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Geyser
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Ageyser(US/azr/UK/iz/or/az/[1][2])isaspring
characterizedbyintermittentdischargeofwaterejected
turbulentlyandaccompaniedbysteam.
Theformationofgeysersisduetoparticularhydrogeological
conditions,whichexistinonlyafewplacesonEarth,sothey
areafairlyrarephenomenon.Generallyallgeyserfieldsites
arelocatednearactivevolcanicareas,andthegeysereffectis
duetotheproximityofmagma.Generally,surfacewaterworks
itswaydowntoanaveragedepthofaround2,000metres
(6,600ft)whereitcontactshotrocks.Theresultantboilingof
thepressurizedwaterresultsinthegeysereffectofhotwater
andsteamsprayingoutofthegeyser'ssurfacevent(a
hydrothermalexplosion).

Strokkurgeyser,Iceland

Overonethousandknowngeysersexistworldwide.Atleast
1,283geysershaveeruptedinYellowstoneNationalPark,
Wyoming,UnitedStates,andanaverageof465geysersare
activethereinagivenyear.[3][4]Ageyser'seruptiveactivity
maychangeorceaseduetoongoingmineraldepositionwithin
thegeyserplumbing,exchangeoffunctionswithnearbyhot
springs,earthquakeinfluences,andhumanintervention.[5]
Jetlikeeruptions,oftenreferredtoasgeysers,havebeen
observedonseveralofthemoonsoftheoutersolarsystem.Due
tothelowambientpressures,theseeruptionsconsistofvapor
withoutliquidtheyaremademoreeasilyvisiblebyparticlesof
dustandicecarriedaloftbythegas.Watervaporjetshavebeen
observednearthesouthpoleofSaturn'smoonEnceladus,while
nitrogeneruptionshavebeenobservedonNeptune'smoon
Triton.Therearealsosignsofcarbondioxideeruptionsfrom
thesouthernpolaricecapofMars.Inthelattertwocases,
insteadofbeingdrivenbygeothermalenergy,theeruptions
seemtorelyonsolarheatingviaasolidstategreenhouseeffect.

SteamphaseeruptionofCastleGeyser
demonstratesprimaryandsecondary
rainbowsandAlexander'sbandin
YellowstoneNationalPark

Contents
1Name
2Formandfunction
3Eruptions
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4Generalcategorization
5Biologyofgeysers
6Majorgeyserfieldsandtheirdistribution
6.1YellowstoneNationalPark,U.S.
6.2ValleyofGeysers,Russia
6.3ElTatio,Chile
6.4TaupoVolcanicZone,NewZealand
6.5Iceland
6.6Extinctanddormantgeyserfields
7Misnamedgeysers
7.1Artificialgeysers
7.2Coldwatergeysers
7.3Perpetualspouter
8Commercialusesofgeysers
9"Geysers"elsewhereintheSolarSystem
10Seealso
11Notes
12References
13Externallinks

Name
ThewordgeysercomesfromGeysir,thenameofaneruptingspringatHaukadalur,Icelandthatname,in
turn,comesfromtheIcelandicverbgeysa,"togush",theverbitselffromOldNorse.

Formandfunction
Geysersaretemporarygeologicalfeatures.Geysersare
generallyassociatedwithvolcanicareas.[6]Asthewaterboils,
theresultingpressureforcesasuperheatedcolumnofsteamand
watertothesurfacethroughthegeyser'sinternalplumbing.The
formationofgeysersspecificallyrequiresthecombinationof
threegeologicconditionsthatareusuallyfoundinvolcanic
terrain.[6]
Intenseheat
Theheatneededforgeyserformationcomesfrom
magmathatneedstobenearthesurfaceoftheearth.The
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factthatgeysersneedheatmuchhigherthannormallyfoundneartheearth'ssurfaceisthereason
theyareassociatedwithvolcanoesorvolcanicareas.Thepressuresencounteredattheareaswhere
thewaterisheatedmakestheboilingpointofthewatermuchhigherthanatnormalatmospheric
pressures.
Water
Thewaterthatisejectedfromageysermusttravelundergroundthroughdeep,pressurizedfissuresin
theEarth'scrust.
Aplumbingsystem
Inorderfortheheatedwatertoformageyser,aplumbingsystemisrequired.Thisincludesa
reservoirtoholdthewaterwhileitisbeingheated.Geysersaregenerallyalignedalongfaults.[6]The
plumbingsystemismadeupofasystemoffractures,fissures,porousspacesandsometimescavities.
Constrictionsinthesystemareessentialtothebuildingupofpressurebeforeaneruption.

