Users Guide to the

10 Basic Facts on Clinker

Users Guide to the

10 Basic Facts on Clinker
1

Raw mix rejects.............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1
Effect on burning temperature.................................................................................................. 1
1.2
Effect on grinding energy......................................................................................................... 3
1.3
Effect on mechanical strength.................................................................................................. 4

Thermal profile............................................................................................................................... 5
2.1
Port la Nouvelle....................................................................................................................... 5
2.2
Le Teil...................................................................................................................................... 6

Burning atmosphere and volatilization........................................................................................... 7

3.1
Saint Constant......................................................................................................................... 7
3.2
Brookfield................................................................................................................................ 7
3.3
Le Teil...................................................................................................................................... 8

Free lime content and setting time................................................................................................. 9

4.1
Saint Constant......................................................................................................................... 9
4.2
Bath......................................................................................................................................... 9
4.3
Val dAzergues....................................................................................................................... 10
4.4
Woodstock............................................................................................................................. 10

Clinker C3S content....................................................................................................................... 11

5.1
Villaluenga kiln 2302.............................................................................................................. 11
5.2
Villaluenga kiln 1501.............................................................................................................. 13
5.3
Whitehall................................................................................................................................ 13

Clinker C2S content....................................................................................................................... 14

6.1
Ocumare................................................................................................................................ 14
6.2
Karsdorf................................................................................................................................. 14

Alkalies and 28-day strength......................................................................................................... 16

7.1
Cements from Lafarge Ciments and Lafarge Corp................................................................16
7.2
Effects on a single clinker...................................................................................................... 17

Alkalies and short term strengths.................................................................................................18

8.1
Increasing sulfates................................................................................................................. 18
8.1.1
Adding gypsum to the raw mix........................................................................................18
8.1.2
Increasing the fuels sulfur content.................................................................................18
8.2
Increasing alkalies................................................................................................................. 19

Alkali saturation............................................................................................................................ 20
9.1
Reminder............................................................................................................................... 20
9.1.1
Alkali sulfates.................................................................................................................. 20
9.1.2
Alkalies in solid solution................................................................................................. 20
9.2
Ranteil................................................................................................................................... 21
9.3
Ste....................................................................................................................................... 21

10 Excess of sulfate with respect to alkalies.....................................................................................22

10.1 Increase in clinker fineness.................................................................................................... 22
10.1.1 Ste 1971....................................................................................................................... 23
10.2 Increase in grinding energy.................................................................................................... 23
10.2.1 Mekns........................................................................................................................... 23
10.2.2 Ste................................................................................................................................ 24
10.2.3 La Couronne................................................................................................................... 24

10.2.4

Cantagalo....................................................................................................................... 25

1-Raw mix rejects

1 Raw mix rejects

Reducing raw mix rejects lowers burning temperature and grinding energy. This is particularly
the case with siliceous rejects.
This action is also beneficial to strength properties.

Example:

When the amount of 100m rejects is reduced from 20 to 10%, the global raw mix +
cement energy consumption is lowered by about 4 kWh per tonne of cement at a fineness
of 350 m2/kg.

Raw mix fineness is generally characterized by the weight of rejects in one or several sieves (a 100m
sieve is often used).
The following examples illustrate these three points:

1.1

Effect on burning temperature

Observed: in 1991, the purchase of a precrusher allowed the Contes plant to improve raw mix fineness.
The burning temperature (pyrometer reading or kiln outlet temp.), whose measurement integrates all
changes occurring in the burning zone, shows a poor relationship with rejects, whereas fuel consumption
shows a good relationship, as demonstrated in Figure 1, taken from four typical periods.

58.5

Oil
(l/t Raw mix)
58
57.5
57
56.5
56

>100m residue (%)

55.5
8

12

16

20

Figure 1: Contes plant 1991

Several industrial raw mixes were characterized in lab burnability tests at temperatures between 1400
and 1550C (1000C/h heating rate and a 30 minutes hold point at final temperature), both as is and
with regrinding of the rejects.
The two graphs that follow (Figures 2 and 3), which give the observed free lime as a function of
temperature, show the effect of rejects regrinding. We can see that: :
the Martres raw mix, which is rich in quartz (> 10%), is harder to burn and more susceptible to
fineness than the Karsdorf raw mix.

