Concepts of Geometry Cbse 10

Undefined Terms and Intuitive Concepts of Geometry
Undefined terms:
In geometry, definitions are formed using known words or terms to describe a new
word. There are three words in geometry that are not formally defined. These
three undefined terms are point, line and plane.
POINT (an undefined term)

In geometry, a point has no dimension (actual
size). Even though we represent a point with a
dot, the point has no length, width, or thickness.
Our dot can be very tiny or very large and it still
represents a point. A point is usually named
with a capital letter. In the coordinate plane, a
point is named by an ordered pair, (x,y).
LINE (an undefined term)

In geometry, a line has no thickness but its
length extends in one dimension and goes on
forever in both directions. Unless otherwise
stated a line is drawn as a straight line with two
arrowheads indicating that the line extends
without end in both directions. A line is named
by a single lowercase letter,
points on the line,
.
, or by any two
PLANE (an undefined term)

In geometry, a plane has no thickness but
extends indefinitely in all directions. Planes are
usually represented by a shape that looks like a
tabletop or a parallelogram. Even though the
diagram of a plane has edges, you must
remember that the plane has no boundaries. A
plane is named by a single letter (plane m) or by
three non-collinear points (plane ABC).
Intuitive Concepts:
There are a few basic concepts in geometry that need to be understood, but are seldom
used as reasons in a formal proof.
Collinear Points
Coplanar points
Opposite rays
points that lie on the same line.
Parallel lines
Skew lines
two coplanar lines that do not intersect
points that lie in the same plane.

2 rays that lie on the same line, with a common
endpoint and no other points in common. Opposite rays
form a straight line and/or a straight angle (180:).
two non-coplanar lines that do not intersect.
Consider the following theorems relating lines and planes. A

diagram is supplied for each theorem that represents one
possible depiction of the situation.
If a line is perpendicular to each of two
Through a given point there passes one and
intersecting lines at their point of intersection,

then the line is perpendicular to the plane
determined by them.
only one plane perpendicular to a given line.
Through a given point there passes one and

only one line perpendicular to a given plane.
Two lines perpendicular to the same plane are

coplanar.
Two planes are perpendicular to each other if
If a line is perpendicular to a plane, then any
and only if one plane contains a line

perpendicular to the second plane.
line perpendicular to the given line at its point

of intersection with the given plane is in the
given plane.
If a line is perpendicular to a plane, then every

plane containing the line is perpendicular to
the given plane.
If a plane intersects two parallel planes, then

the intersection is two parallel lines.
If two planes are perpendicular to the same

line, they are parallel.
The angle where two planes meet is called a dihedral angle.

Woodworkers and construction workers deal with dihedral angles.
For example, creating a rafter for a hip roof requires an
understanding of dihedral angles.
Euclidean Geometry (the high school geometry we all know and

love) is the study of geometry based on definitions, undefined terms (point, line and
plane) and the assumptions of the mathematician Euclid (330 B.C.)
Euclid's text Elements was the first systematic discussion of geometry. While many of
Euclid's findings had been previously stated by earlier Greek mathematicians, Euclid
is credited with developing the first comprehensive deductive system. Euclid's
approach to geometry consisted of proving all theorems from a finite number of
postulates (axioms).
Euclidean Geometry is the study of flat space. We can
easily illustrate these geometrical concepts by drawing on
a flat piece of paper or chalkboard. In flat space, we
know such concepts as:
the shortest distance between two points is one

unique straight line.
the sum of the angles in any triangle equals 180

degrees.
the concept of perpendicular to a line can be illustrated as

seen in the picture at the right.
In his text, Euclid stated his fifth postulate, the famous parallel postulate, in the
following manner:
If a straight line crossing two straight lines makes the interior
angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight
lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on that side on which are the
angles less than the two right angles.
Today, we know the parallel postulate as simply stating:
Through a point not on a line, there is no more than one line
parallel to the line.
The concepts in Euclid's geometry remained unchallenged until the early 19th
century. At that time, other forms of geometry started to emerge, called nonEuclidean geometries. It was no longer assumed that Euclid's geometry could be used
to describe all physical space.
non-Euclidean geometries: are any forms of geometry that

contain a postulate (axiom) which is equivalent to the negation of the Euclidean
parallel postulate.
Examples:
1. Riemannian Geometry
(also called elliptic geometry or spherical

geometry): A non-Euclidean geometry using as its parallel postulate any statement
equivalent to the following:
If l is any line and P is any point not on l , then there are no lines
through P
that are parallel to l .
Riemannian Geometry is named for the German mathematician,

Bernhard Riemann, who in 1889 rediscovered the work of
Girolamo Saccheri (Italian) showing certain flaws in Euclidean
Geometry.
Riemannian Geometry is the study of curved surfaces. Consider what would happen
if instead of working on the Euclidean flat piece of paper, you work on a curved
surface, such as a sphere. The study of Riemannian Geometry has a direct connection
to our daily existence since we live on a curved surface called planet Earth.
What effect does working on a sphere, or a curved
space, have on what we think of as geometrical
truths?
In curved space, the sum of the angles of any

triangle is now always greater than 180.
On a sphere, there are no straight lines. As

soon as you start to draw a straight line, it
curves on the sphere.
In curved space, the shortest distance between any two points

(called ageodesic) is not unique. For example, there are many
geodesics between the north and south poles of the Earth (lines
of longitude) that are not parallel since they intersect at the
poles.
In curved space, the concept of perpendicular to a line can be

illustrated as seen in the picture at the right.
2. Hyperbolic Geometry (also called saddle geometry or Lobachevskian

geometry): A non-Euclidean geometry using as its parallel postulate any statement
equivalent to the following:
If l is any line and P is any point not on l , then there exists at least
two lines through P that are parallel to l .
Lobachevskian Geometry is named for the Russian

mathematician, Nicholas Lobachevsky, who, like Riemann,
furthered the studies of non-Euclidean Geometry.
Hyperbolic Geometry is the study of a saddle shaped space.

Consider what would happen if instead of working on the
Euclidean flat piece of paper, you work on a curved surface
shaped like the outer surface of a saddle or a Pringle's potato
chip.
Unlike Riemannian Geometry, it is more difficult to see practical applications of
Hyperbolic Geometry. Hyperbolic geometry does, however, have applications to
certain areas of science such as the orbit prediction of objects within intense
gradational fields, space travel and astronomy. Einstein stated that space is curved
and his general theory of relativity uses hyperbolic geometry.
What effect does working on a saddle
shaped surface have on what we think of
as geometrical truths?
In hyperbolic geometry, the sum of
the angles of a triangle is less than
180.
In hyperbolic geometry, triangles
with the same angles have the
same areas.
There are no similar triangles in hyperbolic geometry.
In hyperbolic space, the concept of perpendicular to a line

can be illustrated as seen in the picture at the right.
Lines can be drawn in hyperbolic space that are parallel (do not intersect).
Actually, many lines can be drawn parallel to a given line through a given
point.
Graphically speaking, the hyperbolic saddle shape is called

ahyperbolic paraboloid, as seen at the right.
It has been said that some of the works of artist M. C. Escher illustrate hyperbolic
geometry. In his work Circle Limit III (follow the link below), the effect of a
hyperbolic space's negative curve on the sum of the angles in a triangle can be seen.
Escher's print illustrates a model devised by French mathematician Henri Poincare for
visualizing the theorems of hyperbolic geometry, the orthogonal circle.
M. C. Escher web site: http://www.mcescher.com
Choose Galleries: Recognition and Success 1955-1972: Circle Limit III
Answer the following questions dealing with lines and

planes.
1.
In this rectangular sided box,
which set of sides lie in the same plane?
Choose one:
2.
When two planes intersect, two lines are formed.
TRUE or FALSE?
Choose one:
TRUE
FALSE
3.
Which of the following statements is TRUE?
Choose one:
Planes l and q are parallel planes
Planes l and q intersect in line
Point P is in plane l.
4.
If two lines intersect, only one plane contains both the lines.
TRUE or FALSE?
Choose one:
TRUE
FALSE
5.
For this rectangular solid,

plane GHBand EFC are _____.
Choose one:
perpendicular
parallel
neither
6.
Which of the following statements
is true?
Choose one:
Line
lies in plane l.
The intersection of line
and
plane l is point A.
Plane l is perpendicular to line
7.
If two points lie in a plane, the line joining them
also lies in the same plane.
TRUE or FALSE?
Choose one:
TRUE
FALSE
8.
For this rectangular solid, which plane(s)

contain D and are parallel to plane FEG?
Choose one:
planes DAB and GAD.
planes DCB and FCB.
only plane DAB.
Beach Ball Investigation for