Eruptions
Geyseractivity,likeallhotspringactivity,iscausedbysurfacewatergraduallyseepingdownthroughthe
grounduntilitmeetsrockheatedbymagma.Thegeothermallyheatedwaterthenrisesbacktowardthe
surfacebyconvectionthroughporousandfracturedrocks.Geysersdifferfromnoneruptivehotspringsin
theirsubterraneanstructuremanyconsistofasmallventatthesurfaceconnectedtooneormorenarrow
tubesthatleadtoundergroundreservoirsofwaterandpressuretightrock.[7]
Asthe
geyser
fills,the
waterat
thetopof
the
column
1.Steamrisesfrom
2.Pulsesofwaterswell 3.Surfaceisbroken
4.Ejectedwaterspouts
coolsoff,
heatedwater
upward
upwardandfallsback
but
downintothepipe
because
ofthe
narrownessofthechannel,convectivecoolingofthewaterinthereservoirisimpossible.Thecoolerwater
abovepressesdownonthehotterwaterbeneath,notunlikethelidofapressurecooker,allowingthewater
inthereservoirtobecomesuperheated,i.e.toremainliquidattemperatureswellabovethestandard
pressureboilingpoint.[7]
Ultimately,thetemperaturesnearthebottomofthegeyserrisetoapointwhereboilingbeginssteam
bubblesrisetothetopofthecolumn.Astheyburstthroughthegeyser'svent,somewateroverflowsor
splashesout,reducingtheweightofthecolumnandthusthepressureonthewaterunderneath.Withthis
releaseofpressure,thesuperheatedwaterflashesintosteam,boilingviolentlythroughoutthecolumn.The
resultingfrothofexpandingsteamandhotwaterthenspraysoutofthegeyservent.[6]
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Therocksinthenearbyregionproduceamaterialcalledgeyserite.Geyseritemostlysilicondioxide
(SiO2),isdissolvedfromtherocksandgetsdepositedonthewallsofthegeyser'splumbingsystemandon
thesurface.Thedepositsmakethechannelscarryingthewateruptothesurfacepressuretight.Thisallows
thepressuretobecarriedallthewaytothetopandnotbeleakedoutintotheloosegravelorsoilthatare
normallyunderthegeyserfields.[7]
Eventuallythewaterremaininginthegeysercoolsbacktobelowtheboilingpointandtheeruptionends
heatedgroundwaterbeginsseepingbackintothereservoir,andthewholecyclebeginsagain.Theduration
oferuptionsandtimebetweensuccessiveeruptionsvarygreatlyfromgeysertogeyserStrokkurinIceland
eruptsforafewsecondseveryfewminutes,whileGrandGeyserintheUnitedStateseruptsforupto
10minutesevery812hours.[7]

Generalcategorization
Therearetwotypesofgeysers:fountaingeyserswhicheruptfrompoolsofwater,typicallyinaseriesof
intense,evenviolent,burstsandconegeyserswhicheruptfromconesormoundsofsiliceoussinter(also
knownasgeyserite),usuallyinsteadyjetsthatlastanywherefromafewsecondstoseveralminutes.Old
Faithful,perhapsthebestknowngeyseratYellowstoneNationalPark,isanexampleofaconegeyser.
GrandGeyser,thetallestpredictablegeyseronearth,(althoughGeysirinIcelandistaller,itisnot
predictable),alsoatYellowstoneNationalPark,isanexampleofafountaingeyser.[8]

