Kinema Tics

Chapter
KINEMATICS OF CONTINUA
1.1. Material and Spatial Descriptions of Continuum Motion

1.1.1. Lagrangian and Eulerian Coordinates. The Motion Law.
consider a continuum
B.
correspondence between every material point
= OM
t=0
M B and
Due to Axiom 2, at time
Let us
there is a one-to-one
its radius-vector
x=
O
ei . Denote Cartesian coordinates of
i ) and introduce curvilinear coordinates X i of the

xi (x = xi e
point M in the form of some differentiable one-to-one functions
in a Cartesian coordinate system
the radius-vector by
same material
xi = xi (X k ).
Since
i ,
x=xe
(1.1)
the relationship (1.1) takes the form
x = x(X k ).
Let us fix curvilinear coordinates of the point
of the continuum
(1.2)
M,
and then material points
are considered to be numbered by these coordinates
X i.
i
For any motion of the continuum B , coordinates X of material points are
considered to remain unchanged; they are said to be 'frozen' into the medium
and move together with the continuum. Coordinates
for a material point
Xi
introduced in this way
are called Lagrangian (or material).
Due to Axiom 3, at every time
there is a one-to-one correspondence be-
X i and its radius-vector

i
i
with Cartesian coordinates x , where x and x depend on t. This
i
i
means that there is a connection between Lagrangian X , and the Cartesian x
coordinates of point M and time, i.e. there exist functions in the form (0.3)
tween every point
x = OM
MB
with Lagrangian coordinates
xi = xi (X k , t)
X k VX .
These functions determine a motion of the material point

coordinate system
E3a .
continuum B .
O
ei
of the motion of the
of space
(1.3)
M
in the Cartesian
The relationships (1.3) are said to be the law
xi in (1.3) are called Eulerian (or spatial) coordinates of

material point M.
i and the coordinate system O
ei is the same for all times t,
Since x = x e
i
Coordinates
the
the
equivalent form of the motion law follows from (1.2):
x = x(X k , t).
(1.4)
Chapter 1. Kinematics of Continua
Since the consistency conditions (0.4) must be satisfied, from (1.2) and (1.4)
we get the relationships
x(X k , 0) = x(X k ),
Here the initial time
time
t=0
Figure 1.1.
t=0
xi (X k , 0) = xi (X k ).
is considered as the time
we introduced Lagrangian coordinates
Xi
t1
in (0.4), because just at
of point
The motion of a continuum: positions of continuum
(1.5)
M.
and material point
in
reference and actual configurations
Unless otherwise stipulated, functions (1.3) are assumed to be regular in the

domain
VX R3
for all
t,
thus there exist the inverse functions
X k = X k (xi , t)
xi Vx R3 .
V = W(B , 0) in a fixed coordinate system O

ei , which
continuum B at the initial time t = 0, is called the reference
The closed domain

is occupied by
configuration
at the time
K, and the domain V = W(B, t) occupied by

t > 0 is called the actual configuration K.
the same continuum
Figure 1.1 shows a geometric picture of the motion of a continuum from the
reference configuration
to the actual one
at time
in space
E3a .
It should be noticed that if the continuum motion law (1.3) (or (1.4)) is known,
then one of the main problems of continuum mechanics (to determine coordinates
of all material points of the continuum at
any time) will be resolved. However, in actual problems of continuum mechanics this
law, as a rule, is unknown and must be
found by solving some mathematical problems, whose statements are to be formulated. One of our objectives is to derive
these statements.
Figure 1.2. Extension of a beam
Example 1.1. Let us consider a continuum
B,
which at time
t=0
in the reference con-
1.1. Material and Spatial Descriptions
figuration
h3 ,
K is a rectangular parallelepiped (a beam) with edge lengths h1 , h2
and in an actual configuration
t>0
at
and
the continuum is also a rectangular
h1 , h2
parallelepiped but with different edge lengths:
and
h3 .
We assume that
corresponding sides of both the parallelepipeds lie on parallel planes, and for
(x2 , x3 ),
one of the sides, which for example is situated on the plane

of diagonals' intersection in
and in
points
are coincident (Figure 1.2). Then the
motion law (1.3) for this continuum takes the form
x = k (t) X ,
i.e. coordinates
and
xi , xi = X i
k (t) = h (t)/h
in
and
are proportional,
K,
In
of any material point
(1.6)
2, 3,
is the proportion function. The motion law (1.6) is called
the beam extension law.
Example 1.2.
= 1,
let a continuum
be a
rectangular parallelepiped oriented as shown in

Figure 1.3; its motion law (1.3) has the form
1
1
2
x = X + a(t)X ,
2
2
x =X ,
3
x = X 3,
where
(1.7)
Figure 1.3.
x =
X i,
this continuum
a(t)
is a given function. In
Simple
shear
of
beam
has become a parallelepiped, all
cross-sections of which are planes orthogonal to

the
Ox3
axis and are the same parallelograms.
This motion law is called simple shear; the tangent

of the shear angle
a.
is equal to
Example 1.3. Consider a continuum
B,
which in
is a
rectangular parallelepiped (a beam) shown in Figure 1.4;
under the transformation from
to
this parallelepiped
changes its dimensions without a change in its angles (as

in Example 1.1) and rotates by an angle
Ox1 x2
around the point
(t)
in the plane
(Figure 1.4). The motion law
for the continuum is called the rotation of a beam with
beam with extension
extension. In this case equations (1.1) have the form
xi = F0 ij xj ,
F0 ij is
matrix U0 :
where the matrix

the stretch
F0 ij
Figure 1.4. Rotation of a
xj = X j ,
(1.8)
the product of two matrices, the rotation matrix
= O0
k
k U0 j ,
O0
cos sin
= sin cos
0
0
0
O0
and
U0
and
k1
k2
k (t) = h (t)/h0
F0 ij
k3
k1 cos k2 sin
= k1 sin k2 cos
0
k3
are the proportion functions characterizing the ratio of
lengths of the beam edges in
and
(as in Example 1.1).
1.1.2. Material and Spatial Descriptions. In continuum mechanics, physical

processes occurring in bodies are characterized by a certain set of varying scalar
fields
= (M, t),
a = a(M, t),
vector fields
and tensor fields of the
nth
order
n (M, t). We will consider tensors and tensor fields in detail in paragraph 1.1.4
(see also [12]).
Since in the Cartesian coordinate system
to both Lagrangian coordinates
Xi
O
ei
a material point
and Eulerian coordinates
xi ,
M corresponds
varying scalar
and vector fields can be written as follows:
e j , t) = (x
e , t),
(X i , t) = (X i (xj , t), t) = (x
i
j
e(x , t) = a
e(x, t),
a(X , t) = a
(1.9)
With the help of the motion law (1.3) (or (1.4)), we can pass from functions
of Lagrangian coordinates to functions of Eulerian coordinates in formulae (1.9).
In continuum mechanics the tilde
For a fixed time
is usually omitted (we will do this below).
in (1.9), we obtain stationary scalar and vector fields.
M is fixed, and
6 t 6 t0 , then we get an ordinary scalar
function a = a(M, t) depending on time.
If in (1.9) a material point
time
function
changes within the interval
= (M, t)
and vector
According to relationships (1.9), there are two ways to describe different

physical processes in continua.
In the material (Lagrangian) description of a continuum, all tensor fields
describing physical processes are considered as functions of
Xi
and
t.
In the spatial (Eulerian) description, all tensor fields describing physical

processes are functions of
xi
and
t.
Both the descriptions are equivalent. It should be noted that for solids we
more often use the material description, where it is convenient to fix coordinates
Xi
of a material point
and to observe its motion at different times
t.
For
gaseous and fluid continua, Eulerian description is more convenient; when an
xi and monitor the material

i
points M passing through this point x at different times t.
1.1.3. Local Bases in K and K. Using the motion law (1.4) and relationship
i
(1.1), at every material point M with coordinates X in the actual and reference
observer fixes a geometric point with coordinates
configurations we can introduce its local basis vectors:
rk =
where
xi
x
i = Qi k e
i ,
=
e
X k
X k
rk =
x
xi
i
i ,
=
e
=
Q
i
ke
X k
X k
Qi k = xi /X k ,
Qi k = xi /X k ,
P ik = X i /xk ,
P i k = X i / xk
(1.10)
(1.11)
are Jacobian matrices and inverse Jacobian matrices.

Here and below all values referred to the configuration
will be denoted by
. As follows from the definition (1.11), local bases vectors r and

k
rk are directed tangentially to corresponding coordinate lines X k (Figure 1.5)
superscript
Figure 1.5. Local basis vectors in reference and actual configurations
In
and
introduce metric matrices
kl
g kl , g as follows:
gkl , g kl
and inverse metric matrices
xi xj
ij ,
X k X l
gkl = rk rl = Qi k Qj l ij =
xi xj
g kl = rk rl =
ij ,
X k X l
k
g kl glm = m
,
(1.12)
k
g kl g lm = m
,
and also vectors of reciprocal local bases
ri = g im rm ,
ri = g im rm ,
(1.13)
which satisfy the reciprocity relations
ri rj = i j ,
r i r j = i j ,
and also the following relations:
rn rm
= g nmk rk ,
rn rm
= g nmk rk ,
(1.14a)
(1.14b)
With the help of the mixed multiplication, i.e. sequentially applying scalar
and vector products to three different local bases vectors, we can determine the
volumes
|V |
and
|V |
constructed by these vectors:
|V | = r1 (r2 r3 ) = g = det (gij ) = xk /X i ,
|V | = r1 (r2 r3 ) = g = |xk /X i |.
(1.15)
It should be noted that although local bases

in different configurations
and
(if one consider the same point
a(M)
and
ri
have been introduced
K, they correspond to the

M); therefore each of the
as a rigid whole into the same point in

any vector field
ri
or in
K.
same coordinates
bases can be carried
Due to this, we can resolve
i i
for each of the bases ri , r , r and ri :

a = ai ri = ai ri = ai ri = ai ri .
If curvilinear coordinates
onal as well: (ri
rj = ij ),
Xi
orthonormal basis
(1.16)
are orthogonal, then the vectors
ri
are orthog-
g ij and g ij are diagonal; hence we

q
H = g ( = 1, 2, 3) and the physical
and matrices
can introduce Lam

e's coefficients

r = r /H = r H .
Components of a vector
(1.17)
with respect to this basis are called physical:
b b
a = ai ri .
The actual basis
Xi
ri
(1.18)
is in general not orthogonal even if the basis
ri
orthogonal; therefore we cannot introduce the corresponding physical basis in

One can introduce a physical basis in
not with the help of
ri ,
is
K.
but with the
help of another special basis (see paragraph 1.1.7).
1.1.4. Tensors and Tensor Fields in Continuum Mechanics. For different
i at every point M, and with the help of formulae

ri , ri , ri , ri or e
given in the work [12] we can introduce different dyadic (tensor) bases: ri rj ,
ri rj , ri rj , ri rj , ri rj etc., which are equivalence classes of vector sets

consisting of 2 3 = 6 vectors (for example, r1 rj = [r1 rj r2 0r3 0], where [ ] is
local bases
the notation of an equivalence class), and

field of second-order tensor
is the sign of tensor product. A
T(M)
can be represented as a linear combination of
dyadic basis elements:
i e
j = T ij ri rj .
T = T ij ri rj = T ij ri rj = Tij e
During the passage from one basis to another, tensor components
(1.19)
T ij
are
transformed by the tensor law:
Tij = P ik P jl T kl = P i k P j l T kl .
Metric matrices
tensor
g im , gim , g im
and
g im
(1.20)
are components of the unit (metric)
with respect to different bases:
E = gim ri rm = g im ri rm = g im ri rm = g im ri rm .
For
the
(1.21)
tensor T, in continuum mechanics one often uses

TT = T ij rj ri and the inverse tensor T1 , where
second-order
transpose
T1 T = E.
tensor
The inverse tensor exists only for a nonsingular tensor (when
det T 6=
0). The determinant of a tensor is defined by the determinant of its
det T = det T ij .
mixed components matrix:
Besides second-order tensors, in continuum mechanics one sometimes uses

tensors of higher orders [12]. To introduce the tensors, we define polyadic bases
by induction:
consisting of
ri . . . rin ; the
n 3 = 3n vectors.
bases are equivalence classes of vector sets
n-th
A field of
n (M) can be
order tensor
represented by a linear combination of polyadic basis elements:
n
where
...in
= i
and
...in
ri . . . rin = i
...in
...in
ri . . . rin ,
are components of the
n-th
order tensor with respect
are the first, second and
to the corresponding polyadic basis.

For fourth-order tensors, analogs of the tensor
third unit tensors defined as follows:
I = ei ei ek ek = E E,
II = ei ek ei ek , III = ei ek ek ei ,
(1.22)
and also the symmetric fourth-order unit tensor

1
= (II + III ).
(1.22a)
ijkl = ( ik jl + il jk ).
= ijkl ei ej ek el ,
We can transpose fourth-order tensors as follows:

4
where
(m
m2 m3 m4 )
= i
i i i
1 2 3 4
(m1 m2 m3 m4 ) is some
ri ri ri .
i1 i2 i3 i4 ri4
rim rim rim rim

3
substitution,
for
example,
(4321) =
1.1.5. Covariant Derivatives in

operators in configurations
and
= rk
and
K,
K.
Introduce the following nabla-
respectively:
,
X k
= rk
.
X k
(1.23)
Applying the nabla-operators to a vector field, we get the gradients of a

vector in
and
K:
a = rk
a = rk
a
= k ai rk ri ,
X k
(1.24)
a
= k ai rk ri = k ai rk ri = k ai rk ri ,
k
X
where we have denoted the following covariant derivatives in different tensor
bases in configurations
k ai =
and
K:

ai
m
ik am ,
k
X
k ai =
ai
+ ikm am
k
X
(1.25)
ai
m
ik am ,
X k
k ai =
Here
m
ij
k ai =
ai
+ ikm am .
X k
m
ij
and
are the Christoffel symbols in configurations
K.
and
For the
Christoffel symbols the following relations (see [12]) hold:
gki
g
ijk ,
j
2
X
X
X !

g ij
g ki
1 km
kj
m
=
g
+
.
ij
2
X i
X j
X k
1
km
m
ij = g
Contravariant derivatives in
ai = g
(1.26)
and
km
kj
i
are introduced as follows:
k ai = g km m ai .
m ai ,
(1.27)
The covariant derivatives (1.25) are components of the second-order tensors
a and a,
therefore during the passage from the local basis
ri
to another
one they are transformed by the tensor law (1.20).
The nabla-operators
n (X i ) of
n-th
and
in
and

n
= k i
k
X
n
n
k
=r
= k i
k
X
k i
where
can be applied to a tensor field
order:
= rk
...in
and
k i
...in
...in k
r ri . . . rin ,
(1.28)
...in k
r ri . . . rin ,
1
are the covariant derivatives in
and
K,
respectively:
k i
...in
X k
...in
n
X
s
imk
i
...is =m...in
(1.29)
s=1
In the same way we can define operations of scalar product of the nabla-operator
in
(the divergence of a tensor):
= rk

n
= k ki
k
X
...in
ri . . . rin ,
(1.30)
and vector product of the nabla-operator in
= rk

1
=q
k
X
g
M0
and
M0
dx
ri . . . rin .
2
(1.31)
Consider how a local neighborhood of a
is transformed during the passage from configuration
arbitrary elementary radius-vector

points
(the curl of a tensor):
ijk i ji2 ...in rk
1.1.6. The Deformation Gradient.

point
connecting in
(Figure 1.6). In configuration
K,
are connected by the elementary radius-vector
to
K.
Take an
two infinitesimally close
these material points
dx.
and
Figure 1.6. Transformation of an elementary radius-vector during the passage from the reference
configuration to the actual one
The vectors
dx
and
dx
can always be resolved for local bases:
x
dx(X ) =
dX k = rk dX k ,
k
X
On multiplying the first equation by
dX m
of
dx = rk r dx.
(1.33)
rm
and the second by
rm dx = rm rk dX k = dX m ,
Substitution
x
dx(X ) =
dX k = rk dX k .
k
X
rm ,
we get
rm dx = rm rk dX k = dX m .
into
the
first
equation
of
(1.32)
(1.32)
(1.33)
yields
Changing the order of the tensor and scalar products (that is
permissible by the tensor analysis rules), we get the relation between
dx:
dx = F dx.
dx
and
(1.34)
Here we have denoted the linear transformation tensor
F = rk rk ,
(1.35)
called the deformation gradient. As follows from (1.34),

the deformation gradient connects elementary radiusvectors
dx
and
configurations
dx
of the same material point
and
in
Figure 1.7. Geometric rep-
K.
Definition (1.19) allows us to give a geometric

representation of the deformation gradient: if
considered as the left vectors and
ri
tion gradient
are
as the right vectors, then, by formulae
of paragraph 1.1.4 (see [12]), the tensor
ri
resentation of the deforma-
takes the form
F = ri ri = [r1 r1 r2 r2 r3 r3 ].
According to the geometric definition of a tensor (see paragraph 1.1.4), the
tensor
ri , ri
can be represented as equivalence class of the ordered set of six vectors
(Figure 1.7).
10
Besides
F,
in continuum mechanics one often uses the transpose tensor
1 and the inverse to the transpose tensor

the inverse tensor F
FT = rk rk = rk
1T
x
= x,
k
X
F1T :
F1 = rk rk ,
FT ,
(1.35a)
x
= x.
= (rk r ) = r rk = r
k
X
k T
It follows from (1.35) that
F ri = rk rk ri = rk ik = ri .
(1.36)
i.e. the deformation gradient transforms local bases vectors of the same material
point
from
Theorem 1.1.
to
K.
The transpose deformation gradient
an arbitrary vector
in
and
connects gradients of
K:
a = FT a,
H
FT
a = F1T a.
(1.37)
To derive formulae (1.37), we apply the definitions (1.24) and (1.35):
a = ri
a
a
a
= rj ji
= rj rj ri
= F1T a. N (1.38)
i
i
i
X
X
X
1.1.7. Curvilinear Spatial Coordinates.