Non-Euclidean Geometry
Topic Index | Geometry Index | Regents Exam Prep Center
This activity can be accomplished by groups of students or the activity can be

performed as a demonstration in front of the class by the teacher and/or student
volunteers.
Materials: beach balls (or other larger balls)

(could be done with balloons with some
care)
string, protractors, rulers or yardsticks
Note: The ball can be marked by the teacher with a
permanent marker before the activity begins. This
will allow the ball to be used with several different
groups/classes of students. Mark the poles. Mark
two other points on the ball allowing for adequate
distance between the points. Mark the vertices of
several different sized triangles on the ball and
draw the triangles using great circles to form the sides. Label all of your points for
easy reference for students' answers.
The shortest distance between two points on a sphere is along the arc of the great
circle joining the points. The shortest distance between points on any surface is called
a geodesic. In a plane, a straight line is a geodesic. On a sphere, a great circle is a
geodesic.
Student Tasks:
1. Using the string, determine the length of the great circle of the spherical ball. Pull
the string tight to the ball between the two poles, to approximate a geodesic. Record
this length.
2. Find the distance between the two designated, but non-connected, points on the
ball. (These points will not be the poles.) Record this length. Is the geodesic you
used for this length unique, or are other geodesics possible for this measurement?
3. Locate the vertices of each of the triangles on the ball. Using a great circle as a
geodesic, find the lengths of the sides of the triangles. Record the lengths for all of
the triangles.
4. To the best of your ability, use the protractor to measure the angles in each of the
triangles. Record the measurements for each triangle.
5. Make a concluding statement about the relationship between the angels of a
triangle on a sphere.
6. A discussion of Euclidean geometry versus non-Euclidean geometry would follow.
Basic Constructions
In geometry, constructions utilize only two tools

- the straightedge (an unmarked ruler) and the compass.
Never draw freehand when doing a construction!
The Compass:
Compasses come in a variety of styles. Become familiar with the compass you will be
using before beginning your constructions.
Suggestions for working with a compass:

Place several pieces of paper under your worksheet to allow the compass point
to remain stable.
Hold the compass lightly and allow the wrist to remain flexible.
If you cannot manage to move your wrist when drawing circles, try rotating the
paper under the compass.
The Straightedge:
A straightedge is generally a clear plastic tool devoid of markings. It most often
appears in the shape of a triangle. A portion of a straightedge is visible in the lower
left corner of the picture on the left below.
If you do not have a straightedge, a ruler may be used. Just remember to completely
ignore the markings on the ruler.
Basic Geometrical Constructions:

The basic constructions used in geometry include:
copy a line segment
copy an angle
bisect a line segment
Each construction is developed

separately in the following web
pages.
Several videos showing the actual
constructions are included.
bisect an angle
construct perpendicular lines
construct parallel lines
construct isosceles triangle
construct equilateral triangle
While the constructions listed above are considered the basic geometrical
constructions, you should also be able to construct situations that require the use of
these constructions.
Copy a Line Segment

and an Angle
ATTENTION
Video Users:
These videos require that you have available a means of displaying

video such as Windows Media Player, Real Player, QuickTime, etc.
Video files are lengthy and may take some time to load depending
upon your connection. Please be patient.
When the video is loading for the first time, you may experience some
choppy sound and movement. Allow the video to finish loading and
then play again for a smooth delivery.
Remember -- use your compass

and straight edge only!
A reference line is a line upon which you produce copies of existing figures.
Copy a line segment

Video of
Copy Line Segment
Given: (Line segment)
Task: To construct a line segment congruent to (line segment)
Directions:
1. If a reference line does not already exist, draw a reference line

with your straightedge upon which you will make your construction.
Place a starting point on the reference line.
2. Place the point of the compass on point A.

3. Stretch the compass so that the pencil is exactly on B.
4. Without changing the span of the compass, place the compass point on the starting
point on the reference line and swing the pencil so that it crosses the reference line.
Label your copy.
Your copy and (line segment)
are congruent. Congruent means equal in length.
Explanation of construction: The two line segments are the same length, therefore
they are congruent.
Copy an angle
Video of
Copy an Angle
Given:
Task: To construct an angle congruent to
.
Directions:
1. If a reference line does not already exist, draw a reference line with
your straightedge upon which you will make your construction. Place
a starting point on the reference line.
2. Place the point of the compass on the vertex of
(point A).
3. Stretch the compass to any length so long as it stays ON the angle.
4. Swing an arc with the pencil that crosses both sides of
.
5. Without changing the span of the compass, place the compass point
on the starting point of the reference line and swing an arc that will
intersect the reference line and go above the reference line.
6. Go back to
and measure the width (span) of the arc from where it crosses
one side of the angle to where it crosses the other side of the angle.
7. With this width, place the compass point on the reference line where your new arc
crosses the reference line and mark off this width on your new arc.
8. Connect this new intersection point to the starting point on the reference line.
Your new angle is congruent to
Explanation of construction: When this construction is finished, draw a line segment

connecting where the arcs cross the sides of the angles. You now have two triangles
that have 3 sets of congruent (equal) sides. SSS is sufficient to prove triangles
congruent. Since the triangles are congruent, any leftover corresponding parts are also
congruent - thus, the angle on the reference line and
are congruent.
Bisect a Line Segment

and an Angle
ATTENTION
Video Users:


Bisect - cut into two congruent (equal) pieces.
Bisect a line segment

(Also know as Construct a Perpendicular
Bisector of a segment)
Video of
Bisect a Segment
Given: (Line segment)

Task: Bisect
Directions:
1. Place your compass point on A and stretch the compass MORE THAN
half way to pointB, but not beyond B.
2. With this length, swing a large arc that will go BOTH above and
below
(If you do not wish to make one large continuous arc, you may simply place one small arc
above
and one small arc below
.)
3. Without changing the span on the compass, place the compass point
on B and swing the arc again. The two arcs you have created should
intersect.
4. With your straightedge, connect the two points of intersection.