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1

1-Raw mix rejects

8.00

% freeCaO
Rawmix
15%>100 mIndustrialasis

6.00

5%>100 mlabgrindingofresidue
5%>100 mcompletegrinding

4.00

2.00

temperature C

0.00
1400

1450

1500

1550

1600

Figure 2: Free lime after burning for different raw mix finenesses (Martres lab test)

8.00

% free CaO

6.00
Raw mix
16% > 100m industrial as is

4.00

8% > 100m lab re grind

2.00

temperature C
0.00
1350

1400

1450

1500

1550

1600

Figure 3: Karsdorf lab test

the % rejects criterion is not sufficient, of itself, to determine a given raw mixs burnability
(different results for Martres according to whether the entire sample or only the rejects are
reground).
_______________________________________ ________________________________
2

1-Raw mix rejects

1.2

Effect on grinding energy

In 1990, the Lexos plant had the chance to grind its raw mix to different finenesses (13% to 21% rejects at
100m) over a long enough period of time so that the plants monthly averages could be considered as
meaningful.
Figure 4 shows the increase in the raw mills power consumption with the increased fineness.
25

kWh/t

y =- 0.42 x +29.7

y = -0.4267x + 29.759

24

r2 =0.91

23

22

21

% > 100 m residue

20
12

14

16

18

20

22

Figure 4: Raw mix grinding energy vs. fineness

A study1 was done to determine the cement grinding power consumption for clinkers that correspond to
different raw mix finenesses and for various manufactured products. Figure 5 shows the rise in power
consumption for cement grinding corresponding to increasing raw mix rejects for a CEM I 52.5 R cement.
75

kWh/t

y = 1.38 x + 37.8

70

r2 =0,58

65

60

% > 100 m residue

55
12

14

16

18

20

22

Figure 5: Clinker grinding energy vs. raw mix fineness

If we look at the end result, for the production of a CEM I 52.5 R, an additional 1% of 100m rejects in
the raw mix causes an increase in grinding energy of more than 0.5 kWh/t.

1 H. Geesen : Influence of raw meal fineness on cement grinding energy (Lexos plant)

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3

1-Raw mix rejects

1.3

Effect on mechanical strength

When raw meal fineness was changed at Contes2 (Figure 6), a small increase in strength at constant
Blaine fineness was observed. This allowed the plant to slightly lower the Blaine (and increase mill
production) while maintaining strength.

Raw
Month

CPA HPR

>100m >200m Blaine

cm2/g

t/h
mill

1d
MPa

2d

28d

MPa

MPa

February

20.0

2.0

3850

49.0

22.5

35.7

70.0

March

13.0

0.8

3850

52.5

24.0

37.0

71.0

April - May 13.0

0.8

3680

55.5

22.6

37.0

70.0

Figure 6: Contes 1991

2 R. Dupont : Contes plant 1992

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4

2-Thermal profile

2 Thermal profile
A short profile promotes grindability and strength development.

Note:

The optimum is achieved when the kiln torque is at the minimum value compatible with
stable kiln operation.

By thermal profile, we mean the rate of heating and cooling of the product in the kiln and cooler. The
burning zone length can also be assimilated to this concept.
The thermal profile is affected by a number of factors:
the raw mix burnability and the kilns heat consumption
the type of fuel and its preparation
the burner and its settings
cooler operation (via secondary air temperature)
kiln operation, especially the draught and fuel settings, but also
rotational speed
Generally speaking, it is somewhat difficult to compare a thermal profile from one kiln to the next. On the
other hand, for a given system, several sensors provide readings as to the burning zone length: amps or
torque of the drive motors, clinker temperature measured at the kiln outlet (or the NO in the kiln exit
gases), temperatures in the preheater cyclones, pressure drop through the Lepol grate, shell scanners,
etc.
For each kiln, the most representative indicator should to be determined and analyzed.
Two recent examples can be given :

2.1

Port la Nouvelle

kWh / t
75
70
65
60
55
50

45
1050

1100

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

1450

Cooling zone temperature

Figure 7: Grindability vs ; kiln cooling zone temperature (Port-la-Nouvelle)

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5

2-Thermal profile

75

B B 1 0 (k W h /t)

70
65
60
55
50

Nm

45
600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

Kiln drive torque

Figure 8: Grindability vs. kiln drive torque (Port-la-Nouvelle)
Weekly spot clinker sampling over a period of approximately one year. Simultaneous recording of kiln
operating parameters. Clinker grindability measured by BB10.
A short burning zone, characterized by a low kiln torque value and high burning zone temperature, affords
the best grindability.