basis
O
ei
Notice that the choice of Cartesian
as a fixed (immovable) system in the spatial (Eulerian) description
of the continuum motion is not a necessary condition. For some problems of
0i with
O0 e
0
0
0i
the origin at a moving point O (x0 = OO ) and a moving orthonormal basis e
i by the orthogonal tensor Q:
(Figure 1.8), which is connected to e
continuum mechanics it is convenient to consider a moving system
0i = Q e
i .
e
Figure 1.8. Moving bases
0i
e
and
e
ri
(1.39)
and curvilinear spatial coordinates
In this case, instead of Cartesian coordinates
xi of
0i :
e
one consider its Cartesian coordinates x

ei in basis
e = x x0 = x
0i .
x
ei e
ei
X
in moving system
a point
0i
O0 e
in the basis
i
e
(1.40)
11
Let
Qi j
be components of the tensor
with respect to the basis
i :
e
i e
j ,
Q = Qi j e
(1.41)
then relation (1.39) takes the form
0i = Qj i e
j ,
e
x
ei
and coordinates
and
xi
(1.42)
are connected as follows:
e = x x0 = (xi xi0 )
0i = x
j ,
x
ei = x
ei e
ei Qj i e
xi xi0 = Qi j x
ej ,
i
x /e
x =Q
x
ei , we
0
point O :
nates
with the origin at
(1.43)
i
e
x /x =
j,
Instead of Cartesian coordinates
ek
X
P ji
can consider special curvilinear coordi-
e k ),
x
ei = x
ei (X
(1.44)
i
which, due to (1.27), are connected to x by the relations
e k ) xi (X
e k , t)
xi = xi0 (t) + Qi j (t)e
xj (X
ej = X
e j (xi , t).
X
or
(1.45)
xi0 (t) and Qi j (t)

0
0
i ), which are assumed to be known in
(i.e. only by the motion of system O e
The dependence on
in the relations is defined by functions
continuum mechanics.
ei
X
Coordinates
are no longer Lagrangian (material): at different times they
correspond to different material points. However, it is often convenient to choose

coordinates
ei
X
Xi
coincident with
in the reference configuration
K.
In this case
we have the relations
e j , 0).
xi (X i ) = xi (X j , 0) = xi (X
(1.46)
With the help of transformation (1.45) we can use the spatial description in
coordinates
ei
X
as well when consider the functions
e i , t);
e(X
a = a(xi , t) = a
therefore coordinates
ei
X
(1.47)
are called curvilinear spatial coordinates.
Introduce local vectors
e
ri =
In particular, the basis
0i
e
is independent of
coincides with
ej = X
e j (xi )
X
0i = e
i , x
e = x,
e
independent of t; the basis
are
as well, and from (1.46) and (1.48) it follows that the basis
ri :
e
ri =
When the basis
(1.48)
may be fixed (Figure 1.9), then
and curvilinear spatial coordinates
e
ri
x
xj
.
=
e
ei
ei j
X
X
0i
e
xj
xj
= ri .
e
=
e
j
i j
i
e
X
X
is moving, bases
e
ri
and
ri
(1.49)
are no longer coincident.
12
Figure 1.9. Curvilinear spatial coordinates
The vectors
e
ri
e i and Lagrangian
X
0i = e
i
e
coordinates
Xi
for the fixed basis
are directed tangentially to the coordinate lines
simultaneously with
ri
at every point
A change of vectors
e
ri
at any time
ei
X
and defined
t > 0.
in time is defined only by the motion of basis
0i ,
e
because from (1.42), (1.43) and (1.48) it follows that
0i = Qj i
e
ek
ek
X
xj X
e
e
r
=
rk =
k
xj
e
xi xj
X
ek
e
rk ,
i
e k /e
Peki X
xi is independent of t according
vectors ri and e
ri are connected as follows:
and the matrix

The bases
ri =
to (1.44).
ek
ek
x
x X
X
e
rk .
=
=
i
i
e k X
X
X i
X
Just as in paragraph 1.1.2, we define the metric matrix

metric matrix
(1.50)
e
x
geij :
geij = e
ri e
rj ,
(1.51)
geij
geij gejk = ki ,
and the inverse
(1.52)
and the reciprocal basis vectors
e
ri = geike
rk =
ei j
e i 0k
X
X
=
.
e
e
j
x
e
xk
(1.53)
According to formulae (1.51) and (1.52), we find the relation between

matrices
gij
and
gekl :
gij = ri rj =
The inverse matrix
g ij
e k X
el
e k X
el
X
X
e
r e
rl =
gekl .
i
j k
i
X X
X X j
(1.54)
is found from (1.54) by the rule of matrix product
inversion (see Exercise 1.1.13):
g ij =
X i X j kl
ge .
e k X
el
X
(1.55)
13
From (1.51), (1.53) and (1.55) we can find the relation between vectors of
reciprocal bases
ri
e
ri :
and
ri = g ij rj =
Let there be a tensor
basis
e
ri :
= i
em
X i X j kl X
X i k
e
e
rm =
ge
r .
j
k
l
e X
e
ek
X
X
X
(1.56)
n , then it can be resolved for the basis
...in
ei
ri . . . rin =
...in
ri
and for the
e
rin .
ri . . . e
(1.57)
On substituting (1.51) into (1.57), we derive transformation formulae for

tensor components during the passage from coordinates
ei
...in
Introduce the nabla-operator
= j
...jn
ei
X
X j
...
Xi
to
e i:
X
e in
X
.
X jn
(1.58)
of covariant differentiation in coordinates
e =e
ri
(1.59)
ei
X
and contravariant derivatives of components
e i:
X
e
ai
e ke
eme
ai =
ik am ,
k
e
X
The Christoffel symbols
em
ij
e
ai
of a vector
ri
a=e
aie
in coordinates
e
ai
m
e ke
ei e
ai =
+
km a .
k
(1.60)
e
X
in coordinates
ei
X
are connected to
geij
relations which are similar to (1.26).
Theorem 1.2. The results of covariant differentiation

X i (in the configuration K) are coincident:
e n ,
n =
H
e i:
X
e n ,
n =
in coordinates
e n .
n =
by the
ei
X
and
(1.61)
Prove the first formula in (1.61). Due to (1.23), we have
n = ri
el
n X
n
X i k
n
l k
e n . (1.62)
e
=
r
=
k
i
i
k
l
l
e
e
e
X
X
X X
X
The remaining two formulae in (1.61) can be derived in the same way (see
Exercise 1.1.8).
Going to components of a tensor
n with respect to bases
ri
and
e
ri ,
from
(1.58) we get the relation between the covariant derivatives:
i j
Determine the tensor
...jn
e i
ej
=
...jn
transforming coordinates
(1.63)
ei
X
into
Xj:
e ij e
ij e
i e
j .
H = rj e
rj = H
ri e
rj = H
(1.64)
Then we get the relations (see Exercises 1.1.10 and 1.1.11):
ej e
ri = H e
ri = H
i rj ,
e ij )1e
ri = H1T e
ri = (H
rj .
(1.65)
14
ei
X
e
ri and e
ri
ij
are orthogonal as well, and the matrices g
eij and ge are diagonal; and we can
The coordinates
are often chosen orthogonal, then the bases
introduce the physical (orthonormal) basis:
where
e =
H
b
e,
e
r = e
r /H
ge
are Lam
e's coefficients, which are in general not coincident
with the coefficients
b
e
r
(1.66)
H =
g .
are called physical:
Tensor components with respect to the basis
b
e
e
T = Teij b
ri b
rj .
(1.67)
Relations between physical and covariant components of a tensor are determined

by the known formulae (see [12]).
Exercises for 1.1.

Exercise 1.1.1. With the help of formulae (1.10), (1.12), (1.13) and (1.17) show that if
the motion law of a continuum describes extension of a beam (1.6) (see Example 1.1),
then the local basis vectors
ri
and the metric matrices have the forms
r i = ei ,
ri = ei ,
r = (1/k )
e ,
,
r = k e
g ij = ij ,
2
k1 0 0
(gij ) = 0 k22 0 ,
0
0
k32
i.e.
= 1, 2, 3,
ij
ij
= ,
2
k1
0
(g ij ) = 0 k22
0
g = k2 , g = k2 , H =
0
0
k3
g = k , b
r = e .
Exercise 1.1.2.
Show that if the motion law of a continuum describes a simple shear

(see Example 1.2), then the local basis vectors and the metric matrices have the forms
r i = ei ,
r i = ei ,
1 ,
r1 = e
g ij = ij ,
g ij = ij ,
2 ,
r2 = a
e1 + e
3 ,
r3 = e
a
,
3 ,
r =e
e ,
r =e
r3 = e
2
1
a
0
1+a
a
ij
2
gij = a 1 + a 0 ,
g =
a
1
1
0
0
!
.
Exercise 1.1.3. Show that if the motion law describes rotation of a beam with extension
(see Example 1.3), then with introducing the rotation tensor
U0 :
i e
j ,
O0 = O0i j e
U0 =
3
X
e
,
k e
=1
we can rewrite the beam motion law in the tensor form
x = F0 x,
O0
F0 = O0 U0 .
and the stretch tensor
15
Show that the local basis vectors and metric matrices for this problem have the forms
k ,
ri = F0 ki e
gij = F0 ki F0 lj kl
i ,
ri = e
2
k1 cos2 + k22 sin2 (k12 k22 ) cos sin
= (k12 k22 ) cos sin k12 sin2 + k22 cos2
0
g = k1 k2 k3 ,
g ij
k2 sin + k1 cos2 (k12 k22 ) cos sin
= (k12 k22 ) cos sin k22 cos2 + k12 sin2

2
0
0
2
3
k3
Exercise 1.1.4.
Using the property (1.14) of reciprocal basis vectors, show that the
following relations hold:
ri =
Exercise 1.1.5.
Show that
X i
k
k =
ri = P ik e
k ,
e
F, FT , F1
and
F1T
X i k
.
e
xk
in the Cartesian coordinate system
take the forms
F=
xm
i
m e
i ,
e
FT =
X k
i
i
e
xm
xm i
= i e
e
m ,
e
k m
X
x
F1 =
xm
X k i
xm

=
m ei ,
e
e
e
i
k m
x
xi
X
F1T =
X k i
xm
xm i

=
em .
e
e
e
i
k m
x
xi
X
Exercise 1.1.6. Substituting (1.54), (1.52) and (1.55) into (1.12), derive formula (1.55).
Exercise 1.1.7. Prove that
ri = F1T ri .
Exercise 1.1.8. Derive the third formula of (1.61).

Exercise 1.1.9. Prove that for any scalar function
connected by the relationship
(X i )
its gradients in
and
are
= F1T .
Exercise 1.1.10. Show that formulae (1.65) follow from (1.64).
Exercise 1.1.11.
Using (1.47), show that in formulae (1.64) the tensor

i and e
following components with respect to bases e
ri :
i
ek
ij = x X ,
H
j
k
ij )1 =
(H
k
ei
e ij = x X ,
H
j
k
xi X k
j ,
e k x
X
X x
e ij )1 =
(H
has the
xk X i
k .
e j x
X
Exercise 1.1.12.
gradient
Introducing the notation
with respect to basis
(1.36) yields
F ij
ij
for components of the deformation
ri : F = F ri rj = F i j ri rj ,
rj = F i j ri .
show that formula
16
Exercise 1.1.13. Show that the Levi-Civita symbols are connected by the relations
ijk ijk = 6,
where
T jk
ijk ilm = jl km kl jm ,
ijk ijl = 2il ,
g ijk = (1/ g ) mnl gmi gnj glk .
ijk T jk = 0
are components of an arbitrary symmetric tensor:
T jk = T kj .
Exercise 1.1.14.
Using relations (1.14a), show that the local bases vectors are
connected by the relations
r r =
g r ,
g r ,
r r =
6= 6= 6= .
Exercise 1.1.15. Show that the unit fourth-order tensors
I , II
and
III
defined by
formulae (1.22) have the following properties:
I T = I1 (T)E,
I1 (T) = T E,
1
T = (T + TT ),
III T = T,
and
II T = TT ,
I 4 = E E 4 ,
II 4 = (2134) ,
1
4 = ((2134) + ),
III 4 = 6 ,
for arbitrary second-order tensor T and fourth-order tensor . As follows from these
formulae, the tensor III is the `true' unit fourth-order tensor.
4
Exercise 1.1.16. Show that components of the symmetric unit fourth-order tensor
with respect to a tetradic basis have the form
= (ei el ei el + ei el el ei ) = ijkl ei ej ek el .
2
ijkl = ( ik jl + il jk ).
2
Exercise 1.1.17. Show that for any second-order tensor
and for any vector
the
following formula of covariant differentiation hold:
(T a) = T ( a)T + a T.
1.2. Deformation Tensors and Measures

1.2.1. Deformation Tensors.
Besides
F,
important characteristics of the
motion of a continuum are deformation tensors, which are introduced as follows:
C = (gij g ij )ri rj = ij ri rj ,
2
A = (gij g ij )ri rj = ij ri rj ,
2
= (g ij g ij )ri rj = ij ri rj ,
2
(2.1)
17
J = (g ij g ij )ri rj = ij ri rj .
2
Here
is called the right CauchyGreen deformation tensor,
Almansi deformation tensor,
the left
the right Almansi deformation tensor, and
the left CauchyGreen tensor.

As follows from the definition of the tensors, covariant components of
and
are coincident, but they are defined with respect to different tensor bases.
Components
ij
are called covariant components of the deformation tensor.
Contravariant components of the tensors

called contravariant components
ij
and
are also coincident and
of the deformation tensor, but they are
defined with respect to different tensor bases of the tensors
and
J.
Notice that the deformation tensor components
ij = (g ij g ij ),
ij = (gij g ij ),
2
(2.2)
have been defined independently of each other, therefore the formal rearrangement of indices is not permissible for these components, i.e.
kl = ij g ik g jl 6= kl ,
kl = ij gik gjl 6= kl .
(2.3)
Thus, when there is a need to obtain contravariant components from

covariant components from
ij ,
one should use the notation
kl
and
kl .
ij
and
We will
also use the notation
kl = ij g ik g jl ,
Theorem 1.3.
The deformation tensors
deformation gradient
kl = ij g ik g jl .
C, A,
and
(2.4)
are connected to the
as follows:
C = (FT F E),
A = (E F1T F1 ),
= (E F1 F1T ),
2
J = (F FT E).
2
(2.5)
H Let us derive a relation between C and F. Having used the definitions of gij ,
g ij and F, we get
1
1
1
C=
(ri rj )ri rj E =
ri ri rj rj E = (FT F E).
2
2
2
(2.6)
The remaining relations of (2.5) can be proved in the same way:
A = (E ri ri rj rj ) = (E F1T F1 ),
2
= (E ri ri rj rj ) = (E F1 F1T ),
2
J = (ri ri rj rj E) = (F FT E). N
2
(2.6a)
18
1.2.2. Deformation Measures.
Besides the deformation tensors, we define
deformation measures: the right CauchyGreen measure

measure
g:
G and the left Almansi
G = gij ri rj = FT F = E + 2C,
g = g ij ri rj = F1T F1 = E 2A,
and also the left CauchyGreen measure
G1 :
g1
(2.7)
and the right Almansi measure
g1 = g ij ri rj = F FT = E + 2J,
G1 = g ij ri rj = F1 F1T = E 2.
1.2.3. Displacement Vector. Introduce a
displacement vector
(2.8)
u
of a point
from the reference configuration to the actual one as follows (Figure 1.10):
u = x x.
Figure 1.10. The displacement vector of a point
(2.9)
from the reference configuration to the actual
one
Theorem 1.4.
The
deformation
tensors
connected to the displacement vector
F = E + ( u)T ,
FT = E + u,
and also
C=
A=
and
the
deformation
F1T = E u,
(2.10)
T
T
u+u +uu
,
are
F1 = E ( u)T ,
u + uT u uT ,
u + ( u)T uT u ,
2
1
T
T
u+u +u u .
J=
gradient
by the relations
(2.11)
19
The definition (2.9) of the displacement vector and the properties (1.35) of the
deformation gradient yield
x
+u=
i
X
FT = x = (x + u) = ri
= ri ri + u = E + u.
(2.12)
C takes the form
1
T
C=
(E + u) (E + u ) E =
2
1
T
T
=
u+u +uu
.
(2.13)
Then the tensor
In a similar way, we can prove the remaining relations of the theorem.
1.2.4. Relations between Components of Deformation Tensors and Displacement Vector. The displacement vector u can be resolved for both bases
ri and ri :

u = ui ri = ui ri .
(2.14)
Xi
The derivative with respect to

well:
u
=
X i
can be determined in both the bases as

i uk rk
= i uk rk .
(2.15)
Then the displacement vector gradients take the forms
u
= i uk ri rk = i uk ri rk ,
i
X
u
u = ri
= i uk ri rk = i uk ri rk .
X i
u = ri
(2.16)
(2.17)
Substitution of these expressions into (2.10) gives
F = (ik + i uk )rk ri = F ki rk ri .
(2.18)
Here we have introduced components of the deformation gradient in the reference

configuration:
F ki = ik + i uk .
(2.19)
T
The transpose gradient F has the components
FT = F ki ri rk = F i k rk ri ,
F i k = ik + k ui ,
where
(2.20)
(2.21)
(F i k )T = F ki .
In a similar way, one can find the expression for the inverse gradient
F1 = (ik i uk )rk ri = (F 1 )ki rk ri
(2.22)
20
and for the inversetranspose gradient
F1T = (F 1 )ki ri rk = (F 1 )i k rk ri ,
(2.23)
where their components with respect to the actual configuration are expressed
as follows:
(F 1 )i k = ik k ui ,
(2.24)
(F 1 )ki = ik i uk .
(2.25)
Thus, we have proved the following theorem.
Theorem 1.5.
Components of the deformation gradients
in local bases of configurations

displacement vector
and
F, FT , F1
and
F1T
are connected to components of the
by relations (2.19), (2.20), (2.24) and (2.25).
On substituting formulae (2.16) and (2.17) into (2.11) for
and
and
comparing them with (2.1), we get