1.Fountaingeyser(eruptingfrom 2.OldFaithfulgeyser(cone
thepool)
geyserhavingmoundof
siliceoussinter)inYellowstone
NationalParkerupts
approximatelyevery91minutes

Theintensetransientforcesinside
eruptinggeysersarethemainreasonfor
theirrarity.Therearemanyvolcanic
areasintheworldthathavehotsprings,
mudpotsandfumaroles,butveryfew
withgeysers.Thisisbecauseinmost
places,evenwhereothernecessary
conditionsforgeyseractivityexist,the
rockstructureisloose,anderuptions
willerodethechannelsandrapidly
destroyanynascentgeysers.

Mostgeysersforminplaceswherethere
isvolcanicrhyoliterockwhichdissolves
inhotwaterandformsmineraldeposits
calledsiliceoussinter,orgeyserite,alongtheinsideoftheplumbingsystemswhichareveryslender.Over
timethesedepositscementtherocktogethertightly,strengtheningthechannelwallsandenablingthe
geysertopersist,asmentionedintheprevioussection.
Geysersarefragilephenomenaandifconditionschange,theycangodormantorextinct.Manygeysers
havebeendestroyedbypeoplethrowinglitteranddebrisintothemothershaveceasedtoeruptdueto
dewateringbygeothermalpowerplants.TheGreatGeysirofIcelandhashadperiodsofactivityand
dormancy.Duringitslongdormantperiods,eruptionsweresometimesartificiallyinducedoftenon
specialoccasionsbytheadditionofsurfactantstothewater.

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Biologyofgeysers
Thespecificcoloursofgeysersderivefromthefactthat
despitetheapparentlyharshconditions,lifeisoften
foundinthem(andalsoinotherhothabitats)inthe
formofthermophilicprokaryotes.Noknowneukaryote
cansurviveover60C(140F).[9]
Inthe1960s,whentheresearchofbiologyofgeysers
firstappeared,scientistsweregenerallyconvincedthat
nolifecansurviveabovearound73Cmaximum
(163F)theupperlimitforthesurvivalof
cyanobacteria,asthestructureofkeycellularproteins
anddeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)wouldbedestroyed.
Theoptimaltemperatureforthermophilicbacteriawas
placedevenlower,around55Caverage(131F).[9]

Hyperthermophilesproducesomeofthebright
colorsofGrandPrismaticSpring,Yellowstone
NationalPark

However,theobservationsprovedthatitisactuallypossibleforlifetoexistathightemperaturesandthat
somebacteriaevenprefertemperatureshigherthantheboilingpointofwater.Dozensofsuchbacteriaare
known.[10]Thermophilesprefertemperaturesfrom50to70C(122to158F),whilsthyperthermophiles
growbetterattemperaturesashighas80to110C(176to230F).Astheyhaveheatstableenzymesthat
retaintheiractivityevenathightemperatures,theyhavebeenusedasasourceofthermostabletools,that
areimportantinmedicineandbiotechnology,[11]forexampleinmanufacturingantibiotics,plastics,
detergents(bytheuseofheatstableenzymeslipases,pullulanasesandproteases),andfermentation
products(forexampleethanolisproduced).Amongthese,thefirstdiscoveredandthemostimportantfor
biotechnologyisThermusaquaticus.[12]Thefactthatsuchbacteriaexistalsostretchesourimagination
aboutlifeonothercelestialbodies,bothwithinandbeyondthesolarsystem.