2.2

Le Teil

500

Kiln amps

kWh / t
80

Grindability
improvement

450
400
350
300

75
70
65
60

Kiln amps decrease

250

55

200

50

30/05/1995 04:00

30/05/1995 12:00

30/05/1995 20:00

31/05/1995 04:00

31/05/1995 12:00

Figure 9: Grindability vs. kiln amps (Le Teil)

Spot clinker sampling during a SHTS (~CEM I 52.5 R) production test over a two-day period.
Simultaneous recording of kiln operating parameters. Clinker grindability measured by BB10.
A lengthening of the burning zone early in test leads to a decrease in clinker grindability. A shorter
burning zone (low kiln amp values) affords the best grindability.
The technical literature and lab studies point to the favorable impact of a short thermal profile on strength,
as well as, the beneficial effect of rapid quenching for strength and workability. This information has not
been verified industrially.

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6

3-Burning atmosphere

3 Burning atmosphere and volatilization

Steady production requires an oxidizing atmosphere because a reducing atmosphere increases
volatilization, causing both cyclical operations and sulfate and alkali fluctuations, hence
producing a non-uniform clinker.
Numerous industrial trials have demonstrated the effect of the burning atmosphere on volatilization,
particularly for sulfur.
We can mention the correlation seen in the Sulfur Synthesis3 which was derived using the industrial data
from 73 volatile balances:
vSO 3 = K(K2O, % liquid phase) - 9.3 * O2%
Therefore, one %of oxygen equals roughly ten points of sulfur volatilization coefficient.
The standardization of high impulse burners and the overall increase in clinker sulfur levels has changed
this relationship.

3.1

Saint Constant

The following results have been observed at the Saint Constant plant, where unground fluid coke with up
to 2% rejects at 5mm is burned:
Fuel
Fuel oil 100%
Coke 23.8%
Coke 47.7%
Coke 47.7%

Kiln exit oxygen

(%)
1.8
2.4
1.1
2.1

v SO3
(%)
47.1
59.6
83
67

Clinker
SO3 (%)
1.39
1.6
1.2
1.96

Clinker
K2O (%)
0.94
1.04
0.98
1.15

Emissions
SO2 ppmV
2
7
1278
200

Emissions
SO3 ppmV
25
19
43
58

Figure 10: Sulfur emissions results at Saint Constant

It was observed that the kiln remained stable at all coke percentages. It is evident that the coarse
particles in the coke burn on the clinker load: the reducing atmosphere that results shows no effect on kiln
stability (because, in the case of a long kiln, the volatilized sulfur has an exit via the stack), but has an
important effect on sulfur volatilization and increased SO2 emissions at the stack.
In this particular case, a 1% increase in the oxygen exiting the kiln, at constant coke input, translates into
a 16 point decrease in the volatilization coefficient. The level of sulfates in the clinker is increased by
60%.

3.2

Brookfield

At Brookfield (long dry kiln), where raw mix SO3 is 1.5%, the kiln went through many cycles that were
recognizable by:
the cyclical variation of kiln torque
the cyclical variation of clinker production, with surges every eight hours
variation in the clinker SO3 and K2O content : SO3 between 1% and 4%
Cyclical operations, with a period of about two hours, were observed on other long kilns such as Bath and
Exshaw (kiln 4), where the raw mixes are rich in volatile elements.
One solution used to reduce the sulfur cycle is to divert part of the electrostatic precipitator dust (the
finest and highest in sulfur content) away from the kiln circuit.
At Brookfield, some tests were carried out on the kiln exit oxygen values. An increase in the draught
augmented the dust pick-up, which lead to a redesign of the chain section. A setting of 3.2% oxygen was
decided upon instead of 1.9%. Of course, this had a negative impact on heat consumption, but a positive
effect on the quantity of by-passed dust.
Kiln exit oxygen (%)
volatilization SO3 (%)
Dust eliminated (t/d)

1.9
78
90

3.2

4
32

40

Figure 11: Brookfield kiln 1

3 J.C. Guerche, Viviers, 1985.

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7

3-Burning atmosphere

3.3

Le Teil

The figure below shows the impact of oxygen levels on the volatilization of sulfates (clinker SO3 in the C4
material).

% SO
C4 C4
%3 SO3

%
2 Preheater
%O
O2
sortie tourexit

%%
SOSO3
clinker
3 Clinker

5,5

4,5
4

3,5
3
% OO2
sortie tourexit
2 preheater

4,5

2,5
2

% SO
3 C4
SO3
C4
% SO
3 Clinker
SO3
KK

1,5
1

3,5

0,5
3
17/sep
09:00

0
17/sep
13:00

17/sep
17:00

17/sep
21:00

18/sep
01:00

18/sep
05:00

18/sep
09:00

18/sep
13:00

18/sep
17:00

18/sep
21:00

Figure 12: Influence of the oxygen level at preheater exit on sulfate volatilization.