1
ij = (i uj + j ui + i uk j uk ),
2
ij = (i uj + j ui i uk j uk ),
(2.26)
the expressions for covariant components of the deformation tensor in terms
of components of the displacement vector with respect to
and
K.
In a similar way, substituting (2.16) and (2.17) into (2.11) for

obtain
1 i j

j i
k i
and
J,
we
ij = ( u + u + u k uj ),
2
ij
= (i uj + j ui k ui k uj )
(2.27)
the relations between contravariant components of the deformation tensor and
components of the displacement vector in
and
K.
Then with using relations (2.2), (2.26) and (2.27), we can find the connection
between the metric matrices and displacement components:
gij = g ij + i uj + j ui + i uk j uk = g ij + i uj + j ui i uk j uk , (2.28)

g ij = g ij + i uj + j ui + k ui k uj = g ij + i uj + j ui k ui k uj . (2.29)
Theorem 1.6. Components of the deformation

ij are connected to components of
trices gij , g
tensor
ij , ij
and metric ma-
the displacement vector
by
relations (2.26)(2.29).
1.2.5. Physical Meaning of Components of the Deformation Tensor.
Let
us clarify now a physical meaning of components of the deformation tensor:

1
ij = (gij g ij ) = (ri rj ri rj ).
2
(2.30)
21
By the definition of the scalar product (see [12]), we have

1
=
where
and
K,
|r ||r | cos |r ||r | cos ,
and
are the angles between basis vectors
r , r
(2.31)
and
r , r
in
respectively.
Consider elementary radius-vectors

and introduce their lengths
ds
and
ds,
dx
and
in configurations
and
K,
respectively:
ds2 = dx dx,
dx
ds2 = dx dx.
(2.32)
dx is arbitrary, we can choose it to be oriented along one of the basis
vectors r . Then dx will be directed along the corresponding vector r as well,
because under this transformation r becomes r for the same material point M
k
with Lagrangian coordinates X . In this case we have
Since
x
|dx| = ds = dX = |r | dX ,
X
|dx| = ds = dX = |r | dX .
(2.33)
Hence
where
ds /ds = |r |/|r | = + 1,
(2.34)
is called the relative elongation. Formula (2.34) yields
|r | = |r |(1 + ).
(2.35)
On substituting this expression into (2.31), we get
= |r ||r | (1 + )(1 + ) cos cos .

1
(2.36)
Consider the case when
= ,
then
= = 0
and
1
= |r |2 (1 + )2 1 = (1 + )2 1 .
2
Let coordinates
= ;
be coincident with Cartesian coordinates
xi ,
and for infinitesimal values of the relative elongation, when
obtain
i.e.
Xi
(2.37)
then
1,
,
is coincident with the relative elongation.
In general,
g =
is a nonlinear function of corresponding elongations.
we
(2.38)
22
Consider
6=
and assume that
X i = xi ,
= /2;
then
and from (2.36)
we get
= |r ||r |(1 + )(1 + ) cos =

2
q
q
1
1
=
g g (1 + )(1 + ) sin = (1 + )(1 + ) sin ,
2
(2.39)
= = (/2) is the change of the angle between basis

vectors r and r . For small relative elongations, when 1, and small angles
1, from (2.39) we get
where
/2,
i.e.
(2.40)
is a half of the misalignment angle of the basis vectors.
1.2.6. Transformation of an Oriented Surface Element.

ration
and X .
consider a smooth surface
In actual configu-
which contains two coordinate lines
Then we can introduce the normal
as follows:
to the surface
n = p r r .
(2.41)
ge
Here
ge = det (e
g ),
and
matrix of the surface (,
ge is the
= 1, 2):
two-dimensional
ge = r r
Figure 1.11. Introduction of
oriented
surface
n d
element
In configuration
are directed along local basis vectors, i.e.
dx = r dX
p
d = ge dX dX
is called the area of the surface element
gij =
consider a surface element
constructed on elementary radius-vectors
dx .
(2.42)
(it is not to be confused with the metric matrix
= ri rj ).
dx ,
which
(Figure 1.11). The value
constructed on vectors
(2.43)
dx
and
Then formula (2.41) takes the form
n d = r dX r dX = dx dx ,
where
n d
(2.44)
is called the oriented surface element.
Show that the normal
defined by formula (2.41) is a unit vector. According
to the property (1.14b) of the vector product of basis vectors and the results of
Exercise 1.1.13, we can rewrite equation (2.44) in the form
n d = r r dX dX =
g r dX dX =
= (1/ g )ijk gi gj rk dX dX
(2.45)
23
, ).
(there is no summation over
n d n d =
Thus,
1
g r ijk gi gj rk )(dX dX )2 =
g
= (k
ijk
gi gj )(dX dX )2 = (i j i j )gi gj (dX dX )2 =

2
= (g g g
)(dX dX )2 = ge(dX dX )2 = d2 .
Hence,
n n = 1.
The surface element
in
corresponds to the surface element
dx
which is constructed on elementary radiusvectors
(2.46)
and
(2.47)
is the unit normal to
Since
n d =
K,
dx :
n d = r dX r dX = r r dX dX .
Here
in
r = F1T r
d.
, we get
g F1T r dX dX =
Theorem 1.7.
connected by the relation
g/g n F1 d =
n d
The oriented surface elements
n d =
g/g F1T r r dX dX =
q

= g/g F1T n d.
and
n d
and
in
g/g F1T n d.
(2.48)
are
(2.49)
With the help of the deformation measures we can derive formulae connecting
the normals
in
and
and
to the surface element containing the same material points
K.
Multiplying the equation (2.49) by itself and taking the formula
nn=
into account, we get
d2 = (n F1 F1T n) d2 = (n G1 n) d2 .
g
Thus,
d/d =
g/g (n G1 n)1/2 .
On the other hand, expressing
(2.50)
(2.51)
from (2.49) and then multiplying the
obtained relation by itself, we obtain
d 2 =
Thus, we find that
g
g
(n F FT n) d2 = (n g1 n) d2 ,
g
g
d/d =
g/g (n g1 n)1/2 .
(2.52)
(2.53)
24
On introducing the notation
k = (n G1 n)1/2 = (n F1 F1T n)1/2 ,

k = (n g1 n)1/2 = (n F FT n)1/2 ,
(2.54)
relations (2.52) take the form
q
q
d/d = g/g k = g/g (1/k).
Thus, we get
(2.55)
k = 1/k.
(2.56)
Substitution of (2.52) and (2.53) into (2.49) gives the desired relations
kn = F1T n,
k n = FT n.
(2.57)
1.2.7. Representation of the Inverse Metric Matrix in terms of Components

of the Deformation Tensor. Components gij of the metric matrix are connected
ij
to components of the deformation tensor
by relation (2.2). In continuum
mechanics, one often needs to know the expression of the inverse metric matrix
g ij
in terms of
ij
(but not in terms of
ij ).
To derive this relation, we should
use the connection between components of a matrix and its inverse (see [12]):
g ij =
For
g ij ,
1
2g
imn jkl gmk gnl .
(2.58)
we have the similar formula
g ij =
imn jkl
2g
g mk g nl .
On substituting the relations (2.2) between
(2.59)
gmn , g mn
and
mn
into (2.59), we
get
g ij =
1
2g
imn jkl (g mk + 2mk )(g nl + 2nl ) =

=
1
2g
imn jkl (g mk g nl + 2g mk nl + 1g nl mk + 4mk nl ).
(2.60)
Removing the parentheses, modify four summands in (2.60) in the following way.
The first summand with taking formula (2.59) into account gives the matrix
g ij (g/g).
To transform the second and the third summands, we should use the
q
q
jkl

(1/ g ) = g tsp g jt g ks g lp .
formulae
(2.61)
(1/g)imn jkl g mk = imn tsp g jt g ks g lp g mk = imn tmp g jt g lp =
= (ti pn pi tn )g jt g lp = g ij g nl g jn g il .
(1/g)imn jkl g mk nl = (g ij g nl g jn g il )nl .
(2.62)
(2.63)
25
Formula (2.61) follows from the relation
g ijk = (1/ g ) mnl gmi gnj glk

(see [12]), and relationship (2.62) has been obtained by using formula (2.61) and
the properties of the Levi-Civita symbols (see Exercise 1.1.13).
On substituting formula (2.63) into (2.60), we get
g ij =

g ij
2
g + 2(g ij g nl 2g il g jn )nl + imn jkl mk nl .
g
g
Finally, we should express the determinant

do this, we multiply relation (2.64) by
3g
gij
g = det (gij )
in terms of
(2.64)
ij .
To
and take formula (2.2) into account:

2
= g g ij + 2(g ij g nl g il g jn )nl + imn jpl mp nl (g ij + 2ij ).
g
(2.65)
Thus, we get
3g
= g(3 + 4g nl nl + (2/g)imn jpl g ij mp nl +
+ 2g ij ij + 4(g ij g nl g il g jn )nl ij + (4/g)imn jpl ij mp nl .
(2.66)
Modifying the third summand on the right-hand side by formula (2.63) and
introducing the notation
I1 = g nl nl ,
I2 = (g ij g nl g il g jn )ij nl ,
2
I3 = det (ij gik ),
(2.67)
from (2.66) we get the desired formula
g = g(1 + 2I1 + 4I2 + 8I3 ).
(2.68)
Here we have taken account of formula (2.58) for the matrix determinant
and also the relation
I3 = (1/g)det (ij ).
theorem.
Theorem 1.8.
nents
ij
The inverse metric matrix
of the deformation tensor and
ij
Thus, we have proved the following
g ij
is expressed in terms of compo-
by formulae (2.64) and (2.68).
Formulae (2.64) and (2.68) allow us to find the expression of contravariant

components
ij
of the deformation tensor in terms of
ij .
It follows from (2.2)
that
ij
ij
ij
ij g
= (1/2)(g g ) = g

g
g
1
(g ij g nl g il g jn )nl imn jkl mk nl .
2g
g
g
(2.69)
Substitution of formulae (2.26) or (2.27) into (2.64) and (2.69) gives the
expression for components
ui
or
ui .
ij
in terms of components of the displacement vector
26
Exercises for 1.2

Exercise 1.2.1. Using the results of Exercise 1.1.1, show that the deformation gradient
and its inverse
F1
for the problem on a beam in tension (see Example 1.1) have the
forms
F=F =
3
X
e
,
k e
=F
1T
=1
3
X
=1
e
.
e
For this problem, the deformation tensors are determined by the formulae
C==
1
2
3
X
,
(k2 1)
e e
A==
=1
3
X
,
(1 k2 )
e e
=1
the deformation measures are determined as follows:
G = g 1 =
3
X
g = G1 =
e
,
k2 e
=1
3
X
e
,
k2 e
=1
and components of the deformation tensor take the forms

1
= (1 k2 ) .
= (k2 1) ,
2
Exercise 1.2.2.
Using the results of Exercise 1.1.2, show that for the problem on a
simple shear we have the following formulae for the deformation gradient:
i e
j = E + a
2 ,
F = F ij e
e1 e
2 ,
F1 = E a
e1 e
i.e.
ij
1 ,
FT = E + a
e2 e
1 ,
F1T = E a
e2 e
!
det F = 1,
for the deformation tensors:
C = (a/2)O3 + (a2 /2)

e22 ,
A = (a/2)O3 (a2 /2)

e22 ,
= (a/2)O3 (a2 /2)

e21 ,
J = (a/2)O3 + (a2 /2)

e21 ,
and for components of the deformation tensor:
(ij ) =
a/2
a/2
a2 /2
ij
( ) =
a/2
a/2
a2 /2
!
.
Here we have introduced the notation
1 e
2 + e
2 e
1 ,
O3 e
2 e
e
,
e
= 1, 2, 3.
Exercise 1.2.3. Using the formulae from Example 1.3 (see paragraph 1.1.1), show that
for the problem on rotation of a beam with extension, the deformation gradient has the
form
i e
j = cos
F = F0 ij e
2
X
=1
e
+ k3 e
3 e
3 + sin k2 (
1 e
1 e
2 ).
k e
e2 e
27
1.3. Polar Decomposition
Exercise 1.2.4. Using formulae (1.36), (2.18)(2.25) and the results of Exercise 1.1.7,
show that local basis vectors are connected to displacements by the relations
ri = rk (ik + k ui ),
Exercise 1.2.5.
Using formulae (2.37) and (2.39), show that the physical components
of the deformation tensor

and angles
ri = rk (ik i uk ).
b
= /
g g
are connected to relative elongations
by the relations
b
1
= (1 + )(1 + ) sin .
b
1
= ((1 + )2 1),
2
Exercise 1.2.6.
e
ri of curvilinear coordinate
u can be rewritten in the
Show that in the basis
expression of the tensor
in terms of
system
ei
X
the
form similar to
(2.22)(2.25):
rk e
ri ,
F1 = (Fe1 )ki e
u=u
eke
rk ,
e iu
(Fe1 )ki = ik
ek .
Exercise 1.2.7. Using formula (1.34), show that the following relationships hold:
|dx|2 = dx G dx,
|dx|2 = dx g dx.

1.3.1. Theorem on Polar Decomposition. According to (1.36), the tensor F
can be considered as a tensor of the linear transformation from the basis ri to
the basis ri . Since the vectors ri and ri are linearly independent, the tensor F is
nonsingular. Then for this tensor the following theorem is valid.
Theorem 1.9 (on the polar decomposition).

tensor
F=OU
Here
Any nonsingular second-order
can be represented as the scalar product of two second-order tensors:
and
are
the
symmetric
or
F = V O.
and
positive-definite
(3.1)
tensors,
is
the
orthogonal tensor, and each of the decompositions (3.1) is unique.
Prove the existence of the decomposition (3.1) in the constructive way, i.e. we
should construct the tensors

of the tensor
U, V
O. To do this, consider
FT F and F FT . Both
and
with its transpose:
the contractions
the tensors are
symmetric, because
(FT F)T = FT (FT )T = FT F
and
(F FT )T = (FT )T FT = F FT , (3.2)
and positive-definite:
a (FT F) a = (a FT ) (F a) = (F a) (F a) = b b = |b|2 > 0

for any non-zero vector
(3.3)
a, where b = F a. Since any symmetric positive-definite

FT F
tensor has three real positive eigenvalues [12], eigenvalues of tensors
28
F FT
and
can be denoted as
and
2 .
These tensors are diagonal in their
eigenbases, i.e. they have the following forms:
FT F =
3
X

2 p p ,
F FT =
=1
Here
3
X
2 p p .
(3.4)
=1
are the eigenvectors of the tensor
FT F
and
of the tensor
F FT ,
which are real-valued and orthonormal:
p p = ,
p p = .
(3.5)
The right-hand sides of (3.4) are the squares of certain tensors
and
defined
as
U=
3
X

p p , > 0;
V=
=1
Here signs at
3
X
p p , > 0.
(3.6)
=1
are always chosen positive.
In this case, the following relations are valid:
FT F = U2 ,
The constructed tensors
and
F FT = V2 .
(3.7)
are symmetric due to formula (3.6) and
positive-definite, because for any nonzero vector
we have
3
3
X
X
aUa=
a p p a =
(a p )2 > 0,
=1
as
> 0.
In a similar way, we can prove that the tensor
Both the tensors
and
the theorem, the tensor
(3.8)
=1
is positive-definite.
are nonsingular, because, under the conditions of
is nonsingular. And from (3.7) we get
(det U)2 = det U2 = det (FT F) = (det F)2 6= 0.