5. This new straight line bisects
. Label the point where the new line and
cross as C.
has now been bisected and AC = CB. (It could also be said that the segments are
congruent,
.)
(It may be advantageous to instruct students in the use of the "large arc method"
because it creates a "crayfish" looking creature which students easily remember and
which reinforces the circle concept needed in the explanation of the construction.)
Explanation of construction: To understand the explanation you will need to label the
point of intersection of the arcs above segment
as D and below segment
as E.
Draw segments
,
,
and
. All four of these segments are of the same
length since they are radii of two congruent circles. More specifically, DA =
DBand EA = EB. Now, remember a locus theorem: The locus of points equidistant
from two points, is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment determined by the
two points. Hence,
is the perpendicular bisector of
.
The fact that the bisector is also perpendicular to the segment is actually MORE than
we needed for a simple "bisect" construction. Isn't this great! Free stuff!!!
Bisect an angle
Video of
Bisect an Angle
Given:
Task: Bisect
Directions:
1. Place the point of the compass on the vertex of
(point A).
2. Stretch the compass to any length so long as it stays ON the angle.
3. Swing an arc so the pencil crosses both sides of
. This will create
two intersection points with the sides (rays) of the angle.
4. Place the compass point on one of these new intersection points on the
sides of
.
If needed, stretch your compass to a sufficient length to place your pencil well into the
interior of the angle. Stay between the sides (rays) of the angle. Place an arc in this
interior - you do not need to cross the sides of the angle.
5. Without changing the width of the compass, place the point of the compass on
the other intersection point on the side of the angle and make the same arc. Your two
small arcs in the interior of the angle should be crossing.
6. Connect the point where the two small arcs cross to the vertex A of the angle.
You have now created two new angles that are of equal measure (and are each 1/2 the
measure of
.)
Explanation of construction: To understand the explanation, some additional labeling
will be needed. Label the point where the arc crosses side
as D. Label the point
where the arc crosses side
as E. And label the intersection of the two small arcs
in the interior as F. Draw segments
and
. By the construction, AD = AE(radii
of same circle) and DF = EF (arcs of equal length). Of course AF = AF. All of these
sets of equal length segments are also congruent. We have congruent triangles by
SSS. Since the triangles are congruent, any of their leftover corresponding parts are
congruent which makes
equal (or congruent) to
.
Parallel
- through a point
ATTENTION
Video Users:


Parallel
-through a point
Video of
Parallel through a point
Given: Point P is off a given line

Task: Construct a line through P parallel to the given line.
Directions:
1. With your straightedge, draw a transversal through point P.

This is simply a straight line which runs through P and intersects
the given line.
2. Using your knowledge of the construction COPY AN ANGLE,
construct a copy of the angle formed by the transversal and the
given line such that the copy is located UP at point P. The vertex
of your copied angle will be point P.
3. When the copy of the angle is complete, you will have two parallel lines.
This new line is parallel to the given line.
Explanation of construction: Since we used the construction to copy an angle, we now
have two angles of equal measure in our diagram. In relation to parallel lines, these
two equal angles are positioned in such a manner that they are called corresponding
angles. A theorem relating to parallel lines tells us that if two lines are cut by a
transversal and the corresponding angles are congruent (equal), then the lines are
parallel.
Perpendiculars
- from a point on the line
- from a point off the line
ATTENTION
Video Users:


Perpendicular - lines (or segments) which meet to form right

angles.
Perpendicular
from a point ON a line
Video of
Perpendicular On Line
Given: Point P is on a given line

Task: Construct a line through P perpendicular to the
given line.
Directions:
1. Place your compass point on P and sweep an arc of any size that
crosses the line twice (below the line). You will be creating (at least) a
semicircle. (Actually, you may draw this arc above OR below the line.)
2. STRETCH THE COMPASS LARGER!!
3. Place the compass point where the arc crossed the line on one side and
make a small arc below the line. (The small arc could be above the line if
you prefer.)
4. Without changing the span on the compass, place the compass point where the arc
crossed the line on the OTHER side and make another arc. Your two small arcs
should be crossing.
5. With your straightedge, connect the intersection of the two small arcs to point P.
This new line is perpendicular to the given line.
Explanation of construction: Remember the construction for bisect an angle? In this

construction, you have bisected the straight angle P. Since a straight angle contains
180 degrees, you have just created two angles of 90 degrees each. Since two right
angles have been formed, a perpendicular exists.
Perpendicular
from a point off a line.
Video of
Perpendicular Off Line
Given: Point P is off a given line

Task: Construct a line through P perpendicular to the given
line.
Directions:
1. Place your compass point on P and sweep an arc of any size that
crosses the line twice.
2. Place the compass point where the arc crossed the line on one side
and make an arc ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE OF THE LINE.
3. Without changing the span on the compass, place the compass point
where the arc crossed the line on the OTHER side and make another
arc. Your two new arcs should be crossing on the opposite side of the
line.
4. With your straightedge, connect the intersection of the two new arcs to point P.
This new line is perpendicular to the given line.
Explanation of construction: To understand the explanation, some additional labeling
will be needed. Label the point where the arc crosses the line as points C and D.
Label the intersection of the new arcs on the opposite side as point E. Draw
segments
,
,
, and
. By the construction, PC = PD and EC =
ED. Now, remember a locus theorem: The locus of points equidistant from two
points (C and D), is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment determined by the
two points. Hence,
is the perpendicular bisector of
.
The fact that we created a bisector, as well as a perpendicular, is actually MORE than
we needed - we only needed to create a perpendicular. Yea, free stuff!!!
Constructions: Isosceles and

Equilateral Triangles
Directions for constructing isosceles and equilateral

triangles:
Construct an isosceles
triangle whose legs and
Construct an Isosceles Triangle
base are of the predetermined lengths
Using Given Segment Lengths:
given. Construct the
new triangle on the
reference line.
When constructing an isosceles triangle, you may
be given pre-determined segment lengths to use

for the triangle (such as in this example), or you
may be allowed to determine your own segment
lengths. Either way, the construction process will
be the same.
Using your compass,

measure the length of
the given "base".
Do not change the size Using your compass, measure

Without changing the
You now have three
of the compass. Place the length of the given "leg".
size of the compass, points which will define
your compass point on Place the compass point where move the compass point the isosceles triangle.
the reference line point the previous arc crosses the
to the point on the
and scribe a small arc
reference line and scribe
reference line. Scribe
which will cross the another arc above the reference an arc above the line
line.
line
such that it intersects
with the previous arc.
Construct an Equilateral Triangle Using a

Given Segment Length:
When constructing an equilateral triangle,

you may be given a pre-determined segment
length to use for the triangle (such as in this
example), or you may be allowed to
determine your own segment length. Either
way, the construction process will be the
same.
Construct an equilateral
triangle whose sides are
of given length "a".
Construct the new
triangle on the reference
line.
Using your
Do not change the size of Do not change the size
compass,
the compass. Place your of the compass. Place
measure the
compass point on the
the compass point
length of the
reference line point and where the arc crosses
given segment, scribe an arc which will the reference line and
"a".
cross the line and will
scribe another arc
rise above the line.
which crosses the
previous arc.
You now have three

points which will define
the equilateral triangle.
Alternate Method for Constructing an Equilateral