Figure 12 shows the switch from 60% to 100% coke on September 17 at 9 a.m. (beginning of chart).
In cyclone 4, one can see the increase in SO3 attaining 4% at 1400h. The clinker SO3 remains low. The
sulfur introduced as a result of the additional coke does not leave the system: there is a risk of plugging.
At 1400h the preheater exit O 2 was raised from 4.4% to 4.9%; the C 4 material SO 3 content goes down
from 4% to 2.5%, the clinker SO3 content increases from 0.7% to 1.3%. The oxygen increase allows an
acceptable sulfur balance to be reached with 100% coke thereby avoiding plugging in the cyclones, ring
formation, etc.

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8

4-Free lime

4 Free lime content and setting time

Increasing the clinker free lime content reduces both initial and final setting
times in the same proportions.
Adding lime also accelerates both initial and final setting times.
Order of magnitude:

4.1

When free CaO increases from 0.5 to 1.5%, initial set decreases by about 40 to
50 minutes. This impact may vary greatly from clinker to clinker4 (-10 to 100
minutes).

Saint-Constant

A burning intensity study undertaken with St. Constants long dry kiln, allowed the plant to compare the
relationship between clinker free lime and initial setting time, as shown in the table below:

Initial setting time (mortar)

( min. )

180
160
140
120
100

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

Clinker free lime

Figure 13: Setting time as a function of free lime
The correlation is non-linear: the effect setting time is a lot stronger between 0.4 and 0.8% free lime than
beyond 0.8%.

4.2

Bath

At Bath, another long dry process, numerous tests were carried out to reduce initial and final setting times
in response to a customer request. These tests were all aimed at increasing the free lime content to
0.9%: fineness, mix composition, kiln speed/feed ratio, etc. None of these tests gave the desired results.
The solution applied today consists of adding limestone at the kiln outlet, in the nose ring area. This
addition could technically be done at the cooler inlet, however this would not be in accordance with ASTM
standard which apply to part of the plants sales.
The results are as follows:

4 Lime quality (specifically its burning temperature, its hydration level, etc.) and clinker quality have an influence on the results obtained.

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9

4-Free lime
Concrete
set.
time
10C

Sample

SSB
(m2/
kg)

free
lime
(%)

Setting
time
23C
(plant)

Setting
time
23C
(CTS)

Concrete
setting
time
(h:min)

Concrete
setting
time
24C /
2%CaCl2

Concrete
setting
time
10C /
2%CaCl2

Concrete
set.
time
24C

Reference
Test 1
Test 2

360
357
371

0.35
0.7
0.9

165
125
120

180
110
115

5:45
4:55
4:40

3:30

4:45

5:10

8:30

3:10

4:25

4:30

7:15

Figure 14: Injection of limestone at kiln outlet (Bath)

Tests 1 and 2 were done with an injection of different addition rates of limestone at the kiln outlet, as
reflected in the different levels of free lime. The final setting times were not recorded (they were
estimated based on initial setting times). The gain in concrete setting time at 10C is especially
noteworthy.
.

4.3

Val dAzergues

Following a clients request (BDI), in order to improve the reactivity of Val dAzergues CEM I 52.5 R,
particularly in heat-cured (HC) concrete, the level of free lime was increased by adding lime from different
sources. The increase in short-term HC concrete strength is partially related to the initial setting time. The
gain in short-term HC concrete strength (2h30) slightly penalizes the long-term (5h30).
Two types of lime sources were tested industrially:

The lime contained in the ash from Gardanne

The co-grinding of 5% ash containing 30% free lime and clinker results in a better performing cement with
a setting time that decreases by 60 minutes.

Cooler limestone

Some trials with limestone injection (6/10 mm) were done in the cooler throat (at a temperature of 1250 to
1350 C). By introducing 2.5% limestone, 0.95% added free lime was obtained and, for the most part,
incorporated in the clinker. The gain in initial setting time was 40 to 60 minutes.

Normal

+5%
Ash

Free lime

1,10

2,10

2,90

2,50

Blaine

cm2 /g

4320

4480

4600

4420

Setting time

initial

175

110

110

135

(min)

final

245

180

170

255

Strength EN

1d

24,7

25,3

24,5

24,0

(MPa)

28d

69,1

67,2

66,9

67,2

Heated concrete 2h30

0,5

3,8

6,0

3,8

5h30

24,1

29,4

25,3

26,7

80C (MPa)

4.4

Limestone

Woodstock

At Woodstock, a comparable test was carried out at the kiln outlet, where the effect was minimal. This
could be related to the level of lime saturation, which is lower in this plant. This conclusion was also
reached in the Delta-free lime study carried out by LCR: the decrease in setting time through an increase
in free lime is most effective when the degree of lime saturation in the raw mix is high.