Then there exist inverse tensors
U1
and
V 1 ,
(3.9)
with the help of which we can
construct two more new tensors
O = F U1 ,
O = V 1 F ,
(3.10)
which are orthogonal. Indeed,
OT O = (F U1 )T (F U1 ) = U1 FT F U1 = U1 U2 U1 = E.
(3.11)
According to [12], this means that the tensor

we can show that the tensor
is orthogonal. In a similar way,
is orthogonal as well.
Thus, we have really constructed the tensors
the product of which, due to (3.10), gives the tensor
F = O U = V O.
and
O,
and also
and
O,
F:
(3.12)
29
Here
and
are symmetric, positive-definite tensors,
and
are orthogonal
tensors.
Show that each of the decompositions (3.12) is unique. By contradiction, let
there be one more resolution, for example
But then
hence,
e = U,
U
(3.13)
e 2 = U2 ,
FT F = U
(3.14)
because the decomposition of the tensor
is unique. Signs at
coincidence of
e U.
e
F=O
and
and
e
U
for its eigenbasis
are chosen positive by the condition. The
leads to the fact that
because
FT F
e
O
and
are coincident as well,
e =FU
e 1 = F U1 = O.
O
(3.15)
This has proved uniqueness of the decomposition (3.12). We can verify uniqueness of the decomposition
F=VO
in a similar way.
Finally, we must show that the orthogonal tensors
and
are coincident,
i.e. formula (3.1) follows from (3.12). To do this, we construct the tensor
F OT = O U OT .
(3.16)
Due to (3.12), this tensor satisfies the following relationship:
O U OT = V O OT .
(3.17)
The tensor
O OT
is orthogonal, because
(O OT )T (O OT ) = O OT O OT = O OT = E.
(3.18)
Then the relationship (3.17) can be considered as the polar decomposition of the
tensor
O U OT .
This tensor is symmetric, because
(O U OT )T = (OT )T (O U)T = O U OT .
(3.19)
Then the formal equality
O U OT = O U OT
(3.20)
is one more polar decomposition. However, as was shown above, the polar
decomposition is unique; hence, the following relationships must be satisfied:
V = O U OT
Thus, the orthogonal tensors
The tensors
tively, and
and
and
O OT = E.
and
(3.21)
are coincident:
O = O. N
are called the right and left stretch tensors, respec-
is the rotation tensor accompanying the deformation.
30
The tensor
has nine independent components, the tensor
independent components, and each of the tensors
and
three
six independent
components.
Remark 1. Since the rotation tensor
is unique in the polar decomposition,
from formula (3.21) we get that the stretch tensors
V = O U OT ,
Theorem 1.10.
and
U = OT V O.
are connected by
(3.21a)
The CauchyGreen and Almansi deformation tensors can be
expressed in terms of the stretch tensors
and
as follows:
A = (E V2 ),
C = (U2 E),
2
= (E U2 ),
J = (V2 E).
O:
means of the tensor
(3.22)
To see this, let us substitute the polar decomposition (3.1) into (2.5), and then
we get the relationships (3.22).
1.3.2. Eigenvalues and Eigenbases.

Theorem 1.11. Eigenvalues of the tensors
coincident:
= ,
and eigenvectors
and
and
defined by (3.6) are
= 1, 2, 3,
(3.23)
are connected by the rotation tensor
O:
p = O p .
H
(3.23a)
To prove the theorem, we use the definition (3.6) and the first formula of
(3.21a):
V=
3
X
3
3
X
X
p p = O U O =
O p (O p ) =
p0 p0 ,
=1
=1
where
=1
p0 = O p .
According to the relationship, we have obtained two different eigenbases of the

tensor
and two sets of eigenvalues, that is impossible. Therefore,
p0 = O p = p
as was to be proved.
and
= ,
Due to (3.5), both the eigenbases are orthogonal. Therefore, reciprocal

vectors of the eigenbases do not differ from
p = p ,
and
p :
p = p .
The important problem for applications is to determine

given deformation gradient
method.
(3.24)
, p
and
by the
F. To solve the problem, one should use the following
31
1) Construct the tensor
U2 = FT F (or V2 = F FT ) and find its components in
some basis being suitable for a considered problem; for example, in the Cartesian
basis
i :
e
2 )i j e
i e
j
U2 = (U
2) Find eigenvalues of the matrix
and
2 )i
(U
j
i e
j .
V2 = (V 2 )i j e
by solving the characteristic equation
det (U2 2 E) = 0,
which in the basis
i
e
(3.25)
takes the form
det ((U2 )i j 2 ji ) = 0.
3) Find eigenvectors
of the tensor
(3.25a)
and eigenvectors
of the tensor
from the equations
U2 p = 2 p ,
written, for example, in the basis
2 )i 2 i )Q
b j = 0,
((U
j
j
bj
Q
(3.26)
i :
e
where
V2 p = 2 p ,
b j = 0,
((V 2 )i j 2 ji )Q
(3.26a)
and
bj
Q
are Jacobian matrices of the eigenvectors:
bj e
j ,
p = Q
To determine the matrices
bj
Q
and
bj e
j .
p = Q
bj ,
Q
(3.27)
one should consider only independent
equations of the system (3.26a) and the normalization conditions (3.5):
|p | = 1,
|p | = 1,
(3.28)
which are equivalent to the quadratic equations
bi Q
b j ij = 1,
Q
bi Q
b j ij = 1.
Q
(3.28a)
4) Write the dyadic products (3.6) and find resolutions of the tensors
for the eigenbases; for example, for the Cartesian basis
U=
3
X
bi Q
bj e
i e
j ,
Q
V=
3
X
and
i :
e
bi Q
bj e
i e
j .
Q
=1
=1
Exercises 1.3.21.3.4 show examples of determination of the tensors
and
V.
Remark 2. Notice that a solution of the quadratic equations (3.28a) may be
i
b i , this
b
not unique due to the choice of signs of matrix components Q and Q
ambiguity is resolved by applying one more additional condition, namely the

condition of coincidence of the vectors
t 0+
and
p (t) = p (t),
when
= 1,
t 0+ :
2, 3.
32
bi ,
Q
For the matrix
the ambiguity of the sign choice remains. However, if
p (x, t), then this ambiguity may be retained only

at one point x0 at one time, for example, t = 0; and for the remaining x and t,
b i is chosen from the continuity condition of the vector field p

a sign at Q
(x, t)
(for continuous motions). If the eigenvector field p (x0 , 0) contains the vectors
, then the remaining ambiguity is resolved by the condition p (x0 , 0) = e

.
e
there is a field of eigenvectors
The ambiguity of a solution of the system (3.26a), (3.28a) may also appear,
t1
if at some time
at a point
case, values of the matrices
the eigenvalues
b i (t1 )
Q
(t1 )
b i (t1 )
Q
and
prove to be triple. In this
are determined, as a rule, by
passage to the limit:
b i (t1 ) = lim Q
b i (t),
Q
b i (t1 ) = lim Q
b i (t), = 1, 2, 3.
Q
tt1
tt1
In the case of double eigenvalues
corresponding matrix components
bi
Q
these formulae are applied only to their
and
bi .
Q
1.3.3. Representation of the Deformation Tensors in Eigenbases.
Theorem 1.12. In the tensor bases p p and p p , the CauchyGreen

tensors
G, g1
J, the Almansi tensors A and ,

G1 , g have the diagonal form:
and
and
C=
3
X
1
=1
A=
(2 1)p p ,
3
X
1
=1
3
X
1
=1
and
G=
(1
)p
p ,
J=
=1
3
X
G1 =
2 p p ,
3
X
(3.29a)
(2 1)p p ;
p p ,
(3.29b)
=1
X
3
g1 =
2
(1
)p p ,
3
X
1
=1
2 p p ,
=1
and the deformation measures
g=
3
X
p p .
=1
On substituting formulae (3.6) into (3.22), we get (3.29a). Formulae (3.29b)
follow from (3.29a) and (2.7), (2.8).
Similarly to formulae (3.29), we can introduce new deformation tensors by

determining their components with respect to the bases
follows:
M=
3
X
=1
where
and if
f ( )p p ,
M=
3
X
p p
f ( )p p ,
or
p p
as
(3.30)
=1
f ( ) is a function of . If f (1) = 0, then we get the deformation tensors;

f (1) = 1, then we get the deformation measures.
33
Among the tensors (3.30), the logarithmic deformation tensors and measures
3
X
H=
lg p p ,
H=
=1
3
X
lg p p ,
(3.31)
=1
H1 = H + E,
H1 = H + E,
are the most widely known; they are called the right and left Hencky tensors,
and also the right and left Hencky measures, respectively.
With the help of the eigenvectors
3
X
p p =
=1
3
X
and
p p O = (
=1
3
X
we can form the mixed dyads
p p ) O = E O.
(3.32)
=1
Here we have used the properties (3.23a) and (3.24), and the representation of
the unit tensor
in an arbitrary mixed dyadic basis.
Thus, the rotation tensor
accompanying the deformation can be expressed
in the eigenbasis as follows:
O=
3
X
p p = pi pi .
(3.33)
=1
On substituting (3.33) and (3.6) into (3.1) and taking (3.5) into account, we
get the following expression of the deformation gradient in the tensor eigenbasis:
F=OU=
3
X
p p
=1
3
3
X
X

p p .
p p =
=1
=1
According to (3.34), the transpose
(3.34)
FT
and inverse
F1
gradients are ex-
pressed as follows:
FT =
3
X
F1 =
p p ,
1.3.4. Geometrical Meaning of Eigenvalues.
Vectors of eigenbases
are connected by the transformation (3.23a). In
vectors
dx
oriented along the eigenbasis vectors
to radius-vectors
p p .
(3.35)
=1
=1
3
X
dx :
p ,
and
take elementary radius-
then in
dx = p |dx |,
dx = F dx .
they correspond
(3.36)
Substitution of (3.34) into (3.36) yields
dx =
3
X
=1
p p p |dx | = |dx |p ,
(3.37)
34
dx in K will be
p .
vectors dx and dx by ds
i.e. the elementary radius-vectors
also oriented along the
corresponding eigenbasis vectors

Denote lengths of the
and
ds,
respectively, and
derive relations between them:
ds2 = dx dx = dx FT F dx = |dx |2 p FT F p =

= ds2 p G p = ds2 2 .
(3.38)
Here we have used equations (3.29b) and (3.36). Formula (3.38) proves the
following theorem.
Theorem 1.13.
Eigenvalues
(principal stretches) are the elongation ratios
for material fibres oriented along the principal (eigen-) directions:
= ds /ds .
(3.39)
1.3.5. Geometric Picture of Transformation of a Small Neighborhood of a
Point of a Continuum. In K, consider a small neighborhood of the material

0
point M contained in a continuum; then every point M , connected to M by the
elementary radius-vector
by radius-vector
dx
dx (Figure 1.12), will be connected to the same

K. These radius-vectors are related as follows:
point
in
dx = F dx.
(3.40)
The relation can be considered as the transformation of arbitrary radius-vector
dx
into
dx.
Figure 1.12. Transformation of a small neighborhood of the point contained in a continuum
Rewrite the relation (3.40) in Cartesian coordinates:
i
dxi = Fm
dxm ,
where
i
Fm
(3.41)
are components of the deformation gradient with respect to the
Cartesian basis (see Exercise 1.1.5):
i
Fm
= (xi / xm ),
which depend only on coordinates
of coordinates
dxm
of the point
of its neighboring points
M0 .
(3.42)
M,
but they are independent
Therefore the transformation
35
(3.41) is a linear transformation of coordinates
dxm
dxi ,
into
i.e. this is an affine
transformation.
As follows from the general properties of affine transformations, straight
lines and planes contained in a small neighborhood in
K.
lines and planes in actual configuration
will be straight
Parallel straight lines and planes
are transformed into parallel straight lines and planes. Therefore if a small
neighborhood in
is chosen to be a parallelogram, then in
the neighborhood
will be a parallelogram as well (although angles between its edges, edge lengths
and orientation of planes in space may change).
(and, in general, a surface specified by an
n-th
order) is transformed into a surface of the
Since a second-order surface in

algebraic expression of arbitrary
same order in
K,
a small spherical neighborhood in
ellipsoid in actual configuration
As follows from formula (2.34), the ratio of lengths

vector (or of elementary radius-vector
initial length
of
dx
in
ds /ds
K)
and
of an arbitrary
is independent of the
of the vector (because the relative elongation
is independent
ds ).
According to the polar decomposition (3.1), the transformation (3.40) from
ds
is transformed into an
(Figure 1.12).
to
can always be represented as the superposition of two transformations:
dx = O dx0 ,
realized with the help of the stretch tensor
U,
(3.43)
and the rotation tensor
O,
dx = V dx0 ,
The stretch tensor
dx0 = U dx,
dx0 = O dx.
or
(3.44)
which has three eigendirections
p ,
transforms a small
M with compressing or extending the neighborhood
along these three directions p . The tensor O rotates the neighborhood deformed
along p as a rigid whole until the direction of p becomes the direction of

neighborhood of the point
p .
If one use the left stretch tensor
coincidence with
V,
U.
M
the eigendirection
point
in
till their
is first realized, and then compression or tension of the
neighborhood occurs along the direction

If a point
so rotation of axes
is connected to
The result will be the same as for
by radius-vector
dx
oriented along
(which is unknown before deformation), then in
will be connected to
corresponding eigendirection
by radius-vector
p .
If a small neighborhood of point

Figure 1.12), then in
p .
dx
the
oriented along the
is chosen to be a sphere in
(see
the sphere becomes an ellipsoid with principal axes
oriented along the eigendirections
p .
Thus, the transformation of a small neighborhood of every point
M contained
in a continuum under deformation can always be represented as a superposition
36
of tension/compression along eigendirections and rotation of the neighborhood

as a rigid whole, and also displacement as a rigid whole.
Exercises for 1.3

Exercise 1.3.1.
and
Using the formula (3.21a), show that the following relations between
hold:
for all integer
Vm = O Um OT ,
Um = OT Vm O
(positive and negative).
Exercise 1.3.2.
Using the results of Exercises 1.1.1 and 1.2.1, show that for the
problem on tension of a beam, eigenvalues are
= k ,
U
The stretch tensors
and
= 1, 2, 3.
are coincident and have the form
U=V=
3
X
k e e ,
=1
and eigenvectors
and
coincide with
e :
p = p = e ,
The rotation tensor
Exercise 1.3.3.
= 1, 2, 3.
O = E.
for this problem is the unit one:
Using the results of Exercises 1.1.2, 1.2.2 and Remark 2, show that
for the problem on simple shear (see Example 1.2 from paragraph 1.1.1), the tensors
and
are expressed as follows:
2 )i j e
i e
j ,
U2 = FT F = E + aO3 + a2 e2i = (U
2 )i j
(U
i e
j ,
V2 = E + aO3 + a2 e2i = (V 2 )i j e
!
2
1
a
0
1+a
a
2 i
2
= a 1+a 0 ,
(V ) j =
a
1
0
eigenvalues
0
0
!
,
are
2 = 1 + b |a|, = 1, 2;
3 = 1,
q
q
a
a
b1 = + 1 + a2 /4 ,
b2 = 1 + a2 /4 ,
2
eigenvectors
and
p (a > 0)
are
p = p
1
p1 = q
1
the stretch tensors
+b
1
1
+ b2
1 + e
2 ),
(b1 e
2
1
and
2 ),
(
e1 + b e
1
p2 = q
1
+ b22
3 ,
p3 = e
1 + e
2 ),
(b2 e
are
ij e
i e
j = U0 e
21 + U1 O3 + U2 e
22 + e
23 ,
U=U
3 ,
p3 = e
U2
37
i e
j = U2 e
21 + U1 O3 + U0 e
22 + e
23 ,
V = V ij e
!
U0 U1 0
U2 U1 0
ij = U1 U2 0 ,
U
V ij = U1 U0 0 ,
0
U =
b1
+ b1 a
+ b21
b2
+ b2 a
+ b22
= 0, 1, 2,
has the form
2 e
2 e
1 ),
i e
j = cos (
22 ) + sin (
O = O je
e1 e
e21 + e
!
cos sin 0
i
j = sin cos 0 ,
O
b1
cos =
1
Show that functions
b1 (a)
+ b21
and
b1 + b2 = a,
Show that at
a=0
sin =
b2
b2 (a)
+ b22
b21
1
+ b21
b22
+ b22
satisfy the following relationships:
b1 b2 = 1,
b21 + b22 = 2 + a2 .
for the considered problem the following equations really hold:
b1 = 1,
b2 = 1,
1 = 2 = 3 = 1,
2 ),
e1 + e
p1 = p1 = (
2 ).
p2 = p2 = (
e1 e
Exercise 1.3.4.
Using the results of Exercise 1.2.3, show that for the problem on
rotation of a beam with tension (see Example 1.3 from paragraph 1.1.1), eigenvalues
have the form
= k ,
= 1, 2, 3,
and eigenvectors
,
p = e
,
p = O0 e
= 1, 2, 3.
Using formulae from Exercise 1.1.3 and data from Example 1.3, show that tensors
and also C, A, and J have the form
U, V, O,
U = U0 =
3
X
i e
j ,
O = O0 = O0i j e
e
,
k e
=1
21 + V1 O3 + V2 e
22 + k3 e
23 = V0 ij e
i e
j ,
V = O0 U0 OT
= V0 e
0
!
V0 V1 0
i
V0 j = V1 V2 0 ,
0
0
k3
V1 = k1 cos2 + k2 sin2 ,
V1 = (k1 k2 ) cos sin ,