Triangle:
An equilateral triangle can be easily constructed from a circle. The
secret to this method is to remember to keep the compass set at the same
length as the radius of the original circle.
Draw a circle and place

a point on the circle.
Do not change the size
of the compass.
With the compass

still set at the same
size as the radius
of the circle, place
the compass point
on the point on the
circle and mark off
a small arc on the
circle. Now, move
the compass point
to this new arc and
mark off another
arc. Continue
around the circle.
You now have a circle with

six equally divided sections
on its circumference.
Connect every other

point on the circle to
form the equilateral
triangle.
Construction Activities
1. Draw two quadrilaterals of about the same shape as the ones shown below. Using
your straightedge and compass, bisect each side of each figure. Join the midpoints of
the four sides of each figure in order, so that two new quadrilaterals are formed. What
do you notice?
2. Draw a line segment that is several inches long.
Using your straightedge and

compass, divide the segment into four equal parts. Into what other number of equal
parts, less than ten, can a line segment be easily divided?
3.
Draw two triangles of the same shape as shown below. Using your straightedge
and compass, bisect each of the three angles of each figure. What do you notice?
4. Using what you know about constructions, can you figure out a way to construct
the following items?
the altitudes of a scalene triangle
the altitudes of an obtuse triangle
the medians of a scalene triangle
the medians of an obtuse triangle
a square
5. Construct an angle of 30. Justify your construction.
6. Given segments of length a and b, construct a rectangle that has a vertex at A

on the given reference line. Justify why your construction is correct.
7. Given the following figure, construct a parallelogram having sides

and <ABC. Justify why your construction is correct.
8. Construct an equilateral triangle with sides of length a.
and
Polyhedra
Singular: polyhedron
Plural: polyhedra
A polyhedron is a three-dimensional solid figure in which each side is a flat

surface. These flat surfaces are polygons and are joined at their edges. The
word polyhedron is derived from the Greek poly (meaning many) and the IndoEuropean hedron (meaning seat or face).
A polyhedron has no curved surfaces.
The common polyhedron are pyramids and prisms.
pyramid
prism
A polyhedron is called regular if the faces are congruent, regular polygons and the
same number of faces meet at each vertex. There are a total of five such convex
regular polyhedra called the Platonic solids.
tetrahedron
octahedron
icosahedron
hexahedron
dodecahedron
Euler's Polyhedron Theorem:

Euler discovered that the number of faces (flat surfaces) plus the number of vertices
(corner points) of a polyhedron equals the number of edges of the polyhedron plus 2.
F+V=E+2
Non-Polyhedra
The following solids are not polyhedra since a part or all of the figure is curved.
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Torus
A torus is a "tube shape". Examples include an inner tube, a doughnut, a tire and a
bagel. Smallr is the radius of the tube and capital R is the distance from the centre of
the torus to the center of the tube.
While the torus has a hole in the center,

the Surface Area:
the Volume:
Prisms
Prisms are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

A prism has two parallel faces, called bases, that
are congruentpolygons. The lateral faces are rectangles in a right prism,
or parallelograms in an oblique prism. In a right prism, the joining
edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces.
Right Triangular Prism
Prisms are also called

polyhedra since their
faces are polygons.
A regular prism is a
cube.
Right Rectangular Prism
Oblique Triangular
Prism
Parallelepiped
A prism which has a parallelogram as its base is
called aparallelepiped. It is a polyhedron with 6
faces which are all parallelograms.
The edges of the prism where the lateral faces

intersect are called its lateral edges. The lateral
edges in a prism arecongruent and parallel.
Lateral edges:
There are 5 congruent and parallel
lateral edges in this prism.
The volume of a prism is the product of the base area

times the height of the prism.
V = Bh
(Volume of a prism: B = base area, h = height)
h = height(altitude) between bases

B = area of the base
The surface area of a prism is the sum of the

areas of the bases plus the areas of the lateral faces.
This simply means the sum of the areas of all faces.
The surface area, S, of a right prism can be found

using the formula S = 2B + ph.
B = area of base, p = perimeter of base, h = height.
A net is a two-dimensional figure

that can be cut out and folded up to
make a three-dimensional solid.
Note: A cross section of a geometric solid is the intersection of a plane and the solid.
A prism has the same cross section (parallel to the base)

all along its length !
Shown here are the cross
sections (in the same plane)
of two prisms of equal
height. The cross section
slices are indicated in red and
are parallel to the bases.
If the areas of these two
cross section slices are equal,
the prisms will be equal in
volume.
Seventeenth century mathematician, Bonaventura Cavalieri, generalized this concept

for solids.
Cavalieri's Principle:
If, in two solids of equal height, the cross

sections made by planes parallel to and at the same distance from their
respective bases are always equal, then the volumes of the two solids are
equal.
For Algebra 1 you should know a generalized statement of this principle:
"Two prisms will have equal volumes if their bases have

equal area
and their altitudes (heights) are equal."
Reflective Prisms
In the study of optics, prisms are used to reflect light,
such as occurs in binoculars. Prisms are also used to
disperse light, or break light into its spectral colors of the
rainbow. The most commonly used optic prism is a
triangular prism, which has a triangular base and
rectangular sides.
Pyramids
Pyramid
Pyramids are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

The one base of the pyramid is a polygon and the
lateral faces are always triangles with a common
vertex. The vertex of a pyramid (the point, or
apex) is not in the same plane as the base.
Pyramids are also called polyhedra since their
faces are polygons.
We will be working with regular pyramids

unless otherwise stated.
The most common pyramids are regular

pyramids. A regular pyramid has a regular
polygon for a base and its height meets the base at
its center. The slant height is the height (altitude)
of each lateral face.
In a regular pyramid, the lateral edges are congruent.

Since the base is a regular polygon, whose sides are all congruent,
we know that the lateral faces of a regular pyramid are congruent
isosceles triangles.
Pyramids are named for the shape of their base.
Triangular pyramid
Square pyramid
The volume of a pyramid is one-third the

product of the base area times the height of the
pyramid.
(Volume of a pyramid: B = base area, h = height)
h = height (altitude) from vertex to base

B = area of base
The surface area of a pyramid is the sum of

the area of the base plus the areas of the lateral faces.
This simply means the sum of the areas of all faces.
The surface area, S, of a regular pyramid can be
A net is a two-dimensional figure
found using the formula
that can be cut out and folded up to

make a three-dimensional solid.
B = area of base, p = perimeter of base, s = slant height.
The Great Pyramid of Egypt

The Great Pyramid of Khufu, at Giza, Egypt, is
751 feet long on each side at the base, is 450 feet
high, and is composed of approximately 2
million blocks of stone, each weighing more
than 2 tons. The maximum error between side
lengths is less than 0.1%.
The sloping angle of its sides is 5151'. Each
side is oriented with the compass points of north,
south, east, and west. Each cross section of the
pyramid (parallel to the base) is a square.
Artist's rendering of the pyramids.
Until the 19th century, the Great Pyramid at Giza was the tallest building in the
world. At over 4500 years in age, it is the only one of the famous Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World that remains standing.
According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Great Pyramid was built as a tomb
for the Pharaoh Khufu.
Cylinders
Cylinder
Cylinders are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

In general use, the term cylinder refers to a right circular
cylinder with its ends closed to form two circular surfaces,
that lie in parallel planes.
h = height (altitude)
r = radius
We will be working with right

circular cylinders unless
otherwise stated.
Cylinders are not called polyhedra since their faces are not
polygons. In many ways, however, a cylinder is similar to
a prism. A cylinder has parallel congruent bases, as does
a prism, but the cylinder's bases are circles rather than
polygons.
The volume of a cylinder can be calculated in the same manner as the

volume of a prism: the volume is the product of the base area times the height
of the cylinder,
V = Bh.
Since the base in a cylinder is a circle, the formula for the area of a circle can be
substituted into the volume formula for B:
(Volume of a cylinder: r = radius of base, h = height)
A net is a two-dimensional
figure that can be cut out and
folded up to make a threedimensional solid.
The surface area (of a closed cylinder) is a

combination of the lateral area and the area of each of the
bases. When disassembled, the surface of a cylinder
becomes two circular bases and a rectangular surface
(lateral surface), as seen in the net at the left.

