . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a n i n a b i l i t y t o
identify with the father and other male role models. The boys more readily identify with
females. The usual suspects, fathers who cannot express themselves emotionally and who do not
have anything o f v a l u e t o t e a c h t h e i r s o n s , a r e o n l y p a r t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . A s C o n n e l l
i ndi cates, the social, political, and economic milieu have an impact on the development o f
mascul i ni ti es: "the gender order i tsel f i s contradi ctory, and practi cal experience can
undermine patriarchal conventions. Five of the six [respondents in this category] described a
close encounter with a woman's strength i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l f o r m a t i o n " ( 1 2 5 ) . M o r e
important is that "when they met feminism later, feminist images of women's strength coul d
resonate with something in their own experience" (Connell 125). The key here, and it bears
repeating, is that these men started with what might be called hegemonic masculinity, but
their experiences opened them or prepared them for a change if and when they encountered
femi ni sm, even a s a d u l t s . A m o n g t h e q u a l i t i e s s u c h m e n p o s s e s s , t h e m o s t n o t a b l e i s e x p e r i e n c e
dealing with powerful women. Currently, there are few better environments than playing a video
game with a female protagonist.

W orks C ite d

B a k h t i n , M . M . T h e D i a l o g i c I m a g i n a t i o n : F o u r E s s a y s b y M . M . B a k h t i n. E d . M i c h a e l H o l q u i s t .
Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin: U of Texas P, 1981.

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U of Texas P, 1986.

B a r r o w c l o u g h , S u s a n . R e v . o f N o t a L o v e S t o r y - - A M o t i o n P i c t u r e About Pornography, d i r .
B o n n i e K l e i n . Screen 2 3 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 2 6- 3 6 .

B a u m a n , S t e v e . " R e a d y , A i m , S e q u e l . " Computer Games 1 0 7 ( 1 9 9 9 ) : 5 2- 6 0 .

B l a c h e , F a b i a n a n d L a u r e n F i e l d e r . H i s t o r y o f Tomb Raider. O n l i n e . I n t e r n e t . 3 0 A p r . 2 0 0 1 .
Available www.gamespot.com/features/tombraider_hist/index.html.
C a m p b e l l , J o s e p h . The Hero with a Thousand Faces. P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U P , 1 9 7 3 .

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