2
V2 = k1 sin + k2 cos2 ,
1
C = (U20 E) =
2
3
X
=1
1
2
,
(k2 1)
e e
38

3
X
2
= (E U
)=
0
A = (E V
=1
ij
ij
j ,
) = ( g )
ei e
2
gij
where metric matrices
and
g ij
1
2
,
(1 k2 )
e e
1
j ,
J = (V2 E) = (gij ij )
ei e
are determined by formulae from Exercise 1.1.3.
We should take into consideration that the tensors
and
do not feel the beam
rotation they are coincident with the corresponding tensors for the problem on pure
tension of the beam. Show that if we change the sequence of transformations (i.e. we
first rotate and then extend the beam), then the tensors
and
do not feel the rotation.
1.4. Rate Characteristics of Continuum Motion

1.4.1. Velocity.
The velocity (vector) of the motion of a material point
with Lagrangian coordinates

radius-vector
x(X i , t)
Xi
with respect to time at fixed values of
v(X i , t) =
(X i , t)
t
Velocity components
vi
Xi
x
i ,
e
t
vi =
X i:
i =
v = vi e
is determined as the partial derivative of the
(4.1)
i
e
have the form
x
(X j , t).
t
(4.2)
1.4.2. Total Derivative of a Tensor with respect to Time. Any vector field
a(x, t)
(and also scalar or tensor field) varying with time, which describes
some physical process in a continuum, can be expressed in both Eulerian and

Lagrangian descriptions with the help of the motion law (1.3):
a(x, t) = a(x(X j , t), t).
(4.3)
Determine the derivative of the function with respect to time at fixed

for a fixed point
M):
respect to time
The partial derivative of a varying vector field

at fixed coordinates
function (4.3) with respect to time:
(i.e.
a
a
a xj
i=
i+ j
.
t X
t x
x t X i
Definition 1.1.
Xi
Xi
(4.4)
a
(4.3) with
is called the t o t a l derivative of the
a
da
=
.
dt
t X i
(4.5)
According to formulae (4.2), (1.11) and (1.23), the second summand on the
right-hand side of (4.4) can be rewritten as follows:
a xj
a
a
a
i e
j P kj
= vj P kj
= vi e
= v rk
= v a. (4.6)
j t
k
k
x
X
X
X k
Then the relationship (4.4) yields
a
da
=
+ v a,
dt
t
(4.7)
39
where we have introduced the notation for the partial derivative with respect to
time which will be widely used below:
a
a i
=
(x , t) i .
t
t
x
In formula (4.7) the vector
that if
(4.8)
is considered as a function
a(xj , t).
It is evident
j
is considered as a function of (X , t), then from the definition (4.5) we
get
da i
(x , t) = a(X j , t) i .
dt
t
X
(da/dt)
The total derivative
(4.9)
is also called the material (substantial, indi-
(a/t) in
v a is the
vidual) derivative with respect to time,
(4.7) is the partial (local)
derivative with respect to time, and
convective derivative.
The material derivative

a fixed material point
M,
da/dt
in time at a fixed point
characterizes a change of the vector field
in
the local derivative determines a change of values of

in space, and from (4.6) we get that the convective
derivative characterizes a change of the field due to transfer of the material

particle
from a point
If we choose the vector
and the velocity
to a point x + vdt in space.

v as a, then the relationship between the displacement
vectors has the form
v=
dx
du
u
=
=
+ v u.
dt
dt
t
(4.10)
Similarly to formula (4.5), we can define the total derivative of the

tensor
n with respect to time:

n
n
= d n (xi , t) = (X i , t)
dt
Theorem 1.14.
Xi
nth-order
(4.11)
The total derivative (4.11) of a varying tensor field
n (xi , t)
can be written as a sum of local and convective derivatives:
d n
n
=
+ v n .
dt
t
(4.12)
Proof of the theorem is similar to the proof of the relationship (4.7). Details
are left as Exercise 1.4.6.
Let us consider now the question on components of the total derivative tensor.
Theorem 1.15.
Components of the total derivative tensor
with the corresponding components of a tensor

bases
i
ri , e
and
e
ri
and a moving basis
ri
as follows:
d i ...in

= i ...in (X i , t) i ,
dt
t
X
d i ...in
i ...in i
i ...in i
=
(x , t) + vk k
(x , t),
dt
t
x
e i ...in e i
d e i ...in
e k
e i ...in (X
e i , t),
=
(X , t) + vek
dt
t
1
are connected
with respect to stationary
(4.13)
(4.14)
(4.15)
40
d i
dt
= i
t
in
1 ...
in
1 ...
n
X
(X , t) +
(i
1 ...
k...in
k v i )(X i , t),
(4.16)
=1
where
= d
i
in
1 ...
dt
in =
(xi , t)
ei . . . e
1
d ei
dt
1 ...
in
k in place of i .
H To prove the theorem,
i
=
1 ...
e i , t)e
rin =
(X
ri . . . e
In formula (4.16), the component
d i
dt
in
(X i , t)ri . . . rin =
1
d i
dt
1 ...
in
(X i , t)ri . . . rin .
1
...k...in
as the
th
superscript has index
n for different bases:
we resolve the tensor
in = i ...in (X i , t)ri . . . rin =

(xi , t)
ei . . . e
e i ...in (X
e i , t)e
=
ri . . . e
rin = i ...in (X i , t)ri . . . rin ,
...in
(4.17)
(4.18)
n
and choose arguments of components of the tensor as in formula (4.18).
Then, substituting the resolution (4.18) for the basis ri into the definition
(4.11), we get the expression (4.13), because dri /dt = 0.

i into the relationship
On substituting the resolution (4.18) for the basis e
(4.12), we obtain
i ...in
i
=
i . . . e
in + vk e
k m
e
1
...in m
e
i . . . e
in . (4.18a)
e
It is evident that formula (4.14) follows from (4.18a).

In a similar way, substituting the resolution (4.18) for the basis
relation (4.12) and using the property (1.61) of nabla-operators
also the equation
e
ri /t = 0
(for the stationary basis
e
ri
e
ri
and
into the
e,
and
see paragraph 1.1.7), we
get
e i ...in
=
e m
ei
e
ri . . . e
rin + veke
rk
1
...in m
e
r e
ri . . . e
rin ;
1
(4.19)
and formula (4.15) follows from (4.19) at once.

Finally, substituting the resolution (4.18) for the moving basis
ri
into the
definition of the total derivative (4.12), we obtain
i ...in
ri . . . rin +
i
n
X
...i ...in
ri . . .
1
=1
ri
. . . rin .
t X i
(4.20)
Due to the definition (1.10) of local bases vectors and the definition (4.1) of the
velocity, we have
2x
ri
v
(X j , t) j =
j =
= i v k rk .
i
t
X
tX X
X i X j
(4.21)
On substituting (4.21) into (4.20) and then collecting components at the same
elements of the polyadic basis, we derive the formula (4.16).
41
It should be noted that arguments of the resolutions (4.18) and of the

derivatives of tensor components (4.13)(4.16) have been chosen in the specific
way.
1.4.3. Differential of a Tensor.

Definition 1.2. For a tensor field n (xi , t),
d n =
the following object
d
dt
dt
(4.22)
is called the d i f f e r e n t i a l of a tensor field (or the differential of a tensor)
n (xi , t).
According to formula (4.12) for the total derivative of a tensor with respect
to time, we get that the differential of a tensor can be written in the form
d n (xi , t) =
n
t
+ v n dt.
(4.23)
According to (4.10), the relation (4.23) takes the form
d n =
n
dt + dx n
t
When a tensor field is stationary (i.e.

tensor field has the form
(4.24)
n /t = 0),
db n = dx n .
For stationary tensor fields
db n = d n ,
(4.25)
but in general these differentials
are not coincident.

According to Theorem 1.15, components of the tensor
the fixed basis
ri
d n
with respect to
are written as follows:
the differential of the
d = d
j1 ...jn
rj . . . rjn ,
1
j1 ...jn
d j ...jn
=
dt.
dt
1
(4.26)
From (4.22) and (4.7) we get the following expression for the differential of
a vector:
da(X i , t) =
da
dt =
dt
a
t
+ v a dt,
(4.27)
and from (4.25) we have
db
a = (v a)dt = ( a)T dx.
In particular, if
a = x,
(4.28)
then, by formulae (4.28) and (1.35a), we obtain
dx = ( x)T dx = F1 dx,
(4.29)
b
dx = F dx.
(4.30)
or
On comparing formulae (4.30) with (1.34), we find that the elementary radiusvector
dx,
introduced in paragraph 1.1 and connecting two infinitesimally close
material points
and
M0 ,
coincides with the vector
b
dx
in the notation (4.25).
42
1.4.4. Properties of Derivatives with respect to Time. Let us establish now

important properties of partial and total derivatives of vector fields with respect
to time.
Theorem 1.16.
The partial derivative of the vector product of basis vectors
with respect to time has the form
r
r
(r r ) = r + r .
t
t
t
(4.31)
Determine the derivative of the vector product of two local basis vectors with
respect to time:
i Qj e
j ) = (Qi Qj )
j =
(r r ) = (Qi e
ei e
t
t
t
Qj
Qi
j
i
i Q e
j + Q e
i
j .
=
e
e
t
t
With use of relation (1.10) we really get (4.31).
Theorem 1.17. For arbitrary continuously differentiable vector

=a
i (xk , t)
ei and b(x, t) = bi (xk , t)
ei , we have the formulae
fields
a(x, t) =
a
b
(a b) =
b+a
,
t
t
t
a
b
(a b) =
b+a
,
t
t
t
a
b
(a b) =
b+a
.
t
t
t
A proof is similar to the proof of Theorem 1.16.
Theorem 1.18.
(4.33)
(4.34)
The total derivatives of the vector and scalar products of two
arbitrary vector fields
a(x, t)
and
b(x, t)
with respect to time have the forms
da
db
d
(a b) =
b+a ,
dt
dt
dt
d
da
db
(a b) =
b+a .
dt
dt
dt
(4.32)
(4.35)
(4.36)
To prove formula (4.35), one should use the property of the total derivative
(4.7):
(a b) = (a b) + v (a b).
dt
t
Modify the first summand by formula (4.32) and the second summand by the
formula
(a b) = ( a) b ( b) a
[12], then we get
a
b
d
(a b) =
b
a + v ( a) b v ( b) a.
dt
t
t
Collecting the first summand with the third one and the second summand with
the fourth one, and using the property (4.7) of the total derivative of a vector,
we obtain
d
da
db
da
db
(a b) =
b
a=
b+a .
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
Formula (4.36) can be proved in a similar way.
43
Theorem 1.19.
The total derivative of
the divergence of the velocity
with respect to time is connected to
by
d
g = g i v i = g v.
dt
H
(4.37)
Let us differentiate the second relation of (1.15) with taking formula (4.31)
into account:
d
2x
d
g = r1 (r2 r3 ) =
(r2 r3 )+
dt
dt
tX 1
2x
2x
r3 + r1 r2
.
+ r1
tX 2
tX 3
Since
(4.38)
2x
v
=
= i v = i v j rj ,
i
tX
X i
we get
d
g = 1 v g r1 + r1 (2 v r3 ) + r1 (r2 3 v).
dt
(4.39)
Here we have used the relations from Exercise 1.1.14.

According to the definition of the vector product (0.2), we obtain
r1 2 v r3 = r1
g ijk 2 v i 3j rk = g i31 2 v i = g 2 v 2 .
On substituting (4.40) into (4.39), we really get formula (4.37).
(4.40)
1.4.5. The Velocity Gradient, the Deformation Rate Tensor and the Vor
ticity Tensor. Consider elementary radius-vectors dx and dx connecting two
0
infinitesimally close points M and M in configurations K and K, respectively.
0
Determine the velocity of the point M relative to the configuration connected
b :
dv
v T
2x
2x
i
i
b
dv = dx =
dX =
r dx = r
dx = v dx.
i
i
i
to the point
M.
To do this, determine the velocity differential
X t
X t
(4.41)
Here we have used the second equation of (1.33), the definition of the gradient
(1.24) and formula (4.1). In a similar way, using the first equation of (1.33):
dX i = ri dx,
we get one more expression for the vector
b :
dv
b = ( v)T dx.
dv
The second-order tensor
connects the relative velocity
dx
itself:
( v) is called
b of an elementary
dv
b = L dx,
dv
(4.42)
the velocity gradient, which
radius-vector
to the vector
L = ( v)T .
(4.43)
can be represented by a
Just as any second-order tensor (see [12]), the tensor

sum of the symmetric tensor
dx
and the skew-symmetric tensor
L = D + W.
W:
(4.44)
44
The symmetric deformation rate tensor
is determined as follows:
D = ( v + vT ).
(4.45)
This tensor has six independent components.

The skew-symmetric vorticity tensor
W = ( vT v).
(4.46)
Since the tensor
is skew-symmetric and has three independent components,
we can put the tensor
in correspondence with the vorticity vector
connected to the tensor (see [12]) as follows:

1
= W ,
W = E.
where
(4.47)
is the Levi-Civita tensor, which has the third order (see [12]). This
tensor is determined as follows:

1
= ijk ri rj rk .
(4.48)
On substituting (4.44)(4.47) into (4.42), we prove the following theorem.
Theorem 1.20 (CauchyHelmholtz). The velocity v(M0 ) of an arbitrary point

M0 in a neighborhood of the material point M consists of the translational
motion velocity
v(M)
of the point
M, the velocity dx
D dx, i.e.
of rotation as a
rigid whole and the deformation rate
or
Example 1.4.
b = dx + D dx
dv
(4.49)
v(M0 ) = v(M) + dx + D dx + o (|dx|).
(4.49a)
for the problem on tension of a beam
(see Example 1.1), substituting (4.2) into (4.43):

3
3
X
X
i
e
= L.

=
L =e
v =e
k X e
k e
X i
X i
=1
Since the velocity gradient
=1
in this case proves to be a symmetric tensor, from
(4.45) and (4.46) it follows that
D = L,
Thus, in this case
Example 1.5.
W = 0.
= 0.
for the problem on simple shear (see
Example 1.2), substituting formula (4.2) into (4.43):
i
LT = e
vj i
v1
2 e
1 = a
1 .
=
e
e
=
e
e2 e
j
X i
X i
X 2
According to formulae (4.45) and (4.46), we get
2 + e
2 e
1 ),
D = (a/
2)(
e1 e
45
2 e
2 e
1 ) = (a/
j .
W = (a/
2)(
e1 e
2)(1i 2j 2i 1j )
ei e
Using formula (4.47), we determine the vorticity vector
1
k = (21k 12k )
3 ,
ek = e
= W = (1i 2j 2i 1j )jik e
which is orthogonal to the shear plane.
1.4.6. Eigenvalues of the Deformation Rate Tensor. Just as any symmetric
tensor, the deformation rate tensor
has three orthonormal real-valued eigen-
vectors and three real positive eigenvalues (see [12]). Denote the eigenvectors
by
by
(these vectors, in general, are not coincident with
D .
Then the tensor
D=
p )
and the eigenvalues
can be resolved for its dyadic eigenbasis as follows:
3
X
D q q ,
q q = .
(4.50)
=1
K an elementary radius-vector dx , connectM and M0 , so that the vector is oriented along the eigenvector q of
tensor D; then, similarly to (3.36), we can write
Take in the actual configuration

ing points
the
|dx | = (dx dx )1/2 .
dx = q |dx |,
(4.51)
Apply the CauchyHelmholtz theorem (4.49) to the elementary radius-vector:
b = dx + D dx .
dv
(4.52)
dx
dx ( dx ) = 0,
Multiplying the left and right sides of the equation by
and taking account
of the property of the mixed derivative
we get
b = dx D dx .
dx dv
Substituting in place of
(4.53)
its expression (4.50) and in place of
dx
their
expressions (4.51), we obtain
b = |dx |2
dx dv
3
X
D q q q q = D |q |2 .
(4.54)
=1
Here we have used the property (4.50) of orthonormal vectors
q .
Modify the scalar product on the left-hand side as follows:
b = dx dx =
dx dv
t
(dx dx ) = |dx | |dx |.