Note that the length of the rectangular surface is the same
as the circumference of the base. Remember that the area
of a rectangle is length times width.
The lateral area (rectangle) = height circumference of
the base.
The base area = area of a circle (remember there are two
bases)
Lateral = any face or surface that

is not a base.
(Total Surface Area of a Closed Cylinder)

...which can also be factored and written as
When working with surface areas of cylinders, read the questions carefully.
Will the surface area include
both of the bases?

only one of the bases?

neither of the bases?
The lateral area only.
Cones
Cone
Cones are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

In general use, the term cone refers to a right circular cone
with its end closed to form a circular base surface. The vertex
of the cone (the point) is not in the same plane as the base.
h = height (altitude)
r = radius
s = slant height
Cones are not called polyhedra since their faces are not
polygons. In many ways, however, a cone is similar to a
pyramid. A cone's base is simply a circle rather than a polygon
as seen in the pyramid.
We will be working with right

circular cones unless
otherwise stated.
The volume of a cone can be calculated in the same manner as the volume
of a pyramid: the volume is one-third the product of the base area times the
height of the cone,
Since the base of a cone is a circle, the formula for the area of a circle can be
substituted into the volume formula for B :
(Volume of a cone: r = radius, h = height)
A net is a two-dimensional figure that can

be cut out and folded up to make a threedimensional solid.
The surface area (of a closed cone) is a combination

of the lateral area and the area of the base. When cut along
the slant side and laid flat, the surface of a cone becomes
one circular base and the sector of a circle (lateral surface),
as shown in the net at the left.

Note that the length of the arc in the sector is the same as
the circumference of the small circular base.
By using a proportion, the area of the sector (lateral area)
will be:
(measurements pertain to
the larger net figure, the
circle containing the sector)
Lateral = any face or surface that is not a

base.
In a right circular cone, the slant height, s, can

be found using the Pythagorean Theorem:
Note: The formula for the area of

the sector (lateral area),
, is
equal to one half the product of
the slant height and the
circumference of the base.
(arc length of the sector

equals the circumference of
the smaller base circle)
(the radius of the smaller

base is r, while the radius of
the larger sector is s)
The lateral area (sector) =

The base area = area of a circle
(Total Surface Area of a Closed Cone)
When working with surface areas of cones, read the questions carefully.
Will the surface area
include the base?
Will the surface area

not include the base?
Spheres
Sphere
r = radius
Spheres are three-dimensional closed surfaces.

A sphere is a set of points in three-dimensional space
equidistant from a point called the center. The radius of the
sphere is the distance from the center to the points on the
sphere.
Spheres are not polyhedra.
Of all shapes, a sphere has the smallest surface area for its
volume.
The volume of a sphere is four-thirds times pi times the

radius cubed.
(Volume of a sphere: r = radius)
Note: A cross section of a geometric solid is the intersection of a plane and the solid.
The surface area of a sphere is four times the area of

the largest cross-sectional circle (called the great circle).
A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere.
Such a circle
will be found when the cross-sectional plane passes through the center of the sphere.
The equator is an examples of a great circle. Meridians
(passing through the North and South poles) are also
great circles.
The shortest distance between two points on a sphere is
along the arc of the great circle joining the points.
The shortest distance between points on any surface is
called ageodesic. In a plane, a straight line is a geodesic.
On a sphere, a great circle is a geodesic.
What happens when

planes
intersect with spheres?
1. The intersection of a plane and a sphere
is a circle.
No, not that kind of plane!
2. If two planes are equidistant from the center

of a sphere (and intersecting the sphere),
the intersected circles are congruent.
A hemisphere is the half sphere formed by a plane intersecting the center of a sphere.
Platonic Solids
(Regular Solids, Regular Polyhedra)
Regular solids (regular polyhedra, or Platonic solids which were described by Plato)
are solid geometric figures, with identical regular polygons (such as squares) as their
faces, and with the same number of faces meeting at every corner (vertex). Euclid
proved that there are only five regular convex polyhedra.
The five Platonic Solids were thought to represent the five basic elements of the
world; earth, air, fire, water, and the universe.
The "regular solids" are important in many aspects of chemistry, crystallography, and
mineralogy.
The equilateral triangle is the simplest regular
polygon. Placing three equilateral triangles at a
vertex (total angle 180) will form
a tetrahedron (4 faces, 4 vertices).
It has the smallest volume for its surface.
The tetrahedron represents fire.
Placing four equilateral triangles at each vertex

(total angle 240&def;) will form
anoctahedron (8 faces, 6 vertices).
The octahedron rotates freely when held by its
two opposite vertices and represents air.
Placing five equilateral triangles at each vertex

(300) will form an icosahedron (20
faces and 12 vertices).
It has the largest volume for its surface area.
The icosahedron represents water.
The second simplest regular polygon is the
square. Placing three squares at each corner
(270) will form a cube,
or hexahedron(6 faces and 8 vertices).
The hexahedron, standing firmly on its base,
represents the stable earth.
The third simplest regular polygon is the

regular pentagon. Placing three pentagons at
each vertex (324) will form
adodecahedron (12 faces and 20
vertices).
The dodecahedron represents to the universe
since the twelve zodiac signs correspond to the
twelve faces of the dodecahedron.
Animated solids used with permission of creator Rdiger Appel (all rights reserved).
Tidbit of Info:
A soccer ball is composed of a combination of

pentagon and hexagon faces. This shape is called
a buckyball after Richard Buckminster Fuller,
who invented the geodesic dome. In reality, the
soccer ball is not truly a polyhedron since the faces
are not really flat. The faces tend to bulge slightly due
to the amount of stuffing in the ball and the pliable
nature of the leather.
Answer the following questions dealing with 3-dimensional

figures.
Answers use = 3.141592654, the full calculator entry on the TI-83+/84+,
and are rounded to the nearest tenth unless otherwise stated.
1.
Choose:
18 cu. units
93.5 cu. units
280.5 cu. units
467.7 cu. units
This figure is a regular hexagonal prism.
Find its volume.
Explanation
2.
Choose:
12.7 sq. ft.
50.2 sq. ft.
The radius of this sphere is 4 feet.
Find the area of the great circle of this sphere to the nearest
tenth.
Explanation
50.3 sq. ft.

804.2 sq. ft.
3.
Choose:
110
Find the volume of
this right circular cone
to the nearest cubic
foot.
80
64
47
Explanation
4.
At the age of 81, Mr. Luke Roberts

decided to start collecting string. He
has a spherical ball of string three feet
in diameter. On the assumption that
one cubic inch of string weighs 0.03
pounds and the ball was solid string,
how much does the ball weigh to
thenearest tenth of a pound?
Choose:
73.0 lbs
583.2 lbs
732.9 lbs
2442.9 lbs
Explanation
5.
A cylinder and a cone each have a radius of 3 cm. and a

height of 8 cm. What is the ratio of the volume of the
cone to the volume of the cylinder?
Choose:
Vcone : Vcylinder = 1 : 2
Vcone : Vcylinder = 1 :
Explanation
6.
Choose:
The figure to the left is a cube.
Find the number of degrees in angle
45
60
Explanation
7.
90
Choose:
True
False
If this 2-dimensional net is assembled, it will form the 3dimensional figure shown at the right.
8.
Choose:
18 sq. in.
24 sq. in.
36 sq. in.
This figure represents a slab of cheese. It is in the form of a
right triangular prism. Find the least amount of wrapping
needed to cover the cheese on all sides.
48 sq. in.
Explanation
9.
When you blow up a balloon it forms a

sphere because it is trying to hold as
much air as possible with as small a
surface as possible.
How much air, to the nearest tenth of a
cubic inch, is being held by a spherical
balloon with a diameter of 12 inches?
Explanation
Choose:
150.8 cu.in.
226.2 cu.in.
904.8 cu.in.
7238.2 cu.in.
10.
Choose:
800
A regular pyramid is shown at the
left. Find the volume of the
pyramid to the nearest cubic unit.
267
80
27
Explanation
11.
Choose:
1575
Find the volume in
cubic feet.
4050
5625
6225
Explanation
12.
The lateral surface area of a right circular cone, LS, is

represented by the equation
,
where ris the radius of the circular base and h is the height
of the cone. If the lateral surface area of an ice cream
cone is 236.64 square centimeters and its radius is 4.75
centimeters, find its height, to the nearest hundredth of a
centimeter.
Choose:
251.47 cm
228.91 cm
15.86 cm
15.13 cm
Explanation
13.
A cylinder and a sphere have the same radius and the

same height. What is the ratio of the volume of the
cylinder to the volume of the sphere?
Choose:
Vcylinder : Vshere = 1 : 1
Vcylinder : Vsphere = 2 : 1
Vcylinder : Vsphere =
:3
Vcylinder : Vsphere = 3 : 2
Explanation
14.
At the MetroPlex movie theater, popcorn is served in a box. At the