Majorgeyserfieldsandtheirdistribution
Geysersarequiterare,requiringacombinationof
water,heat,andfortuitousplumbing.Thecombination
existsinfewplacesonEarth.[13][14]

YellowstoneNationalPark,U.S.
Yellowstoneisthelargestgeyserlocale,containing
thousandsofhotsprings,andapproximately300to500
geysers.Itishometohalfoftheworld'stotalnumberof
Distributionofmajorgeysersintheworld.
geysersinitsninegeyserbasins.Itislocatedmostlyin
Wyoming,USA,withsmallportionsinMontanaand
Idaho.[15]Yellowstoneincludestheworld'stallestactivegeyser(SteamboatGeyserinNorrisGeyser
Basin),aswellastherenownedOldFaithfulGeyser,BeehiveGeyser,GiantessGeyser,LionGeyser,

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PlumeGeyser,AurumGeyser,CastleGeyser,SawmillGeyser,GrandGeyser,OblongGeyser,Giant
Geyser,DaisyGeyser,GrottoGeyser,Fan&MortarGeysers,&RiversideGeyser,allintheUpperGeyser
Basinwhichalonecontainsnearly180geysers.[14]

ValleyofGeysers,Russia
TheValleyofGeysers("DolinaGeiserov"inRussian)locatedintheKamchatkaPeninsulaofRussiaisthe
onlygeyserfieldinEurasiaandthesecondlargestconcentrationofgeysersintheworld.Theareawas
discoveredandexploredbyTatyanaUstinovain1941.Approximately200geysersexistintheareaalong
withmanyhotwaterspringsandperpetualspouters.Theareawasformedduetoavigorousvolcanic
activity.Thepeculiarwayoferuptionsisanimportantfeatureofthesegeysers.Mostofthegeyserseruptat
angles,andonlyveryfewhavethegeyserconesthatexistatmanyotheroftheworld'sgeyserfields.[14]On
June3,2007,amassivemudflowinfluencedtwothirdsofthevalley.[16]Itwasthenreportedthatathermal
lakewasformingabovethevalley.[17]Fewdayslater,waterswereobservedtohaverecededsomewhat,
exposingsomeofthesubmergedfeatures.VelikanGeyser,oneofthefield'slargest,wasnotburiedinthe
slideandhasrecentlybeenobservedtobeactive.[18]

ElTatio,Chile
Thename"ElTatio"roughlytranslatesas"thegrandfather".El
TatioislocatedinthehighvalleysontheAndessurroundedby
manyactivevolcanoesinChile,SouthAmericaataround4,200
metres(13,800ft)abovemeansealevel.Thevalleyishometo
approximately80geysersatpresent.Itbecamethelargestgeyser
fieldintheSouthernHemisphereafterthedestructionofmanyof
theNewZealandgeysers,andisthethirdlargestgeyserfieldinthe
world.Thesalientfeatureofthesegeysersisthattheheightoftheir
eruptionsisverylow,thetallestbeingonly6metres(20ft)high,but
withsteamcolumnsthatcanbeover20metres(66ft)high.The
averagegeysereruptionheightatElTatioisabout750millimetres
(30in).[14][19]