______________________________________

________________________________
10

5-Clinker C3S

5 Clinker C3S content

Increasing clinker C3S (to the detriment of C2S) improves strength at 1, 2, 3 and 7 days. After 28
days, the gain may be less because of the C2S contribution.

+10% C3S +2 to +5 MPa

Order of magnitude:

5.1

in the short and medium terms

Villaluenga kiln 2302

Villaluenga plant. Production period from February to June 1992.

Start up of kiln 2302 (kiln w/ AS precalciner): during this stage, there was a progressive increase in C 3S
(see Figure 15) which generated enough data to allow us to study its influence on strength.

65.00

% C3S

60.00
55.00
50.00
45.00

10/06/92

03/06/92

26/05/92

19/05/92

13/05/92

05/05/92

29/04/92

21/04/92

07/04/92

31/03/92

24/03/92

17/03/92

12/03/92

10/03/92

3/03/92

12/02/92

9/02/92

8/02/92

7/02/92

40.00

Figure 15: Evolution of C3S (Villaluenga plant)

Characteristics of clinker produced:

The average clinker values are: C 3S = 53.2, SR = 2.8, A/F = 1.75, SO3/alkalies molar ratio = 1.06. In
addition to the variation of C3S, an increasing consumption of coke during the start up caused clinker SO3
to rise. This increase in SO3 resulted in an increase of the SO3/alkalies molar ratio from 0.8 to 1.24, and
at the same time, a higher soluble SO3 content.

_______________________________________

________________________________
11

5-Clinker C3S

1.80
1.60
1.40
% SO3

1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
10/06/92

03/06/92

26/05/92

19/05/92

13/05/92

05/05/92

29/04/92

21/04/92

07/04/92

31/03/92

24/03/92

17/03/92

12/03/92

10/03/92

3/03/92

12/02/92

9/02/92

8/02/92

7/02/92

0.00

Figure 16: Evolution of clinker SO3 (Villaluenga plant)

The strength increase with increasing C 3S, at all ages is clearly shown in Figure 17 (clinker sample lab
ground at 3600 SSB with total sulfates held constant).

60.0
55.0

28d

y = 0.42 x + 32.24
r2 = 0.31

7d

y = 0.55 + 15.51
r2 = 0.58

50.0
45.0

N /m m

40.0
35.0

y = 0.58x + 1.42
r2 = 0.67

2d

30.0
25.0

y = 0.45x - 2.59
r2 = 0.43

1d

20.0
15.0
45.0

50.0

55.0

60.0

C3 S
Figure 17: Evolution of strengths as a function of C3S (Villaluenga plant)
1 day: gives a moderate correlation (r 2=0.43) which improves in the case of multiple regression
using the proportion of sulfate in the clinker. Result: 4.5 MPa for 10% C 3S
2 days: good correlation (r 2=0.67). Result: 5.8 MPa for 10% C3S
7 days: good correlation (r 2=0.58). Result: 5.5 MPa for 10% C3S
28 days: poor correlation (r2=0.31). Result: 4.1 MPa for 10% C3S
It must be noted, however, that the SO3 and C3S evolved in the same manner during those four months
and it is therefore difficult to distinguish their individual effects and the impact of optimum sulfate
addition. This may explain why the slopes of the linear regressions (1 day and 28 days in Figure 17) are
very similar.

______________________________________

________________________________
12

5-Clinker C3S

5.2

Villaluenga 1501

Production in normal conditions for kiln 1501 (kiln w/ AS precalciner). This corresponds to the same
period as the start up of kiln 2302 but the C3S is less variable .
Clinker characteristics: the average values are C3S =57.9, SR=2.7, A/F=1.73, SO3/alkalies molar ratio =
0.92.
The compressive strengths vs. C3S content for different ages are show in Figure 18:

60.00

y = 0.59x + 20.84
r 2 = 0.59

55.00

28d

50.00

y = 0.68x + 5.61
r 2 = 0.66

40.00

N /m m

45.00

35.00

7d

30.00

2d

y = 0.54x + 0.771
r 2 = 0.59

1d

y = 0.28x + 4.88
r 2 = 0.22

25.00
20.00
15.00
50.0

55.0

60.0

65.0

C3 S
Figure 18: Evolution of strengths as a function of C3S (Villaluenga plant, kiln 1501)

1 day: very weak correlation (r2=0.22). Result: 2.8 MPa for 10% C3S
2 days: good correlation (r 2=0.59). Result: 5.4 MPa for 10% C3S
7 days: good correlation (r 2=0.66). Result: 6.8 MPa for 10% C3S
28 days: poor correlation (r2=0.59). Result: 5.9 MPa for 10% C3S

Note the weak evolution of 1 day strength.