CinemaPlex movie theater, popcorn is served in a cylindrical container. At
home, Mom serves popcorn in a bowl (hemisphere in shape). Based upon
the given dimensions, where are you getting the most popcorn?
(Disregard the thickness of the container.)
Choose:
MetroPlex
CinemaPlex
Mom's Place
Explanation
15.
Choose:
41.6 cu.
units
124.7 cu.
This figure is a regular hexagonal prism.

Find its volume.
units
128.4 cu.
units
203.6 cu.
units
Explanation
16.
In the chart below, the dimensions of a cylinder and a cone are doubled and
tripled. Find the volume of all three cylinders and all three cones. When
finished, state a hypothesis as to what happens to the volume of solids when
the sides are doubled and tripled.

Cylinder:
r = 4; h = 7
Doubled: r = 8; h = 14
Tripled: r = 12; h = 21
Cone:
r = 4; h = 7
Doubled: r = 8, h = 14
Tripled: r = 12; h = 21
Hypothesis
Polygons
A polygon is a closed figure that is the union of line

segments in a plane. A polygon has three or more sides.
A polygon has the same number of angles as sides.
Polygons can be classified as either convex or concave.
A polygon is convex if no line that contains a

side of the polygon contains a point in the
interior of the polygon. In a convex polygon,
each interior angle measures less than 180
degrees.
Concave polygons "cave-in" to their interiors,
creating at least one interior angle greater than
180 degrees (a reflex angle).
Unless otherwise stated, we will be
discussing convexpolygons.
Types of Polygons
Listed below are some of the more commonly used polygons.
(Do not assume that the diagrams under the "Graphic" column are "regular"
polygons. Do not assume any specific details about the diagrams such as the length of
the sides or measures of the angles.)
Sides
Angles
Vertices
Diagonals
Number
Triangles
Triangle
Quadrilateral
Pentagon
Hexagon
Polygon
Graphic
Heptagon or
Septagon
14
Octagon
20
Nonagon or
Novagon
27
Decagon
10
10
10
35
Dodecagon
12
12
12
54
10
n-gon
---
A polygon is equilateral if all of its sides are of the same length.

A polygon is equiangular if all of its angles are of equal measure.
A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular.
Sum of Interior Angles
(n - 2)
of a Polygon
Sum of Interior Angles

of a Polygon
= 180(n - 2)
(where n = number of sides)
Let's investigate why this formula is true.

Start with vertex A and connect it to all other vertices (it is already
connected to B and E by the sides of the figure). Three triangles are
formed. The sum of the angles in each triangle contains 180. The total
number of degrees in all three triangles will be 3 times 180. Consequently,
the sum of the interior angles of a pentagon is:
180 = 540
Notice that a pentagon has 5 sides, and that 3 triangles were formed by
connecting the vertices. The number of triangles formed will be 2 less
than the number of sides.
This pattern is constant for all polygons. Representing the number of sides of a polygon as n,
the number of triangles formed is (n - 2). Since each triangle contains 180, the sum of the
interior angles of a polygon is 180(n - 2).
Using the Formula

There are two types of problems that arise when using this formula:
1. Questions that ask you to find the number of degrees in the sum of the interior angles of a
polygon.
2. Questions that ask you to find the number of sides of a polygon.
Hint: When working with the angle formulas for polygons, be sure to read each
question carefully for clues as to which formula you will need to use to solve the
problem. Look for the words that describe each kind of formula, such as the
words sum, interior, each, exterior and degrees.
Example 1:
Find the number of degrees in the sum of the interior angles of an
octagon.
An octagon has 8 sides. So n = 8. Using the formula from
above,180(n - 2) = 180(8 - 2) = 180(6) = 1080 degrees.
Example 2:
How many sides does a polygon have if the sum of

its interior angles is 720?
Since, the number of degrees is given, set the formula above equal to 720,
and solve for n.
180(n - 2) = 720
n-2=4
n=6
Set the formula = 720

Divide both sides by 180
Add 2 to both sides
Each Interior Angle

of a Regular Polygon
Remember that the sum of the interior angles of a polygon is

given by the formula
Sum of interior angles = 180(n - 2)

where n = the number of sides in the polygon.
A polygon is called
a REGULARpolygon when all of its
sides are of the same length and all
of its angles are of the same
measure.
A regular polygon is both
equilateral and equiangular.
Let's investigate the regular pentagon seen above.

To find the sum of its interior angles, substitute n = 5 into the formula 180(n 2) and get 180(5 - 2) = 180(3) = 540
Since the pentagon is a regular pentagon, the measure of each interior angle will be
the same.
To find the size of each angle, divide the sum, 540, by the number of angles in the
pentagon.
(which is the same as the number of sides).
540
5 = 108
There are 108 in each interior angle of a regular pentagon.
This process can be generalized into a formula for finding

each interior angle of a REGULAR polygon ...
Each interior angle of a "regular" polygon =
where n = the number of sides in the polygon.
Be careful!!! If a polygon is NOT REGULAR (such as the one

seen at the right), you cannot use this formula. If the angles of a
polygon DO NOT all have the same measure, then you cannot find
the measure of any one of them just by knowing their sum.
NOT REGULAR = DO NOT USE FORMULA!!
Examples
Read these questions carefully! If the word "EACH" appears in the question, you will
most likely need the formula for "each interior angle" to solve the problem.
1. Find the number of degrees in each interior angle of a regular dodecagon.

It is a regular polygon, so we can use the formula.
In a dodecagon, n = 12.
interior angle of a regular polygon measures 135.

2. Each
have ?
First, set the formula (for each interior angle)

equal to the number of degrees given.
Cross multiply.
Multiply 180 by (n - 2).
Subtract 135n from both sides of the

equation.
Divide both sides of the equation by 45.
How many sides does the polygon
Exterior Angle
An exterior angle of a polygon is an angle that forms a linear pair with
one of the angles of the polygon.
Two exterior angles can be formed at each vertex of a

polygon. The exterior angle is formed by one side of the
polygon and the extension of the adjacent side. For the
hexagon shown at the left, <1 and <2 are exterior angles for
that vertex. Be careful, as <3 is NOT an exterior angle.
Note: While it is possible to draw TWO (equal) exterior

angles at each vertex of a polygon, the sum of the exterior
angles formula uses only ONE exterior angle at each vertex.
Formula:
Sum exterior angles of any polygon = 360
(using one exterior angle at a vertex)
Finding the sum of the exterior angles of a polygon is simple. No matter what type of
polygon you have, the sum of the exterior angles is ALWAYS equal to 360.
If you are working with a regular polygon, you can determine the size
of EACH exterior angle by simply dividing the sum, 360, by the number of
angles. Remember, the formula below will ONLY work in a regular polygon.
Formula:
Each exterior angle (regular polygon) =
Examples
the sum of the exterior angles of:
1. Find
a) a pentagon
Answer: 360
b) a decagon
c) a 15 sided polygon
d) a 7 sided polygon
Answer: 3600
Answer: 3600
Answer: 3600
2. Find the measure of each exterior angle of a regular hexagon.