AgeyserbubblingatElTatiogeyser
field

TaupoVolcanicZone,NewZealand
TheTaupoVolcanicZoneislocatedonNewZealand'sNorthIsland.Itis350kilometres(217mi)longby
50kmwide(31mi)andliesoverasubductionzoneintheEarth'scrust.MountRuapehumarksits
southwesternend,whilethesubmarineWhakatanevolcano(85kmor53mibeyondWhiteIsland)is
considereditsnortheasternlimit.[20]Manygeysersinthiszoneweredestroyedduetogeothermal
developmentsandahydroelectricreservoir,butseveraldozengeysersstillexist.Inthebeginningofthe
20thcentury,thelargestgeysereverknown,theWaimanguGeyserexistedinthiszone.Itbeganeruptingin
1900anderuptedperiodicallyforfouryearsuntilalandslidechangedthelocalwatertable.Eruptionsof
Waimanguwouldtypicallyreach160metres(520ft)andsomesuperburstsareknowntohavereached500
metres(1,600ft).[14]RecentscientificworkindicatesthattheEarth'scrustbelowthezonemaybeaslittle
as5kilometres(3mi)thick.Beneaththisliesafilmofmagma50kmwide(31mi)and160kmlong
(99mi).[21]
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Iceland
DuetothehighrateofvolcanicactivityinIceland,itishometo
somefamousgeysersintheworld.Geysersandhotspringsare
distributedallovertheisland.Manyofthegeysersarelocatedin
Haukadalur.Geysersareknowntohaveexistedinatleastadozen
otherareasontheisland.TheGreatGeysir,whichfirsteruptedin
the14thcentury,gaverisetothewordgeyser.By1896,Geysirwas
almostdormantbeforeanearthquakethatyearcausederuptionsto
beginagain,occurringseveraltimesaday,butin1916,eruptionsall
butceased.Throughoutmuchofthe20thcentury,eruptions,usually
followingearthquakes,didhappenfromtimetotime.Someman
GeysirHotSpringArea
madeimprovementsweremadetothespringanderuptionswere
forcedwithsoaponspecialoccasions.EarthquakesinJune2000
subsequentlyreawakenedthegiantforatimebutitisnotcurrentlyeruptingregularly.ThenearbyStrokkur
geysereruptsevery58minutestoaheightofsome30metres(98ft).[14][22]

Extinctanddormantgeyserfields
ThereusedtobetwolargegeysersfieldsinNevadaBeowaweandSteamboatSpringsbuttheywere
destroyedbytheinstallationofnearbygeothermalpowerplants.Attheplants,geothermaldrillingreduced
theavailableheatandloweredthelocalwatertabletothepointthatgeyseractivitycouldnolongerbe
sustained.[14]
ManyofNewZealandsgeysershavebeendestroyedbyhumansinthelastcentury.SeveralNewZealand
geysershavealsobecomedormantorextinctbynaturalmeans.Themainremainingfieldis
WhakarewarewaatRotorua.[23]TwothirdsofthegeysersatOrakeiKorakowerefloodedbytheOhakuri
hydroelectricdamin1961.TheWairakeifieldwaslosttoageothermalpowerplantin1958.TheTaupo
SpafieldwaslostwhentheWaikatoRiverlevelwasdeliberatelyalteredinthe1950s.TheRotomahana
fieldwasdestroyedbytheMountTaraweraeruptionin1886.

Misnamedgeysers
Therearevariousothertypesofgeyserswhicharedifferentinnaturecomparedtothenormalsteamdriven
geysers.Thesegeysersdiffernotonlyintheirstyleoferuptionbutalsointhecausethatmakesthemerupt.
Suchgeysersarenottruegeysersbutareyetreferredassuchastheyallemitwaterunderpressure.

Artificialgeysers
Inanumberofplaceswherethereisgeothermalactivity,wellshavebeendrilledandfittedwith
impermeablecasementsthatallowthemtoeruptlikegeysers.Theventsofsuchgeysersareartificial,but
aretappedintonaturalhydrothermalsystems.Thesesocalledartificialgeysers,technicallyknownas
eruptinggeothermalwells,arenottruegeysers.LittleOldFaithfulGeyser,inCalistoga,California,isan
example.Thegeysereruptsfromthecasingofawelldrilledinthelate19thcentury.AccordingtoDr.John
RinehartinhisbookAGuidetoGeyserGazing(1976p.49),amanhaddrilledintothegeyserinsearchfor
water.Hehadactually"simplyopenedupadeadgeyser".[24]
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Coldwatergeysers
Coldwatergeysers'eruptionissimilartothatoftheirhotwatercounterparts,exceptthatCO2bubblesdrive
theeruptioninsteadofsteam.Incoldwatergeysers,CO2ladenwaterliesinaconfinedaquifer,inwhich
waterandCO2aretrappedbylesspermeableoverlyingstrata.ThiswaterandCO2canescapethisstrata
onlyinweakregionslikefaults,joints,ordrilledwells.Adrilledboreholeprovidesanescapeforthe
pressurizedwaterandCO2toreachthesurface.Themagnitudeandfrequencyofsucheruptionsdependon
variousfactorssuchasplumbingdepth,CO2concentrations,aquiferyieldetc.Thecolumnofwaterexerts
enoughpressureonthegaseousCO2sothatitremainsinthewaterinsmallbubbles.Whenthepressure
decreasesduetoformationofafissure,theCO2bubblesexpand.Thisexpansiondisplacesthewaterand
causestheeruption.Coldwatergeysersmaylookquitesimilartotheirsteamdrivencounterpartshowever,
oftenCO2ladenwaterismorewhite