2 t
t
1
(4.55)
On comparing (4.54) with (4.55), we obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 1.21.
Eigenvalues
of
the
deformation
rate
tensor
are
the
rates of relative elongations of elementary material fibres oriented along the

eigenvectors
q :
D =
|dx |.
|dx | t
1
(4.56)
46
1.4.7. Resolution of the Vorticity Tensor for the Eigenbasis of the Deformation Rate Tensor. Modify the right-hand side of (4.52) as follows:
b = dx + D dx = ( q + D q )|dx |,
dv
(4.57)
and the left-hand side of (4.52) with taking (4.56) into account:
b = dx = (|dx |q ) = |dx | q + |dx | q = |dx | D q + q .

dv
t
t
t
t
t
(4.58)
On comparing (4.57) with (4.58), we get the following theorem.
Theorem 1.22.
The vorticity tensor
rate of changing the eigenvectors
q =
(or the vorticity vector
to the vectors
connects the
themselves:
q
= q = W q .
t
Using formula (4.59), we can resolve the tensor
(4.59)
for the eigenbasis
of
the deformation rate tensor as follows:
W=
3
X
q q = q i qi .
(4.60)
=1
1.4.8. Geometric Picture of Infinitesimal Transformation of a Small Neighborhood of a Point. If in configuration K at time t we consider an elementary
0
radius-vector dx connecting two infinitesimally close material points M and M ,
dt the radius-vector
K(t + dt) (Figure 1.13):
then for infinitesimal time
dx0
in configuration
dx = x0 (t) x(t),
dx0 = x0 (t + dt) x(t + dt),
(4.61)
M and M0 in configuration
0
K(t), respectively; and x(t + dt) and x (t + dt) in configuration K(t + dt).
0
Displacements of points M and M for infinitesimal time are defined by the
0
velocity vectors v(M) and v(M ), respectively:
where
x(t)
and
x0 (t)
is transformed into radius-vector
are radius-vectors of the points
x(t + dt) x(t) = v(M) dt,
x0 (t + dt) x0 (t) = v(M0 ) dt.
Figure 1.13. Infinitesimal transformation of an elementary radius-vector
(4.62)
47
Formulae (4.61) and (4.62) and simple geometric relations (see Figure 1.13)
give
v(M0 )dt v(M)dt = dx0 dx.
(4.63)
On substituting (4.63) into (4.49a), we obtain the relation between elementary

radius-vectors
dx0
and
dx:
dx = dx + dt dx + dtD dx + dt o(|dx|).
(4.64)
The relation (4.64) can be considered as the transformation of coordinates
dxi dx0i in a small neighborhood of the point contained in a continuum. Since

dt and dtD are independent of dx and dx0 , so the transformation is linear,
i.e. affine. The relation (4.64) can be represented as a superposition of two

transformations up to an accuracy of
o(|dx|):
00
dx = AD dx,
0
00
dx = Q dx
AD
The tensor
AD = E + dtD,
(4.65)
Q = E + dt E.
(4.66)
is symmetric and has three eigendirections, which are
coincident with the eigendirections

So just as the tensor
U,
the tensor
of the deformation rate tensor
AD
D.
transforms a small neighborhood of
M by extending or compressing the neighborhood along the principal

q . The material segments |dx00 | oriented along the eigendirections q
a point
directions
retain their orientation under the transformations (4.65), but their lengths vary
as follows:
dx00 = (1 + D dt|dx |)q = (1 + D dt)dx .
dx = |dx |q ,
The tensor
because
(4.66) is orthogonal up to an accuracy of values
T
2
2
Q QT
= (E + dtW) (E + dtW ) = E (dt) W .
Here we have taken into account that the vorticity tensor
M-point
neighborhood as a rigid whole for infinitesimal time
The vorticity vector
forming the tensor
(4.67)
is skew-symmetric.
Thus, the transformation (4.66) determined by the tensor

the
(dt)2 ,
is rotation of
dt.
can be considered as instanta-
neous angular rate of rotation of the small neighborhood as a rigid whole, or as

instantaneous angular rate of rotation of the eigentrihedron
rate tensor relative to the fixed basis
i .
e
of the deformation
This fact will be considered in detail in
paragraph 1.5.7.
On uniting the properties of the transformations (4.65) and (4.66), we can
make the following conclusion.
Theorem 1.23.
The infinitesimal transformation of a small neighborhood of
the point contained in a continuum is a superposition of tension-compression

of the neighborhood along the eigendirections
and rotation of the axes
as a rigid whole about the axis with the direction vector
Thus, we have the certain analogy between the eigendirections
of the
q of the tensor D: elementary material fibres
oriented along p and along q remain mutually orthogonal and undergo only
tension-compression. The axes p remain mutually orthogonal under any finite
tensor
and the directions
48
K
K(t + dt).
transformations from
from
K(t)
to
to
K,
but
only under infinitesimal transformations
1.4.9. Kinematic Meaning of the Vorticity Vector.

tensor, the orthogonal tensor
Just as any orthogonal
of infinitesimal rotation from
K(t)
K(t + dt)
to
can be represented in the form (see [12])
Q = E cos(d) + (1 cos(d))e e e E sin(d),

where
is the infinitesimal angle of rotation of the trihedron
with the direction vector
e.
Since values of
(4.68)
about the axis
are infinitesimal, we have
Q = E e Ed.
(4.69)
On comparing (4.69) with (4.66), we get
=
i.e. the vorticity vector
e,
and the length
trihedron
||
d
e,
dt
|| =
d
,
dt
(4.70)
is really oriented along the instantaneous rotation axis
is equal to the instantaneous angular rate of rotation of the
of the deformation rate tensor.
Let us consider now the question: relative to what system the vorticity vector
defines the rotation rate.

To answer the question, we introduce another orthogonal rotation tensor
i ,
OW = qi e
which transforms the Cartesian trihedron
mal trihedron
The tensor
qi :
OW
i
e
(4.71)
as a rigid whole into the orthonor-
i .
qi = OW e
is a function of time
t,
because
(4.72)
qi = qi (t).
W takes
According to (4.60) and (4.72), the vorticity tensor
the form
W OT .
W = q i qi = O
W
(4.73)
With the help of (4.73) we can represented the orthogonal tensor

follows:
Thus, at each time

borhoods of a point
W OT .
Q = E + dtW = E + dtO
W
t
two orthogonal tensors
in the reference
OW
and
as
(4.74)
connect local neigh-
and actual configurations
K(t + dt).
00
If in K we consider an elementary radius-vector dx , then in K we find its
00
corresponding radius-vector dx obtained with the help of the rotation tensor
OW , and in K(t + dt) radius-vector dx0 :
dx00 = OW dx00 ,
dx0 = Q dx00 .
A fixed observer connected to the Cartesian trihedron

formations: finite rotation for time
t,
instantaneous rotation of a local neighborhood for time

the infinitesimal rotation tensor
i
e
sees both the trans-
which is described by the tensor
dt,
OW ,
and
which is described by
49
Thus, the vorticity vector

rotation of the trihedron
is the vector of instantaneous angular rate of
relative to the trihedron
i .
e
Comparing (4.66) with (4.74) (or (4.73) with (4.47)), we get
W OT = E.
O
W
(4.75)
1.4.10. Tensor of Angular Rate of Rotation (Spin). In paragraph 1.3 we

W OT , where OW is the orthogonal tensor of
O
W
QT can be set up for any orthogonal tensor Q
rotation. Such tensor = Q
have introduced the tensor
t.
QT is skew-symmetric, because
Q
QT + Q Q
T = (Q QT ) = (E) = 0,
Q
depending on time
The tensor
i.e.
(4.76)
QT )T = Q Q
T = Q
QT = .
T = (Q
(4.77)
. This tensor characterizes the angular rate of rotation of the orthonormal

trihedron
hi
formed with the help of
Q:
i ,
hi = Q e
relative to the Cartesian trihedron
(4.78)
i .
e
QT we can
Q
QT ,
Q = E + dtQ
Indeed, with the help of the tensor
form the tensor (4.74):
(4.79)
which, according to (4.67), is the orthogonal tensor of infinitesimal rotation; and

this tensor can be represented in the form (4.68) or (4.69):
Q = E de E,
where
(4.80)
is the infinitesimal angle of rotation of the trihedron
with the direction vector
e.
hi
about the axis
Comparing (4.79) with (4.80), we get the expression
QT = d e E,
Q
(4.81)
dt
which makes clear the sentence that the tensor
QT
Q
characterizes the instan-
d/dt of rotation of the trihedron hi about

QT is called the tensor of angular rate of
Q
taneous angular rate

The tensor
the axis
spin.
Expressing the tensor
= h , = 1, 2, 3,
from (4.78) in terms of the bases
e.
rotation or the
hi
and
i (h =
e
as the vectors are orthonormal):
i ,
Q = hi e
(4.82)
we get another representation of the spin:
QT = h i hi .
Q
Theorem 1.24.
The spin connects the rates
h i
(4.83)
and the vectors
hi
defined by
formula (4.78) as follows:
QT ) hi .
h i = (Q
(4.84)
50
Since the spin
QT
Q
is a skew-symmetric tensor, we can introduce the
corresponding vorticity vector
h:
QT = h E
Q
(from formulae (4.81) and (4.85) it follows that

(4.84) takes the form
Resolving the vector
(4.85)
h = (d/dt)e);
then formula
h i = h hi .
h
(4.86)
for the orthonormal basis
hi : h = jh hj ,
we get one
more representation of formula (4.84):
h i = jh hj hi = jik jh hk .
(4.87)
This formula can also be rewritten in the form
h = h h ,
6= 6= 6= .
(4.88)
Taking different orthogonal tensors (or orthonormal bases) as
(or
hi ),
we
obtain different spins.

1) If we choose eigenvectors of the stretch tensor
according to (4.83), the corresponding spin
i
U OT = p
U = O
U
i p ,
as
hi ,
i.e.
hi = pi ,
then,
takes the form
i ,
OU = pi e
(4.89)
and formulae (4.84) yields
pi = U pi .
2) If
hi = pi ,
then the corresponding spin
(4.90)
OV
have the forms
V OT = p i pi ,
i ,
V = O
OV = pi e
V
p i = V pi .
3) If
hi = qi , then the corresponding spin W coincides

W (see (4.73)):
W OT = q i qi = W,
W = O
(4.91)
(4.92)
with the vorticity
tensor
(4.93)
(4.94)
q i = W qi .
O accompanying deformation as Q, then,
O connects two moving bases pi and pi :
4) If we take the rotation tensor

shown in (3.23a), the tensor
pi = O pi .
The tensor
can be expressed in terms of
(4.95)
OV
and
OU
as follows:
i e
j pj = OV OT
O = pi pi = pi e
U.
The corresponding spin
as
(4.96)
has the form
OT = (O
V OT + OV O
T ) OU OT =
=O
U
U
V
T
T
T
= OV OV + OV OU OU OV = V OV U OT
V.
(4.97)
51
Unlike the cases 1)3), the spin tensor

rotation of the trihedron
to the trihedron
i
e
pi
characterizes the angular rate of
relative to the moving trihedron
pi ,
but not relative
being fixed.
Therefore, for the cases 1)3) the spins characterize the total angular rate,
and for the case 4) the relative rate.
1.4.11. Relationships between Rates of Deformation Tensors and Velocity

Gradients. In continuum mechanics, one often needs the relations between
rates of the deformation tensors (and also measures) and the velocity gradients
L = ( v)T
and
L = ( v)T .
(4.98)
Let us derive these relations.
Theorem 1.25.
(F1 )
The rates of varying the gradient
are connected to
and
and the inverse gradient
by the relations
= L F,
F
(F1 ) = F1 L,
H
= L,
F
(F1 ) = F1 F1T L.
(4.99)
and taking the
= ( v)T F.
F
(4.99a)
Differentiating the relationships (1.35a) with respect to time
definition of the velocity (4.1) into account, we get
T = v = FT v,
F
According to the definitions of tensors
obtain formulae (4.99).
Differentiating the identity
= F
(F1 ) ; whence we get
(4.43) and
=
(F F1 ) = E
(4.98), from (4.99a) we
0, we find that
F F1 =
F1 .
(F1 ) = F1 F
(4.100)
On substituting the first two formulae of (4.99) into (4.100), we obtain
(F1 ) = F1 ( v)T ,
(F1T ) = ( v) F1T ,
i.e. the third and the fourth relationships of (4.99) hold as well.
(4.101)
According to formulae (4.45), (4.99a) and (4.101), we find that the rate of
the deformation gradient is connected to the deformation rate tensor
by the
relations
1
F1 + F1T F
T ),
D = (F
2
1
1 + F
1T FT ).
D = (F F
2
(4.102)
1 (F1 ) .
F
,A
,
, J and deformaTheorem 1.26. The rates of the deformation tensors C
, (G ) and (g ) are connected to the velocity gradients

tion measures G, g
Here and below we will use the notation
and
by the relationships
= FT D F,
C
= F1 D F1T ,
= D LT A A L,
A
J = D + L J + J LT ,
(4.103)
52
and
= 2FT D F,
G
(G1 ) = 2F1 D F1T ,
g = LT g g L,
(g1 ) = L g1 + g1 LT ;
(4.104)
T
T
J = (1/2)(L FT + FT L),
C = (1/2)(F L + L F),
= (1/2)((E 2A) L F1 + F1T LT (E 2A)),

A
= (1/2)(F1 L (E 2) + (E 2) LT F1T ),
(4.105)
T
T
,
g = (g L F1 + F1T LT g),
G = F L + L F
1 ) = (F1 L G1 + G1 LT F1T ),
(G
1
(g ) = L FT + FT L.
(4.106)
and also
and
To prove formula (4.103), we must differentiate the relationships (2.5) with
respect to
and apply formulae (4.99):
= 1 (F
T F + FT F)
= 1 (FT LT F + FT L F) =
C
2
= FT (LT + L) F = FT D F,
2
(4.107)
1 ) =
= 1 (F 1T F1 + F1T F
A
2
= (LT F1T F1 + F1T F1 L) =

2
= (L (E 2A) + (E 2A) L) = D LT A A L,
2
(4.108)
1 F1T + F1 F
1T ) = 1 (F1 L F1T +
= 1 (F
+F
1T
L F
)= F
2
(L + LT ) F1T = F1 D F1T ,
(4.109)
1
1
J = (F FT + F F T ) = (L F FT + F FT LT ) =
2
= (L (E + 2J) + (E + 2J) LT ) = D + L J + J LT .
2
(4.110)
Formulae (4.104) follow from (4.103), if we have used the connections (2.7) and
(2.8) between the deformation tensors and measures.
Formulae (4.105) follow from (4.107)(4.110), if we have gone from
L = L F1 .
to
L:
(4.111)
53
Using the connections (2.7) and (2.8) between the deformation tensors and
measures, from (4.105) we get formulae (4.106).
,V
Relations between the tensors
and the velocity gradients
and
more complicated. To derive them, we should use representations of
and
are
in
terms of the eigenbasis vectors.
Theorem 1.27.
The following expressions for the velocity gradients hold:
3
X

L =v = x=
p p + U FT FT V ,
t
(4.112)
=1
3
X

L = ( v) =
,=1

+ U
where
are components of the tensor
p p + V ,
(4.113)
with respect to the eigenbasis
p :
U = pi pi =
3
X
U p p ,
U = p U p = p p . (4.114)
=1
To prove formula (4.112), we should consider the first formula of (4.99a) and
substitute into this formula the expression (3.35) for
T =
LT = F
3
X
in the eigenbasis:
( p p + (p p + p p )).
(4.115)
=1
Using formulae (4.90) and (4.92), from (4.115) we derive the relationship
(4.112).
To prove formula (4.113), we use formulae (4.112) and (4.111), having
expressed
F1
in the form (3.35); then we get
L = L F1 = (
3
X
p p + (p p + p p ))
=1
3

X
,=1
3
X
p p =
=1
p p +
X

p p .
(p p )p p +
Here we have taken into account that the vectors
are orthonormal. Using
formulae (4.90) and (4.92), from (4.116) we derive the formula (4.113).
From formula (4.113) it follows that the deformation rate tensor
vorticity tensor can be represented in terms of the eigenbasis
D=
3
X

,=1
(4.116)
=1
1
2
N
and the
as follows:
U p p ,
(4.117)
54
W=
1
2
3
X
,=1
U p p + V .
Here we have taken into account that the tensors
and
(4.118)
V
are skew-
symmetric.
Denote components of the tensor
D=
3
X
D p p ,
by
D :
D = p D p .
(4.119)
,=1
Then from (4.117) and (4.119) we get that diagonal components of the deformation rate tensor
with respect to the eigenbasis
determine the
relative rates of lengthening the material fibres oriented along the eigenvectors
(compare with formula (4.56)):
D = / = ds /ds ,
D are connected
2
2
1
=
U ,
and off-diagonal components
= 1, 3;
to
(4.120)
by the relations
6= .
(4.121)
From formulae (4.119) and (4.121) we can express the components
in
terms of components of the deformation rate tensor:
U =
D ,
6= ;
U = 0.
The diagonal components
are equal to zero, because the tensor
(4.122)
U
is
skew-symmetric.
On substituting the relationships (4.122) into (4.118), we find the expression
V of the tensor V with respect to the basis p in terms

W and D (and, hence, in terms of the velocity gradient L):
for components
the tensors
V = p V p = p W p
where
V =
3
X
2 + 2
2 2
D ,
V p p .
6= ,
of
(4.123)
(4.124)
,=1
Remark. The expressions (4.122) and (4.123) are valid only if the eigenvalues
6= ( 6= ; , = 1, 2, 3). If within the interval [t1 , t2 ] all

= ( = 1, 2, 3), then the stretch tensors
i
are spherical: U = pi p = E, V = E, and the eigenbases are not uniquely
defined: as pi and pi we can take any orthonormal triple of vectors. In particular,
one of the bases can be taken as fixed t [t1 , t2 ], for example, pi can be chosen
are not multiple:
three eigenvalues are coincident:
55
case pi
pi (t1 ); and the second basis pi can

t [t1 , t2 ], and from (4.114) and (4.118)
as coincident with
depend on time
t.
In this
it follows that within the
considered time interval:
U = 0,
V = W,
U = 0,
V = p W p ,
(4.125)
, = 1, 2, 3.
These relationships take the place of formulae (4.122), (4.123) in this case.
[t1 , t2 ] only two of three eigenvalues are coincident,
for example, = , then their corresponding eigenvectors p and p are not
uniquely defined as well: only their orthogonality to the vector p , corresponding
to the third eigenvalue , is given. Then we can extend the definition of p and
p so that p p = 0 t [t1 , t2 ]. In this case it follows from (4.114) that the

If within the time interval
only component
vanishes, but
U 6= 0
and
It follows from (4.118) that the component

formula
V = p W p ,
U = 0.
U , U
The remaining components
U 6= 0.
V is determined
and
V , V
by the
(4.126)
are determined by
formulae (4.122) and (4.123).