A hexagon has 6 sides, so n = 6
Substitute in the formula.
measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon is 45.

3. The
polygon have ?
How many sides does the
Set the formula equal to 450.

Cross multiply and solve for n.
Types of Sentences
One of the goals of studying mathematics is to develop the

ability to think critically. The study of critical thinking, or
reasoning, is called logic.
All reasoning is based on the ways we put sentences together. Let's start our
examination of logic by defining what types of sentences we will be using.
A mathematical sentence is one in which a fact or complete idea is expressed.
Because a mathematical sentence states a fact, many of them can be judged to be
"true" or "false". Questions and phrases are not mathematical sentences since they
cannot be judged to be true or false.
"An isosceles triangle has two congruent sides." is a true mathematical sentence.
"10 + 4 = 15" is a false mathematical sentence.
"Did you get that one right?" is NOT a mathematical sentence - it is a question.
"All triangles" is NOT a mathematical sentence - it is a phrase.
There are two types of mathematical sentences:

An open sentence is a sentence which contains a variable.
"x + 2 = 8" is an open sentence -- the variable is "x."
"It is my favorite color." is an open sentence-- the variable is "It."
The truth value of theses sentences depends upon the value replacing the
variable.
A closed sentence, or statement, is a mathematical sentence which can be

judged to be true or false. A closed sentence, or statement, has no variables.
"Garfield is a cartoon character." is a true closed sentence, or statement.
"A pentagon has exactly 4 sides." is a false closed sentence, or statement.
A compound sentence is formed when two or more thoughts are connected in one
sentence.Words such as and, or, if...then and if and only if allow for the formation
of compound sentences, or statements. Notice that more than one truth value is
involved in working with a compound sentence.
"Today is a vacation day and I sleep late."
"You can call me at 10 o'clock or you can call me at 2 o'clock."
"If you are going to the beach, then you should take your sunscreen."
"A triangle is isosceles if and only if it has two congruent sides."
Sentences, or statements, that have the same truth value are said to be
logically equivalent.
("equivalent" means "equal")
Negation -- NOT-Simple Statements

In logic, a negation of a simple statement (one logical value) can

usually be formed by placing the word "not" into the original
statement. The negation will always have the opposite truth value
of the original statement.
Under negation, what was TRUE, will become FALSE or - what was FALSE, will become TRUE.
Examples of simple negations:

1. Original Statement:
"15 + 20 equals 35." (is true)

Negation: "15 + 20 does not equal 35." (is false)
2. "A dog is a cat."
is a false statement.
"A dog is not a cat." is a true statement.
"It is not true that a dog is a cat." is a true statement.*
"It is not the case that it is not true that a dog is not a cat." is a true statement.*
* Notice that there are different ways of inserting the concept of "not" into a
statement. While we would not usually speak in a manner similar to the last
statement, we must be alert to people who attempt to win arguments by using
several negations at the same time to cause confusion.
3. "A fish has gills." is a true statement.
"A fish does not have gills." is a false statement.

"It is not true that a fish does not have gills." is a true statement.**
** Notice how using TWO negations, returns the truth value of the statement to its original
value. In plain English, this means that two negations will "undo" one another (or cancel out one
another).
4.
Original statement: "Jedi masters do not use light sabers."

Negation: "Jedi masters do not not use light sabers."
Better Negation: "Jedi masters do use light sabers."
Notice: even though the first negation shows the proper insertion of the word "not", the second
negation can be more easily read and understood.
Mathematicians often use symbols and tables to represent concepts in logic. The use of these
variables, symbols and tables creates a shorthand method for discussing logical sentences.
Truth table for negation (not):
(notice the symbol used for "not" in the table below)
REMEMBER:
A truth table is a pictorial representation of all of

the possible outcomes of the truth value of a
sentence. A letter such as
is used to represent
the sentence or statement.
Under negation, TRUE becomes FALSE or - FALSE becomes TRUE.
Conjunction
AND
In logic, a conjunction is a compound sentence formed by combining

two sentences (or facts) using the word "and."
A conjunction is true only when BOTH sentences

(or facts) are true.
Examples:
1. "Blue is a color and 7 + 3 = 10." (T and T = T)
Since both facts are true, the entire sentence is true.
2. "One hour = exactly 55 minutes and one minute = exactly 60 seconds."
(F and T = F) Since the first fact is false, the entire sentence is false.
3. "3 + 4 = 6 and all dogs meow." (F and F = F)
Since both facts are false, the entire sentence is false.
Truth table for conjunction (and):
(notice the symbol used for "and" in the table below)
A truth table is a pictorial representation of all

of the possible outcomes of the truth value of a
compound sentence. Letters such as and
are used to represent the facts (or sentences)
within the compound sentence.
Remember:
For a conjunction (and)

to be true, BOTH facts
must be true.
Disjunction
OR
In logic, a disjunction is a compound sentence formed by combining

two sentences (or facts) using the word "or."
A disjunction is true when EITHER or BOTH

sentences (or facts) are true.
Examples:
1. "Blue is a color or 7 + 3 = 10."
(T or T = T) Since both facts are true, the entire sentence is true.
2. "One hour = exactly 55 minutes or one minute = exactly 60 seconds."

(F or T = T) Since the second fact is true, the entire sentence is true.
3. "3 + 4 = 6 or all dogs meow."

(F or F = F) Since both facts are false, the entire sentence is false.
4.
"The word cat has 3 letters or the word dog has four letters."
(T or F = T) Since the first fact is true, the entire sentence is true.
Truth table for disjunction (or):
(notice the symbol used for "or" in the table below)
A truth table is a pictorial representation of all

of the possible outcomes of the truth value of
a compound sentence. Letters such as and
are used to represent the facts (or
sentences) within the compound sentence.
Remember:
For a disjunction (or) to be true, EITHER or BOTH
facts must be true.
Biconditional
IF AND ONLY IF
In logic, a biconditional is a compound statement

formed by combining two conditionals under
"and." Biconditionals are true
when bothstatements (facts) have

the exact same truth value.
A biconditional is read as "[some fact] if and only if [another fact]" and is true when
the truth values of both facts are exactly the same
-- BOTH TRUE or BOTH FALSE.
Biconditionals are often

used to form definitions.
Definition: A triangle is isosceles if and only if the triangle has
two congruent (equal) sides.
The "if and only if" portion of the definition tells you that the statement is true when
either sentence (or fact) is the hypothesis. This means that both of the statements
below are true:
If a triangle is isosceles, then the triangle has two
congruent (equal) sides. (true)
If a triangle has two congruent (equal) sides,

then the triangle is isosceles. (true)
Truth table biconditional (if and only if):
(notice the symbol used for "if and only if" in the table
below)
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
T
A truth table is a pictorial representation

of all of the possible outcomes of the
truth value of a compound sentence.
Letters such as and are used to
represent the facts (or sentences) within
the compound sentence.
REMEMBER:
IF AND ONLY IF is TRUE
when both facts are T
or both facts are F..
Truth Value of Open Sentences
Sometimes it is difficult to determine the truth value of a sentence.

Even though the sentence conveys a complete thought, the sentence
may be true for some people and false for others.
For example:
"Broccoli tastes awful."
"The Beatles were an awesome group."
"Football is the most exciting sport to watch."
An even worse situation is the case where it is impossible to determine the truth value
of a sentence due to a lack of information.
For example:
"She did her homework."
"x + 5 = 25"
"It's the best movie this year."
Sentences that lack information are called

Open Sentences!
An open
sentence is a sentence which contains a variable.
"She did her homework." is an open sentence -- the variable is "She."
"x + 5 = 25" is an open sentence -- the variable is "x."