Coldwatergeyser
WallenderBorn
(Germany)

andfrothy.[25]Thebestknownofthese
isprobablyCrystalGeyser,nearGreen
River,Utah.[26]Therearealsotwocold
watergeysersinGermany,Wallender
Born(a.k.a.Brubbel)andAndernach
Geyser(de)(a.k.a.NamedyerSprudel),
andoneinSlovakia,Herany.

Perpetualspouter

Thisisanaturalhotspringthatspoutswaterconstantlywithout
stoppingforrecharge.Someoftheseareincorrectlycalledgeysers,
butbecausetheyarenotperiodicinnaturetheyarenotconsidered
truegeysers.[27]

Commercialusesofgeysers

GeyserAndernach(Germany),the
world'shighestcoldwatergeyser

Geysersareusedforvariousactivitiessuchaselectricitygeneration,heatingandtourism.Manygeothermal
reservesarefoundallaroundtheworld.ThegeyserfieldsinIcelandaresomeofthemostcommercially
viablegeyserlocationsintheworld.Sincethe1920shotwaterdirectedfromthegeysershasbeenusedto
heatgreenhousesandtogrowfoodthatotherwisecouldnothavebeencultivatedinIceland'sinhospitable
climate.Steamandhotwaterfromthegeysershasalsobeenusedforheatinghomessince1943inIceland.
In1979theU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)activelypromoteddevelopmentofgeothermalenergyinthe
GeysersCalistogaKnownGeothermalResourceArea(KGRA
(http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6817678VCD58M/6817678.PDF))nearCalistoga,California
throughavarietyofresearchprogramsandtheGeothermalLoanGuaranteeProgram.TheDepartmentis
obligatedbylawtoassessthepotentialenvironmentalimpactsofgeothermaldevelopment.[28]