If the situation with multiple roots appears only at some time
values of
U (t)
and
V (t)
t,
then the
can be determined by passing to the limit.
Substituting formulae (4.114) and (4.118) into equation (4.97), and taking
expressions (4.89) and (4.91) for
representation of the spin
=W
1
2
3
X
2 + 2
,=1
OU
OV
p :
and
in the basis
into consideration, we obtain the
U p p
3
X
i ) p p (
U (pi e
ej pj ).
(4.127)
,=1
Introducing the notation for direction cosines
,
= p e
,
l = p e
(4.128)
substituting (4.122) into (4.127) and collecting like terms, we obtain the following expression of the spin
in terms of
and
(i.e. in terms of
e,
=W+
e =
3
X
,=1
e p p ,
e =
L):
(4.129)
3
X
,=1
e ,
56
3
X
e =
,=1
Theorem 1.28.
2 2
((2 + 2 ) 2 l l )D .
Rates of the deformation measures
are connected to the velocity gradient
, (U1 )
U
and
, (V1 )
V
by the formulae
e O + OT (D +
e T ) F),
= 1 (FT (D + )
U
2
1
e O + OT (D
e T ) F1T ),
) = (F1 (D )
(U
= 1 ((L + ) V + V (LT + T )),

V
2
(4.130)
(V1 ) = (( LT ) V1 + V1 (T L)).
2
Let us express the tensors
and
U = OT F,
Since
and
from the polar decomposition (3.1):
V = F OT .
(4.131)
are symmetric tensors, these expressions can be rewritten in the
symmetrized form
1
U = (FT O + OT F),
2
V = (F OT + O FT ).
2
(4.132)
Let us differentiate these relationships:
= 1 (F
T O + FT O
+O
T F + OT F)
,
U
2
OT + F O
T+O
FT + O F
T ).
= 1 (F
V
2
On substituting formulae (4.99) and the expression (4.97) for the spin
(4.133)
into
(4.133), we obtain
= 1 (FT LT O + FT O
OT O + OT O O
T F + OT L F) =
U
2
= (FT (LT + ) O + OT (L + T ) F),

2
(4.134)
= 1 (L F OT + F OT O O
T+O
OT O FT + O FT LT ) =
V
2
= ((L + ) V + V (LT + T )).

2
Taking formulae (4.129) and (4.44) into consideration, we find that
e = D + .
e
LT + = D + WT + W +
(4.135)
Substituting (4.135) into (4.134), we really get the first and the third formulae
of (4.130).
The remaining two formulae in (4.130) can be proved in a similar way.
57
In continuum mechanics the deformation tensors
B and Y
are applied, which
have no explicit expression; they are defined by their derivatives and initial
values:
= 1 (U
U1 + U1 U)
,
B
B(0) = 0,
(4.136)
= 1 (V
V1 + V1 V)
,
Y
Y(0) = 0.
(4.137)
After substitution of the expressions (4.131), formula (4.136) takes the form
T F + OT F)
U1 + U1 (F
T O + FT O))
=
= 1 ((O
B
2
= (OT ( + L) F U1 + U1 FT (LT + T ) O) =
2
= (OT ( + L) O + OT (LT + T ) O),

2
(4.138)
and formula (4.137) is rewritten as follows:
= 1 ((F
OT + F O
T ) V1 + V1 (O
FT + O F
T )) =
Y
2
= (L F OT V1 + F OT T V1 + V1 O FT +
2
+V
O FT LT ) = (L + V V1 + V1 V + LT ).
2
Finally, we get the following expressions for
and
(4.139)
:
Y
= OT D O,
B
(4.140)
= D + 1 (V T V1 + V1 V).
Y
(4.141)
1.4.12. Trajectory of a Material Point, Streamline and Vortex Line. HavX i of a material point M in the motion law (1.3), we get
ing fixed coordinates
the parametric equation of a certain curve, where time
xi = xi (X k , t),
is a parameter:
6 t 6 t0 .
(4.142)
t = 0 is a point with
xi (X k ) of the material
The origin of the curve at

Cartesian coordinates
M in K, and the end of the curve at t = t0

i
k 0
is a point with Cartesian coordinates x (X , t )
0
of the point M in K(t ) (Figure 1.14). The
point
curve (4.142) is called the trajectory of the

point
in the Cartesian coordinate system
O
ei .
In
the
spatial
(4.142) at fixed
description,
Xk
the
Figure 1.14.
Trajectory of material
point
trajectory
is a solution of the kine-
matic equation (4.10):
dxi /dt = vi (xj , t),
< t 6 t0
(4.143)
58
with the initial condition
Here
i ,
e
vi (xj , t)
xi = xi .
t=0:
are the velocity components with respect to the Cartesian basis
which are assumed to be known.
i be given. Fix a time t, and take

v(xj , t) = vi e
i
k
point M1 with Eulerian coordinates x1 and Lagrangian coordinates X1 . Then
streamline passing through the point M1 is the curve
Let a field of velocities
xi = xi (X k , ),
which at its every point
xi
1 6 6 2 ,
a
a
(4.144)
has a tangent being parallel to the velocity
v(xi , t)
at
the considered point and at the considered time. The equation of the streamline
has the form
dxi /d = vi (xj , t),
1 < 6 2 ,
(4.145)
xi = xi1 .
= 1 :
Thus, the trajectory of a material point and the streamline are described, in
general, by different equations, and so they are not coincident.
However, if the motion of a continuum is steady-state within time interval
t1 6 t 6 t0 ,
then in Eulerian description all the partial derivatives of all values,
describing the motion, with respect to time vanish, in particular
v(xi , t)/t = 0.
So the trajectory equations (4.143) and the streamline equation (4.145) become
coincident within the interval
M1 :
t1 6 t 6 t0 ,
dxi /d = vi (xj ),
if they have at least one common point
t 1 = 1 < 6 2 = t 0 ,
(4.146)
xi = xi1 = xi (X1k , t1 ).
= 1 :
In other words, in the steady-state motion a material

point
moves along a streamline: at time
t = t1 its
M1
coordinates are the same as coordinates of point

at parameter value
= 1 , and at time t = t2 they are

M2 at parameter
the same as coordinates of point

value
= 2
(Figure 1.15).
Multiplying the equation (4.145) by the basis

vectors
Figure 1.15. The streamline
i ,
e
we can rewrite the streamline equation in
the vector form
dx = v(x, t)d , 1 < 6 2 ,

x = x1 ,
= 1 .
(4.147)
Let us define now a vortex line passing through a point

curve, which at its every point
vector
(xj , t)
xi
M1 :
this is a
has a tangent being parallel to the vorticity
at the considered point and at the fixed time
t.
The vortex line is
described by the equation
dx = (x, t)d ,
x = x1 ,
1 < 6 2 ,
= 1 .
(4.148)
59
1.4.13. Stream Tubes and Vortex Tubes. Consider a curve L in coordinates

xi and draw a streamline through each point of the curve L. If L is not a
streamline itself, then we get a surface
v ,
at each point of which the velocity
lies on the tangent plane to the surface. This surface is called the stream
surface.
Let
fv (xi ) = 0
(4.149)
be the equation of the stream surface. Since the vector

surface
[12], so it is orthogonal to the velocity
v,
is normal to the
i.e. we have the relation
v fv = 0,
(4.150)
which is a partial differential equation for determination of the function
i
the known velocity field v(x , t) at fixed t.
If a curve
f (xi )
by
is closed, then the set of streamlines drawn through its points
is called the stream tube.
L be
L, we
f (xi ) = 0.
Let a curve
not a vortex line. Drawing a vortex line through each point
of the curve
obtain the vortex surface
equation
This relation is a solution of the differential equation
which is described by the
f = 0.
If
is a closed curve, then the surface
(4.151)
is called the vortex tube.
Exercises for 1.4.

Exercise 1.4.1. Show that the tensors
QU
and
QV
are orthogonal.
Exercise 1.4.2.
Using formulae (4.104) and (2.57), show that for the coefficient
determined by formula (2.54) we have the following relationship:
k = k(n D n).
Exercise 1.4.3.
Using formulae (2.57), (4.99) and the result of Exercise 1.4.2, show
that a rate of changing the normal
n = n n L,
Exercise 1.4.4.
= n D n.
Using the results of Exercise 1.4.2, show that for the coefficient
determined by formula (2.54) we have the following equation:
k = k(n D n).
Exercise 1.4.5.
Show
that
the
transformations
(4.65)
of
infinitesimal
tension
compression (4.65) and infinitesimal rotation (4.66) are commutative up to terms of

order
(dt)2 :
Q AD dx = A QD dx,
while transformations of a small neighborhood determined by the tensors
and
are not commutative in general.
Exercise 1.4.6. Prove Theorem 1.14.
and
or
60
Exercise 1.4.7. Using the representation (3.6) for tensors
U and V
and formulae (4.90)
and (4.92), show that rates of stretch tensors are expressed as follows:
=
U
3
X
p p + U U U U ,
=
V
=1
3
X
p p + V V V V .
=1
Exercise 1.4.8. Show that expressions for rates of the Hencky tensors (3.31) have the
form
3
X

p p + U H H U ,
H =
=1
3
X

H =
=1
p p + V H H V .
Exercise 1.4.9. Using representations (4.114) and (4.124) for tensors
and
V ,
and
also equation (4.120) and the result of Exercise 1.4.8, show that rates of the Hencky
tensors can be expressed in the form
H =
3
X
X
2
D p p +
,=1
,=1
lg
1 D p p ,
6=
=D+
H
X
2
,=1
2 2
lg
1 (p D p )p p .
6=
Exercise 1.4.10. Show that expressions for

rewritten as follows:
H = 4 XH D,
and
derived in Exercise 1.4.9 can be
= 4 XH D,
H
where the following fourth-order tensors are denoted:
XH
XH = XH ijkl pi pj pk pl , 4 XH = XH ijkl pi pj pk pl ,
2 lg
kl , 6= ,

kl = (1/2)(k l + l k ).
ijkl =
,
kl
4
Exercise 1.4.11.
and (4.124) for
Show that relations (4.114) and (4.122) for

and equation (4.129) for
U = 4 U D,
U ,
equations (4.123)
can be rewritten as follows:
V = 4 V D + W,
e D + W,
= 4
where
4
U = U ijkl pi pj pk pl ,
V = V ijkl pi pj pk pl ,
e =
e ijkl pi pj pk pl ,
2
+
kl , 6= ,
kl ,
=
V kl =
0,
= ,
4
U kl
0,
6= ,
= ,
61
1.5. Co-rotational Derivatives
e = V (l l l l ),
6= , 6= ,
2 2
if
(or
= ),
Exercise 1.4.12.
then the first (or the second) summand vanishes.

Using the definitions (4.45) and (4.46) of the tensors
and also the properties of unit tensors, show that

formulae
e L,
W=
D = L,
D, W
and
and
W,
are connected by the
e = (1/2)(III II ).

1.5.1. Definition of Co-rotational Derivatives.
da/dt
Besides the total derivative
introduced in paragraph 1.4.1 and partial derivative of vectors and tensors
with respect to time
a/t,
so-called co-rotational derivatives are of great
importance in continuum mechanics. They determine rates of changing tensors

relative to some moving basis
hi ,
i.e. the relative rates.
K(t) there be some moving bases hi or hi

i
i
and arbitrary varying scalar (X , t), vector a(X , t) and second-order tensor
i
T(X , t) fields with the following components with respect to the bases:
Let in a actual configuration
a = ai hi = ai hi ,
ij
T = T hi hj = Tij h h =
Since any scalar function
(X i , t)
T ij hi
(5.1)
j
j i
h = Ti h hj .
(5.2)
is not connected to any basis (moving or
fixed), it is evident that the co-rotational derivative of the function must be

coincident with the total derivative with respect to time:
h = .
(5.3)
a and a tensor T we can introduce co-rotational derivatives ah

h
and T as vectors or tensors, components of which with respect to the same
For a vector
basis
hi
ah =
dai
hi ,
dt
If we consider the basis
hi ,
rotational derivatives:
Th =
hi .
(or a tensor
T)
d ij
T hi hj .
dt
d
Tij hi hj .
dt
(5.6)
ah
(or
Th )
determines the rate of varying
for an observer moving together with the basis
For the observer, the basis
determine the rates of changing
hi .
(5.4)
(5.5)
hi
is fixed, and hence in (5.4) the basis is not
differentiated with respect to time. In a similar way, the derivatives

the basis
components,
dai i
h,
dt
aH =
Thus, the co-rotational derivative
and tensor
then for the basis we can determine other co-
TH =
a vector
coincide with rates of changing vector
respectively:
and
aH
and
TH
for an observer moving together with
62
We can determine the co-rotational derivatives of a second-order tensor

mixed moving dyadic bases
Td =
hi hj
and
d i
T hi hj ,
dt j
Since vector components
ai
and
a =ah
and tensor components
i
of (5.2) by h or
ij
=h Th
hj ,
,
Tij , T ij , T ij
TD =
ai
i
hi hj ,
in
respectively:
d j i
T h hj .
dt i
(5.7)
can always be expressed in the form
and
ai = a hi ,
Ti j ,
(5.8)
with the help of the scalar product
can be written as follows:
Tij = hi T hj ,
T ij = hi T hj ,
Ti j = hi T hj ,
(5.9)
so rates of changing vector and tensor components in (5.4), (5.5) and (5.7) can
be represented in the explicit form:
dai
da
dhi
=
hi + a
,
dt
dt
dt
and also
dai
da
dh
=
hi + a i ,
dt
dt
dt
dT ij
dT
dhi
dhj
= hi
hj +
T hj + hi T
,
dt
dt
dt
dt
dTij
dT
dh
dh
= hi
hj + i T hj + hi T j ,
dt
dt
dt
dt
i
d i
d
dh
dh
T = hi T hj +
T hj + hi T j ,
dt j
dt
dt
dt
d
dh
d
d j
T = hi T hj + i T hj + hi T hj .
dt i
dt
dt
dt
Here total derivatives
da/dt
and
dT/dt
(5.10)
(5.11)
are determined by the rules (4.7) and
dhi /dt and dhi /dt are

j
defined by the choice of basis hi or h .
j
Taking different bases as hi and h , we get different co-rotational derivatives.
(4.12), respectively. Rates of changing basis vectors
Let us consider the most widely used bases.
1.5.2. The Oldroyd Derivative(hi = ri ). If we choose the general local vector

h
Ol (or Th = TOl ) determines the rate
basis ri as hi , then the derivative a = a
i
of changing a (or T) relative to the Lagrangian coordinate system X moving
together with the continuum. This derivative is called the Oldroyd derivative.
The derivative
dri /dt
dhi
dr
2x
v
v
= i =
=
= ri rj
= ri v = ( v)T ri . (5.12)
dt
dt
tX i
X i
X j
hi we consider the reciprocal local basis

i
derivative of which dr /dt with respect to time has the form
In this case, as a basis
d
d i
(r ri ) = E =
dt
dt
or
0,
dr
dri
ri = ri i = ri ( v)T ri .
dt
dt
ri ,
the
(5.13)
(5.14)
63
Multiplying the equation by