5.3

Whitehall

For reasons that have to do with the quarry, the Whitehall plant had to perform some clinker production
tests with low C3S levels. The industrially produced clinkers were ground in the lab at constant sulfate
addition. The table on the following page shows the test results.
40
35
1 d

30

3 d

MPa

25

7 d
28 d

20
15
10
5
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

C3 S
Figure 19: Evolution of strengths as a function of C3S

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________________________________
13

6-Clinker C2S

6 Clinker C2S content

For a given Blaine specific surface (SSB), grinding energy increases with C 2S content.
Conversely, it decreases with increasing C3S.

Order of magnitude:

6.1

+10% C2S, (or -10% C3S) +5 kWh/t (for 3500 cm2/g).

Ocumare

The Ocumare plant5 (FNC - Venezuela) recently modified its raw mix composition (February 1997) by
increasing the lime saturation in order to improve clinker reactivity. All other parameters including the
clinker free lime remained constant. The table below summarizes the situation over a consecutive twomonth period, before and after changing the mix.
%

January 1997

LSF Clinker

February 1997

Feb. - Jan.

94,50

98,60

+ 4,10

C3 S

56

64

+8

C2 S

22

15

-7

C3 A

10,20

9,60

C4 A F

8,20

8,00

Free CaO

1,27

1,30

46,70

44,40

- 2,30

3680

3710

kWh/t Industrial

53,10

51,60

- 1,50

28 d. Industrial
(ASTM standards)

32,0

35,5

+ 3,5

kWh/t BB10
SSB BB10 (

cm2/g

Figure 20: Evolution of grindability as a function of chemistry at Ocumare

The effect on grinding energy is lesser in the plant than in the lab, although it has the same tendency to
decrease. If we use the figures obtained in the lab (calculated for 350 m2/kg), we can evaluate the drop in
power consumption at 46.7 x (350/368)1.5 - 44.4 x (350/371)1.5 = 2.6 kWh/t for 7% less C2S, or:
- 3.8 kWh/t for - 10% C2S
Note that during the same period, the increase in C 3S content resulted in a gain of 3.5 MPa at 28 days on
industrial cement.

6.2

Karsdorf

Until 1994, only one clinker with high lime saturation (KST = 98) was used for the entire cement product
range. At that time, the new European standards lowered the upper limit of 28-day strength of CEM I
32.5 to 52.5 MPa from its previous 55 MPa. Meeting this demand was not easy. The solution, which
consisted of reducing cement fineness, caused problems with bleeding, which was unacceptable for the
users.
5 Presentation given by L. Corda, J.A. Sbardella from Gerencia Desarollo y Procesos, Cementos La Vega, TYTP Combustion Meeting on April 15-16,
1997 at Yozgat.

______________________________________

________________________________
14

6-Clinker C2S

It was therefore decided to produce a second clinker less saturated in CaO (KST = 90), which gives less
28 day strength because of lower C3S content.
The results obtained6 are as follows:
KST = 90/92
45
25
45

% C 3S
% C 2S
KWh/t BB10 @ 3500 SSB

KST = 96/98
55
15
41

Difference
-10
+10
+4

The increase in the percentage of Belite causes the mill power consumption to increase by:
+ 4 kWh/t for + 10% C2S
It must be stated that this solution is not satisfactory firstly because of increased energy cost and
secondly because the strong reactivity of the Belite at Karsdorf doesnt allow for a significant reduction of
28-day strength in the cement considering the clinkers high lime saturation. Figure 21 below shows the
results of laboratory-ground cement made from two industrial clinkers with two different sulfate addition
rates (2/3 gypsum 1/3 SH). Another method is being studied, which consists of modifying the sulfate
addition of KST 98 clinker. The trouble here lies with the risk of rheological disturbances.
KST = 90

60

KST = 98

60

56

54

54
50

41

40
30
20

50

43

40
SO3 =2.3

24.5
17.3

SO3 =2.9

23.5

50

44
40
30

30

26.5
18.2
17.8
11
10
9.8
20

14.5
10 8.8 9

0
0

10

J ours

20

30

10

J ours

20

30

Figure 21: Laboratory cements made from Karsdorf clinkers

6 Presentation given by G. Cochet and G. Staupendahl at the CTI/CTEC Technical Days in Madrid, October 1996. Study of clinker grindability at
Karsdorf by G. Cochet, CTI, September 1995.