"Geysers"elsewhereintheSolarSystem
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ThereareseveralbodieselsewhereintheSolarSystemwherejetlikeeruptions,oftentermed"geysers"and
"cryogeysers",havebeenobservedorarebelievedtooccur.UnlikegeysersonEarth,theserepresent
eruptionsofgas,togetherwithentraineddustoriceparticles,withoutliquid.
Geyserlikeplumesofwatervapor,togetherwithiceparticlesandsmalleramountsofothercomponents
(suchascarbondioxide,nitrogen,ammonia,hydrocarbonsandsilicates),havebeenobservederuptingfrom
ventsassociatedwiththe"tigerstripes"inthesouthpolarregionofSaturn'smoonEnceladusbytheCassini
orbiter.Themechanismbywhichtheplumesaregeneratedremainsuncertain,buttheyarebelievedtobe
poweredatleastinpartbytidalheatingresultingfromorbitaleccentricityduetoa2:1meanmotionorbital
resonancewiththemoonDione.[29]ThesejetsarebelievedtobethesourceofSaturn'sERing.
OneofthegreatsurprisesoftheVoyager2flybyofNeptunein1989wasthediscoveryofgeyserlike
eruptionsonitsmoonTriton.Astronomersnoticeddarkplumesrisingtosome8kmabovethesurface,and
depositingmaterialupto150kmdownwind.[30]Theseplumesrepresentinvisiblejetsofgaseousnitrogen,
togetherwithdust.Allthegeysersobservedwerelocatedcloseto
Triton'ssubsolarpoint,indicatingthatsolarheatingdrivesthe
eruptions.ItisthoughtthatthesurfaceofTritonprobablyconsists
ofasemitransparentlayeroffrozennitrogenoverlyingadarker
substrate,whichcreatesakindof"solidgreenhouseeffect",heating
andvaporizingnitrogenbelowtheicesurfaceituntilthepressure
breaksthesurfaceatthestartofaneruption.Voyager'simagesof
Triton'ssouthernhemisphereshowmanystreaksofdarkmaterial
laiddownbygeyseractivity.[31]
Similarsolarheatingdrivenjetsofgaseouscarbondioxideare
believedtoeruptfromthesouthpolarcapofMarseachspring.
Althoughtheseeruptionshavenotyetbeendirectlyobserved,they
leaveevidenceintheformofdarkspotsandlighterfansatopthedry
ice,representingsandanddustcarriedaloftbytheeruptions,anda
spiderlikepatternofgroovescreatedbelowtheicebytheout
rushinggas.[32]

Seealso

ThegeyserStrokkurinIcelandasa
touristspot.

Hydrothermalexplosion
Mudpot
Hotspring

Notes

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Darkstreaksdepositedbygeyserson
Triton

1. "DefinitionofgeysernounfromCambridgeDictionaryOnline"
(http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/geyser?q=geyser).Retrieved20110709.
2. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/geyser
3. Cross,Jeff."HowmanygeysersarefoundinYellowstone?"ProgramandAbstracts,The11thBiennialScientific
ConferenceontheGreaterYellowstoneEcosystem.October810,2012,MammothHotSpringsHotel,
YellowstoneNationalPark,Wyoming.
4. Lundquist,Laura."DormantYellowstonegeysererupts."TheBozemanDailyChronicle,August02,2013.
5. Bryan,T.S.1995
6. Howgeysersform(http://www.wyojones.com/how__geysers_form.htm)GregoryL.
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16. Mehta,Aalok(20080416)."PhotointheNews:Russia'sValleyoftheGeysersLostinLandslide"
(http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070605geyservalley.html).NationalGeographic.Retrieved
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17. Harding,Luke(20070605)."MudslidefullychangesterraininKamchatkasValleyofGeysers"
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,,2095579,00.html).GuardianUnlimited.Retrieved20080416.
18. Shpilenok,Igor(20070609)."June2007SpecialreleaseTheNaturalDisasterattheValleyoftheGeysers"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20080412111753/http://www.shpilenok.com/new/index.htm).Archivedfromthe
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Monthly12.

Externallinks
GeysersandHowTheyWorkbyYellowstoneNationalPark
(http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/geysers.htm)
GeyserObservationandStudyAssociation(GOSA)
(http://www.geyserstudy.org/)
GeyserTimes.org(http://www.geysertimes.org)

WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoGeyser.
Wikisourcehasthetextof
the1879American
CyclopdiaarticleGeysers.

GeysersofYellowstone:OnlineVideosandDescriptions
(http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/)
AboutGeysersbyAlanGlennon(http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/)
ColdWaterGeysersbyAlanGlennon(http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/crystalgeyser/)
Geysers,TheUnMuseum(http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm)
Johnston'sArchiveGeyserResources(http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html)
TheGeologyoftheIcelandicgeysersbyDr.HelgiTorfason,geologist
(http://geysircenter.com/english/geology.html)
GeysersandtheEarth'sPlumbingSystemsbyMegStreepey
(http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/geysers.html)
NationalGeographic(http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/geyser/?
ar_a=1)
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geyser&oldid=654501138"
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