"It's the best movie this year." is an open sentence-- the variable is "It."
A variable is simply a spot waiting for a value. The values we put into the variable are
called thedomain, or replacement set (because they "replace" the variable.) The set of
values which make the sentence TRUE is called the solution set, or truth set.
Example:
Open sentence:
Variable:
Domain:
x + 5 = 25
x
{10, 20, 22, 24}
Solution Set:
{20}
(the answer which makes

the open sentence true)
(numbers you can choose from)
Example:
Open sentence:
She did her homework.
Variable:
She
Domain:
{Sue, Melissa,
Jennifer, Sandy, Joanne}
(girls' names you can choose from)
Solution Set:
{Sue, Sandy}
(the answers which makes the
open sentence true)
(You would have to know which
girls DID their homework. In
this case, Sue and Sandy did
their homework.)
Remember:
Open sentences require that you have

additional information to determine whether they are true or
false.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence is formed when

two or more thoughts are connected in one sentence.
The following are examples of compound sentences:
1. "21 is divisible by 3 and 21 is not prime."
2. "45 is a multiple of 9 or 13 - 20 = 7."
3. "If 4 + 6 = 10 and 3 + 3 = 9, then all rectangles are squares."
When attempting to determine the truth value of a compound sentence,

first determine the truth value of each of the components of the sentence.
Let's examine the examples listed above.
1. Determine the truth value of:
"21 is divisible by 3 and 21 is not prime."
"21 is divisible by 3" (true)

"21 is not prime" (true)
Substitute the truth values for the facts:

Simplify the conjunction (and):
T and T
T
Answer: The compound sentence (statement) is true.
"45 is a multiple of 9 or 13 - 20 = 7."
"45 is a multiple of 9" (true)

"13 - 20 = 7" (false)
Simplify the disjunction (or):
T or F
T

"If 4 + 6 = 10 and 3 + 3 = 9, then all rectangles are squares."
"4 + 6 = 10 " (true)
"3 + 3 = 9" (false)
"all rectangles are squares." (false)
Simplify the conjunction (and) first:
if (T and F) then F
if F then F
Simplify the conditional:
When the truth value of one or more of the components of a compound sentence is unknown,
all of the possible truth values must be considered. A truth table is the easiest way to show
all of these possibilities.
Construct a truth table for
T
T
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
F
T
T
T
The truth table tells you that the compound sentence will be false only when p and q are both
true. In all other situations, the compound sentence is true.
Negation -- NOT-Compound Statements

and ALL / SOME
We know that the negation of a true statement will be false, and

the negationof a false statement will be true. But what happens
when we try to
negate a compound statement?

Negating a Conjunction (and) and a Disjunction
(or):
The negation of a conjunction (or disjunction) could be as simple as placing the word
"not" in front of the entire sentence.
Conjunction:
"Snoopy wears goggles and scarves."
"It is not the case that Snoopy wears goggles and scarves."
While by our negation we know that Snoopy does not wear BOTH goggles and
scarves, we cannot say for sure that he does not wear ONE of these items. We can
only state that he does not wear goggles or he does not wear scarves. (
)
Disjunction:
"I will paint the room blue or green."
"It is not the case that I will paint the room blue or green."
If I am not painting the room blue or green, then I am not painting EITHER color. So
it can be said that "I am not painting the room blue" and "I am not painting the room
green".
DeMorgan's Laws: (negating AND and OR)

(The statements shown are logically equivalent.)
Notice that the negation

symbol is distributed
across the parentheses
and the symbols are
changed
fromAND to OR (or vice
versa).
Negating a Conditional (if ...

then):
Remember: When working with a conditional, the statement is only FALSE when the
hypothesis ("if") is TRUE and the conclusion ("then") is FALSE.
"If 9 + 3 = 12, then 9 is a prime number." is a FALSE statement.
"It is not the case that if 9 + 3 = 12, then 9 is a prime number." is
TRUE.
"9 + 3 = 12 and 9 is not a prime number." is a TRUE statement.
Negate a Conditional: (negating IF ... THEN)

Notice that the statement
is re-written as a
conjunction and only the
second condition is
negated.
Negating a Biconditional (if and only

if):
Remember: When working with a biconditional, the statement is TRUE only when
both conditions have the same truth value.
"A triangle has only 3 sides if and only if a square has only 4 sides."
... is logically equivalent to ...
"If it is a triangle then it has only 3 sides and if it is a square
then it has only 4 sides."
To negate a biconditional, we will negate its logically equivalent statement by using
DeMorgan's Laws and Conditional Negation.
Negate a Biconditional: (negating IF AND ONLY

IF)
Negating ALL and SOM

E:
ALL
Consider: "ALL students are opera singers."
(Meaning that there are NO students who
arenot opera singers.)
SOME
Consider: "Some rectangles are
squares."
(Meaning that there exists at
least one rectangle that is a square.)

Negation: "It is not true that ALL students
are opera singers."
"SOME students are not opera singers."
Negation: "It is not true that some

rectangles are squares."
"NO rectangles are squares."
Negate ALL and SOME:

ALL A are B.
are not B.
SOME A are B.
negates to
negates to
SOME A
NO A are B.

Concepts of Geometry Cbse 10

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Concepts of Geometry Cbse 10

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Undefined Terms and Intuitive Concepts of Geometry

POINT (an undefined term)

LINE (an undefined term)

PLANE (an undefined term)

points that lie on the same line.

two coplanar lines that do not intersect

points that lie in the same plane.

two non-coplanar lines that do not intersect.

Consider the following theorems relating lines and planes. A

Through a given point there passes one and

intersecting lines at their point of intersection,

only one plane perpendicular to a given line.

Through a given point there passes one and

Two lines perpendicular to the same plane are

Two planes are perpendicular to each other if

If a line is perpendicular to a plane, then any

and only if one plane contains a line

line perpendicular to the given line at its point

If a line is perpendicular to a plane, then every

If a plane intersects two parallel planes, then

If two planes are perpendicular to the same

The angle where two planes meet is called a dihedral angle.

Euclidean Geometry (the high school geometry we all know and

the shortest distance between two points is one

the sum of the angles in any triangle equals 180

the concept of perpendicular to a line can be illustrated as

non-Euclidean geometries: are any forms of geometry that

(also called elliptic geometry or spherical

Riemannian Geometry is named for the German mathematician,

In curved space, the sum of the angles of any

On a sphere, there are no straight lines. As

In curved space, the shortest distance between any two points

In curved space, the concept of perpendicular to a line can be

2. Hyperbolic Geometry (also called saddle geometry or Lobachevskian

Lobachevskian Geometry is named for the Russian

Hyperbolic Geometry is the study of a saddle shaped space.

There are no similar triangles in hyperbolic geometry.

In hyperbolic space, the concept of perpendicular to a line

Graphically speaking, the hyperbolic saddle shape is called

Answer the following questions dealing with lines and

For this rectangular solid,

The intersection of line

For this rectangular solid, which plane(s)

Beach Ball Investigation for

This activity can be accomplished by groups of students or the activity can be

Materials: beach balls (or other larger balls)

In geometry, constructions utilize only two tools

Suggestions for working with a compass:

Basic Geometrical Constructions:

copy a line segment

bisect a line segment

Each construction is developed

construct perpendicular lines

construct parallel lines

construct isosceles triangle

construct equilateral triangle

Copy a Line Segment

These videos require that you have available a means of displaying

Remember -- use your compass

Copy a line segment

1. If a reference line does not already exist, draw a reference line

2. Place the point of the compass on point A.