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________________________________
15

7-Alkalies and 28-day strength

7 Alkalies and 28-day strength

Alkalies7, whatever their form, are never favorable to 28-day compressive strength.

Order of magnitude:

+ 0.1 % Eq Na2O total -1 N/mm2 at 28 days

It is usually very difficult to change the alkali content in a given plant without greatly altering other
parameters, because the content in the individual raw materials tend to be relatively constant.

7.1

Cements from Lafarge Ciments and Lafarge Corp.

The measurements performed on 29 industrial cements 8 (from Lafarge Ciments and Lafarge Corp. as well
as French competitors) confirm the above relationship.
When the TOTAL alkalies increase from 0.2% to 1.8%, one notices that the mechanical strength at 28
days9 decreases from 66 MPa to approximately 45 MPa.
The regression equation indicates a loss of 1.3 MPa for an increase of 0.1% in total alkalies, with a
correlation coefficient of 0.88.
The results are shown in the diagram below:
70

2 8 -d a y S tre n g th (M P a )

65
60
55
50
45
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

% Total Alkalies

Fig
ure 22: Influence of total alkalies on 28-day strength

7.2

Effects on a single clinker

Laboratory testing10 was carried out on a single clinker to measure the effects of alkaline sulfate addition
in the water:

7 The clinker alkalies may occur in different forms depending upon the degree of alkali saturation by sulfates. The total alkalies Na 2O+K20 are present
in either or both of the following forms:
Soluble alkalies
The alkalies combined with sulfate are Na 2SO4, K2SO4, K2SO4(CaSO4)2. These compounds can make their appearance during industrial production
when the fuel is changed from a natural gas to a sulfur-bearing fuel like bunker oil or petroleum coke or when gypsum is added to the raw mix. In this
case, there will be more soluble alkalies at the expense of alkalies in solid solution.
Alkalies in solid solution
The alkalies that are not combined with sulfates will enter the aluminate and silicate crystal lattices, modifying their reactivity. This can be a problem for
the C3A (loss of workability) as mentioned in the ninth basic fact.
8 R. Guyot, R. Ranc, B. Cariou: Sulfates Synthesis Report , June 1983.
9 at a constant Blaine and with sulfate addition optimized for 28-day strength.
10 M. Debos, G. Chaudouard

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________________________________
16

7-Alkalies and 28-day strength

80

Rc MPa

R 28j

70
R 28j + K2O
60
R 7j + K2O
50
R 7j
40
R 2j + K2O
30
R 2j

20

R 1j + K2O

10

R 1j

0
25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

Figure 23: Influence of alkalies on strengths

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________________________________
17

8-Alkalies and short-term strengths

8 Alkalies and short-term strengths

At optimum sulfate addition for early ages, soluble alkalies in the form of alkali sulfates improve
early strength.

Order of magnitude:

+ 0.1 % Eq. Na2O soluble + 0.5 to 1.5 N/mm2 at 1 day

The soluble alkalies [Na2SO4, K2SO4, K2SO4(CaSO4)2] in the clinker are, as mentioned above, mainly in
the form of K2SO4 although they are calculated on the basis of Na 2SO4 equivalent.
There are two ways to increase soluble alkalies:

Increase the sulfates insofar as the alkalies are not yet saturated. In this case, the soluble alkalies
will increase. This can be done either via the fuel (ex. : gas bunker oil or low sulfur content oil
high sulfur content oil) or via the raw mix (adding sulfates to the mix).

Increase the alkalies in the raw mix insofar as there are available sulfates. This can be done by
using a siliceous sand that is rich in alkalies, for example (sea sand).
These two examples will be further investigated.

8.1

Increasing sulfates

8.1.1 Adding gypsum to the raw mix

Two industrial cases from the Ranteil and Ste plants can be cited as examples.
Plant

%Na2O
Total
0.1

SSB (m2/kg)

0.2

% K2O
Total
1.15

400

11.5

Gypsum addition

1.1

1.15

0.1

375

18.0

Ste

0.1

0.6

0.2

402

11.5

1.3

0.6

0.2

413

17.0

Ranteil

% SO3 Clinker
As is
As is

Gypsum addition

1d (MPa)

Figure 24: Sulfate addition to raw mixes at Ranteil and Ste

In both cases, it is very clear that an increase in the saturation of alkalies with sulfates (increase in
soluble alkalies) leads to a very slight increase in 1-day strength.
In both cases with the gypsum addition to the raw mix, the C 3A takes on a cubic form, and no longer the
orthorhombic form which is the case in the presence of alkalies in the C 3A crystal structure.