j
rj
from the right, we get
dh
dr
=
= rj ( v)T = ( v) rj .
dt
dt
On substituting the expressions (5.15) for the derivatives
(5.15)
dhi /dt
and
into (5.10), we get the formula for the Oldroyd derivative in the basis
aOl =
TOl =
ri :
dai
da i
d
ri =
r ri a ( v) ri ri = a a v,
dt
dt
dt
dhj /dt
(5.16)
dTij
dT ij
d
ri rj = ri
rj = ri ri T rj rj
dt
dt
dt
ri ri ( v)T T rj rj ri ri T ( v) rj rj =
=
d
T T v ( v)T T.
dt
Here we have taken into account that
ri ri = E.
(5.17)
Thus, we have proved the
following theorem.
Theorem 1.29.
The Oldroyd derivative is related to the total derivative with
respect to time as follows (for a vector
and for a tensor
T,
respectively):
T v ( v)T T.
TOl = T
aOl = a a v,
(5.18)
1.5.3. The CotterRivlin Derivative (hi = ri ). If we choose the reciprocal

i
i
H (or TH ) characterizes
local basis r as a moving basis h , then the derivative a
i
the rate of changing a (or T) relative to the basis r moving together with
i
the Lagrangian coordinate system X . This derivative is called the Cotter-Rivlin
derivative.
Because of formulae (5.10) and (5.15), we get the following theorem.
Theorem 1.30.
The CotterRivlin derivative is related to the total derivative
as follows (for a vector
and for a tensor
aH aCR =
TH TCR =
T,
respectively):
dai i
r = a + ( v) a,
dt
(5.19)
dTij i
+ v T + T ( v)T .
r rj = T
dt
1.5.4. Mixed Co-rotational Derivatives. Since any vector
(5.20)
is defined by its
hi or
hj , so for the vector in the moving bases we can determine only two co-rotational
components with respect to a vector basis, for example, in a moving basis
derivatives: by Oldroyd and by CotterRivlin.
Any second-order tensor
is defined by its components with respect to a
dyadic basis. Therefore, besides the Oldroyd and CotterRivlin derivatives, which
specify the rates of changes of a tensor
ri rj ,
in moving dyadic bases
ri rj
and
by formulae (5.7) we can determine two more derivatives in moving
mixed dyadic bases:
Td =
dT ij
ri rj ,
dt
TD =
d j i
T r rj .
dt i
(5.21)
64
On substituting the expressions (5.12) and (5.15) into (5.11), we get the
following formulae for the rates of changing mixed components of the tensor
T:
d i
rj ri ( v)T T rj + ri T ( v)T rj ,
T = ri T
dt j
d j
rj + ri ( v) T rj ri T ( v) rj .
T = ri T
dt i
(5.22)
Having substituted (5.22) into (5.21), we get the following theorem.
Theorem 1.31.
The mixed derivatives (5.21) are connected to the total deriva-
tive by the relations
L T + T L,
Td = T
+ LT T T LT .
TD = T
(5.23)
The derivatives (5.21) are called the left and right mixed co-rotational
derivatives, where
L = ( v)T
is the velocity gradient (see (4.43)).
It should be noticed that, unlike other co-rotational derivatives considered in

this paragraph, the mixed derivatives
Td
when they are applied to a symmetric
TD do not form a symmetric tensor

tensor T. This fact explains a scarcer
and
application of mixed derivatives in continuum mechanics.
1.5.5. The Derivative Relative to the Eigenbasis pi of the Right Stretch
Tensor. If we choose the eigenbasis pi of the right stretch tensor U as
i
a moving basis hi , then, since pi are orthonormal, we get that h and hj
i
are coincident: h = h , = 1, 2, 3, and |h | = 1. At every time, the moving
coordinate system defined by the trihedron pi executes an instantaneous rotation,

which is characterized by the spin U (4.89), and due to (4.90) we have
dhi
= pi = U pi = pi T
U = pi U .
dt
(5.24)
On substituting (5.24) into (5.11), we get
ah aU =
Th TU =
dai
pi = a pi pi + a U pi pi = a + a U ,
dt
T ij
dT ij
p
pi pj = pi
pj = pi pi T
pj
dt
dt
pi pi U T pj pj + pi pi T U pj pj =
U T + T U .
=T
The co-rotational derivative of a vector
(or a tensor
(5.25)
T)
(5.26)
determined by
(5.26) is called the right derivative relative to the eigenbasis.

Theorem 1.32.
The right derivative relative to the eigenbasis is connected to
the total derivative as follows (for a vector
aU = a + a U ,
and for a tensor
T,
U T + T U .
TU = T
respectively):
(5.27)
65
1.5.6. The Derivative in the Eigenbasis (hi = pi ) of the Left Stretch

Tensor. Take the eigenbasis pi of the left stretch tensor V as a moving basis
hi
and define the following co-rotational derivatives
aH aV =
dai
pi ,
dt
dT ij
pi pj ,
dt
TH TV =
(5.28)
called the left derivatives in the eigenbasis.
Theorem 1.33.
The left derivatives (5.28) in the eigenbasis are connected to
the total derivative with respect to time by the following relations (for a vector
and for a tensor
T,
respectively):
V T + T V .
TV = T
a = a V a,
H
(5.29)
A proof follows from (5.5), (5.10) and (5.11), because from (4.92) we have
dhi
= p i = V pi .
dt
Since the bases
pi
and
pi
are orthonormal, all the co-rotational derivatives
relative to the mixed dyadic bases

respectively.
(5.30)
pi pi , pi pi
coincide with
TU
or
TV ,
1.5.7. The Jaumann Derivative (hi
the
deformation rate tensor as a moving basis
the
basis
qi
is also orthonormal and
= qi ). If we choose the eigenbasis of

hi = qi (it should be noted that
i
coincides with q ), then from (5.4) we get
the
co-rotational Jaumann derivatives:
ah aJ =
Theorem 1.34.
dai
qi ,
dt
Th TJ =
dT ij
qi qj .
dt
The Jaumann derivatives (5.31) are connected to the total
derivatives with respect to time by the relations (for a vector
T,
(5.31)
respectively)
and for a tensor
aJ = a + a W,
W T + T W.
TJ = T
(5.32)
(5.33)
According to the relationship (4.94), we get
dhi
= q i = W qi ,
dt
therefore, due to formulae (5.5) and (5.10) we find
aJ = a qi qi + a W qi qi = a + a W.
In a similar way, we can prove the relation (5.33).
1.5.8. Co-rotational Derivatives in a Moving Orthonormal Basis.
Let
hi
be a moving orthonormal basis. In this case we denote co-rotational derivatives

by the following way:
basis
hi ,
ah aQ
the total derivatives of
Th TQ . Due to orthonormalization of the

a and T with taking account of (5.1), (5.2) and
and
(5.4) can be written as follows:
da
dai
dh
=
hi + ai i = aQ + ai h hi ,
dt
dt
dt
(5.34)
66
ij
= dT hi hj + T ij dhi hj + hi dhj =
T
dt
dt
dt
= TQ + T ij h hi hj hi hj h .
i of the moving basis, where
Here we have used formula (4.86) for derivative h
h is the vorticity vector giving a rotation of the basis hi relative to the fixed
i (see (4.78) and (4.85)). With taking account of (5.1) and (5.2), formulae
basis e
(5.34) can be written in the form
h T + T h.
TQ = T
aQ = a h a,
It should be noticed that if
a = h,
(5.35)
then
h = hh ,
because
h h = 0
(5.35a)
due to properties of the vector product.
i
h
1.5.9. Spin Derivative. Take an arbitrary orthonormal basis

of a continuum in
the basis
i
h
K.
at a point
The trihedron must have the only property that at any time
rotates with the instantaneous angular rate, which is equal to the
rotation rate of the trihedron
pi
relative to the trihedron
pi .
As shown in 1.4.10,
the instantaneous rotation of the trihedron is characterized by the spin tensor
OT
=O
determined by (4.97).
Then we can define the co-rotational derivative in the basis, which is called
the spin derivative (of a vector
and of a tensor
Theorem 1.35.
The
spin
derivative
(5.36)
dT ij
j.
hi h
dt
(5.37)
is
respect to time as follows (for a vector
respectively):
da
hi ,
dt
ah aS =
Th TS =
T,
related
to
the
total
and for a tensor
T,
derivative
aS = a + a ,
T + T .
TS = T
H
with
respectively):
(5.38)
(5.39)
A proof of Theorem 1.35 follows from (5.10), (5.11) and the relation
i
h
i,
=h
(5.40)
which is a consequence of (4.84). The relation (5.39) follows from (5.11).
1.5.10. Universal Form of the Co-rotational Derivatives.
On comparing
formulae (5.18), (5.19), (5.20), (5.27), (5.29), (5.33), (5.38) and (5.39), we can
notice that all the representations of the co-rotational derivatives and also the
total derivative with respect to time can be written in the universal form:
Zh T T ZT ,
ah = a Zh T,
Th = T
h
h = { , Ol, CR, U , V , J , S },
where tensors
Zh
have the following representation for different
Zh = { 0, L, L
U , V , W, },
(5.41)
h:
(5.42)
67
h = { , Ol, CR, U , V , J , S }.
U , V
Since tensors
and
are linearly expressed in terms of W and D

Zh can be written as linear functions of W and
(see Exercise 1.4.11), so tensors
D:
Zh = 4 ZDh D + 4 ZW h W.
4
Table 1.1 gives expressions for fourth-order tensors

tensors
U , V
4
and
Ol
CR
ZDh
III
III
ZW h
III
III
Eh
ZDh
ZW h ,
and
Eh
for
where
are defined in Exercise 1.4.11.
T a b l e 1.1. Expressions of tensors

different co-rotational derivatives
(5.43)
ZDh , 4 ZW h
U
4
and
III
III
III
S
4
1.5.11. Relations between Co-rotational Derivatives of Deformation Rate

Tensors and Velocity Gradient. In paragraph 1.4.11 we have derived the
relationships between rates of deformation tensors and velocity gradient
L.
Similar connections also exist between co-rotational derivatives of the tensors

and
L.
Let us establish them.
On substituting representations (4.103), (4.104) and (4.130) for rates
g , (g1 ) ,
1 ) into formula (5.41), we get

and (V
, J ,
A
Ah = D (Zh + LT ) A A (ZT
h + L),
T
Jh = D (Zh L) J J (ZT
h L ),
gh = (Zh + LT ) g g (ZT
h + L),
(g
1 h
) = (Zh L) g
(ZT
h
(5.44)
T
L ),
T
T
Vh = (Zh (L + )) V V (ZT
h (L + )),
1
T
(V1 )h = (Zh ( LT )) V1 V1 (ZT
h ( L)),
h = { , Ol, CR, U , V , J , S }.
From these relationships we can find the following expressions:
(V E)h = D 4 Eh D (Zh + ZT
h )
1
T
T
(Zh ( + L)) (V E) (V E) (ZT
h ( + L )),
(5.45)
68
(E V1 )h = D + 4 Eh D + Zh + ZT
h
1
T
(Zh ( LT )) (E V1 ) (E V1 ) (ZT
h ( L)).
Here we have denoted the co-rotational derivative of the metric tensor by
Eh = 4 Eh D.
The tensor
Eh
(5.46)
differs from zero-tensor only when
h = {CR, Ol}
(see Exercise
1.5.3), its expressions are given in Table 1.1 (see paragraph 1.5.10).
Since tensors
Zh
and
are linearly expressed in terms of
and
(see formulae (5.43), (4.129), (4.122)(4.124)), so on the right-hand sides of

equations (5.44) there are also linear functions of
and
D,
their explicit
expressions will be given in 3.2.22.
Exercises for 1.5.

Exercise 1.5.1. Show that the mixed co-rotational derivatives, the left and the right corotational derivatives relative to the eigenbasis and also the Jaumann and spin derivatives
satisfy the differentiation rules of scalar products:
(A B)h = Ah B + A Bh ,
(A)h = h A + Ah ,
(a A)h = ah A + a Ah ,
h = {, d, D, U , V , J , S},
and the Oldroyd and Cotter-Rivlin derivatives do not satisfy this rule.
Exercise 1.5.2.
Show that for the co-rotational derivatives, the following rules of

differentiation of scalar products of two vectors a and b and also of two tensors T and
B remain valid:
(a b)h = (a b) = ah b + a bh ,
h = {U , V , J , S};
(T B)h = (T B) = Th B + T Bh ,
h = {d, D, U , V , J , S}.
Exercise 1.5.3.
Show that the following co-rotational derivatives of the unit tensor

give the zero-tensor:
Eh = 0,
and the Oldroyd and CotterRivlin
h = {, d, D, U , V , J , S},
derivatives of E are different
ECR = 2D,
from zero:
EOl = 2D.
Exercise 1.5.4.
Using formulae (4.103) and (5.20), show that the CotterRivlin

derivatives of the left Almansi deformation tensor A and of the left Almansi measure g
have the form
ACR = D,
gCR = 0.
Exercise 1.5.5.
Using formulae (4.103) and (5.18), show that the Oldroyd derivatives
of the right CauchyGreen tensor

form
Ol
Exercise 1.5.6.
also
and
eigenbasis
G1
and of the right deformation measure
= D,
(g
Using the expressions for the
g 1
have the
1 Ol
= 0.
tensors U
(3.6),
and
(3.29), and
(3.29), show that we can write the right derivative relative to the
in the form
UU =
3
X
=1
p p ,
CU =
3
X
=1
p p ,
69
U =
3
X

p p ,
=1
3
X

p p ,
=1
(G1 )U = 2U .
GU = 2CU ,
Exercise 1.5.7.
(U1 )U =
Using the expressions for the tensors
(3.6), for
and
(3.29),
and also for g and g

(3.29), show that we can write the left derivative relative to the
eigenbasis p in the form
VV =
3
X
p p ,
AV =
=1
JV =
3
X
3
X

=1
p p ,
gV = 2AV ,
p p ,
(g1 )V = 2JV .
=1
Exercise 1.5.8.
tensor
Show that the Oldroyd and Jaumann derivatives of a second-order

are connected by the relationship
TOl = TJ T D D T.
Exercise 1.5.9.
Show that if for an arbitrary symmetric tensor

derivatives are equal to zero:
Th = 0,
its co-rotational
h = {d, D, U , V , J , S},
then the first invariant of the tensor:
I1 (T) = T E
has its stationary value, i.e.
I1 (T) = 0.
Show that for the co-rotational Oldroyd and CotterRivlin derivatives this statement is
not valid.
Exercise 1.5.10.
Using the results of Exercise 1.4.3, show that the co-rotational

derivatives of the normal vector n satisfy the following relations:
nCR = n,
= n D n,
nOl = n n L L n,
nJ = n n D.
Exercise 1.5.11.
Show that the following co-rotational derivatives of a symmetric

tensor give a symmetric tensor:
if
A = AT ,
then
(Ah )T = Ah , h = {U , V , J , S ,
Ol, CR},
and also a skew-symmetric tensor, if they are applied to a skew-symmetric tensor:

if
B = BT ,
then
(Bh )T = Bh , h = {U , V , J , S , Ol, CR}.
The mixed co-rotational derivatives
h = d, D
have no such properties.
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Chapter

1.1. Material and Spatial Descriptions of Continuum Motion

correspondence between every material point

Due to Axiom 2, at time

i ) and introduce curvilinear coordinates X i of the

in a Cartesian coordinate system

the relationship (1.1) takes the form

and then material points

are considered to be numbered by these coordinates

introduced in this way

are called Lagrangian (or material).

Due to Axiom 3, at every time

there is a one-to-one correspondence be-

X i and its radius-vector

with Lagrangian coordinates

These functions determine a motion of the material point

of the motion of the

The relationships (1.3) are said to be the law

xi in (1.3) are called Eulerian (or spatial) coordinates of

equivalent form of the motion law follows from (1.2):

Chapter 1. Kinematics of Continua

is considered as the time

we introduced Lagrangian coordinates

in (0.4), because just at

The motion of a continuum: positions of continuum

and material point

reference and actual configurations

Unless otherwise stipulated, functions (1.3) are assumed to be regular in the

thus there exist the inverse functions

V = W(B , 0) in a fixed coordinate system O

The closed domain

K, and the domain V = W(B, t) occupied by

the same continuum

to the actual one

Example 1.1. Let us consider a continuum

in the reference con-

1.1. Material and Spatial Descriptions

K is a rectangular parallelepiped (a beam) with edge lengths h1 , h2

and in an actual configuration

the continuum is also a rectangular

parallelepiped but with different edge lengths:

one of the sides, which for example is situated on the plane

are coincident (Figure 1.2). Then the

motion law (1.3) for this continuum takes the form

of any material point

is the proportion function. The motion law (1.6) is called

the beam extension law.

rectangular parallelepiped oriented as shown in

has become a parallelepiped, all

cross-sections of which are planes orthogonal to

axis and are the same parallelograms.

This motion law is called simple shear; the tangent

Example 1.3. Consider a continuum

rectangular parallelepiped (a beam) shown in Figure 1.4;

under the transformation from

changes its dimensions without a change in its angles (as

around the point

(Figure 1.4). The motion law

for the continuum is called the rotation of a beam with

beam with extension

extension. In this case equations (1.1) have the form

where the matrix

Figure 1.4. Rotation of a

the product of two matrices, the rotation matrix