8.1.2 Increasing the fuels sulfur content

Shown in the table below are results from the Martres and La Malle plants during a switch from a fuel with
a low sulfur content to a sulfur-rich fuel.
Plant
Martres
La Malle

% SO3 Clinker

% K2O Total

% Na2O Total

SSB (m2/kg)

Gaz

0.20

0.40

0.06

370

12.5

Fuel oil

1.00

350

15.5

low-s oil

0.60

360

18.0

Hi-s oil

1.00

340

21.0

0.95

0.10

Figure 25: Increase in fuel sulfur at Martres and La Malle

______________________________________

________________________________
18

1d (MPa)

8-Alkalies and short-term strengths

For both plants, when one operated with gas and the other with low-sulfur oil, the alkalies were not totally
saturated. There would have to have been 0.40% and 0.93% of SO3 in the clinker to saturate the alkalies
at the Martres and La Malle plants, respectively.
The switch to higher sulfur content oils in both cases produced the saturation of the alkalies and,
therefore, an increase in the amount of soluble alkalies, with a positive impact on 1-day compressive
strengths.
In the lab, the increase in the portion of soluble alkalies was also tested, confirming industrial results. In
these laboratory tests, 1.85% of K 2SO4 (=1% K20) was added to clinker, equivalent to a 1.85% addition of
K2SO4 to the cement during the mixing with water.
The table below confirms once more the positive effect on early strength and the negative effect on longterm strength.
Term

As is

1.85 % K2SO4 clinker

1.85 % K2SO4 cement

1 day

20.3

28.1

28.2

7 days

54.3

53.0

53.8

28 days

8.2

74.3
66.2
Figure 26: Strength of cements spiked with K2SO4 in the lab

66.3

Increasing alkalies

At the Retznei plant, in the past, we used an additional source of SiO 2 containing alkalies with high
amounts of Na2O between 2.2 and 2.5%, and K2O between 1.2 and 1.4%
Analysis of the raw mix at that time showed that the alkali content was the highest of all cement plants in
Austria, with 0.45% of Na2O eq. (in the raw mix). Today, with a source of silica that is poorer in alkalies
(Na2O = O and K2O = 0.5%), we have brought the Na2O eq. values down to around 0.3%.
The consequences of this drop in raw mix alkali content can be seen in terms of both short (lesson 8) and
long-term (lesson 7) mechanical performances in the table below.
Rmeq Na2O=0.45%

Rmeq Na2O=0.3%

Measured

Caldulated at

Measured

Calculated at

(addition 16%)

O% addition1

(addition 20%)

0% addition

1 day

17.1 0.1

21.1 0.1

13.9 0.12

18.5 0.12

28 days

46.8 0.19

57.8 0.19

47 0.23

62.7 0.23

Number of tests

143
100
Figure 27: Cement strength with varying levels of alkalies (Retznei)

Despite slight variability in the alkalies and the difference in cement composition (additive ratios of 16 and
20%), it remains possible to compare the results.

______________________________________

________________________________
19

9-Alkali saturation

9 Alkali saturation
The molar saturation of alkalies by SO3 in the clinker facilitates workability control.

9.1

Reminder

SO3 molar saturation: % SO3 = 1.29 (% total Eq. Na2O).

A low SO3/alkali ratio results in a small percentage of soluble alkalies and the presence of orthorhombic
C3A.
All Portland clinkers11 contain alkalies in greater or lesser quantities. But depending on the nature of the
fuel used (oil or petcoke rich in sulfur or low-sulfur coal), the alkalies can be found in two different forms.
When the clinker contains sulfates that come from the raw mix and/or fuel, a significant part of the
alkalies are in the form of alkali sulfates. These alkalies are referred to as soluble .
Non-soluble alkalies are incorporated in the silicate or aluminate crystals structure
The sum of soluble alkalies and alkalies in the crystal strucutres is called total alkalies .

9.1.1 Alkali sulfates

Alkali sulfates improve initial strengths (1 and 2 days), but reduce long-term strength (28 days or more).
There is no negative effect on the main cement properties.

9.1.2 Alkalies in solid solution

If the clinker does not contain enough sulfates to combine all the alkalies, then the alkalies enter the
aluminate and silicate crystal structures.
The defects created in the C3A crystals modify the lattice and its morphology assumes an orthorhombic
rather than cubic form. This transformation is accompanied by an increase in its reactivity with water.
The presence of alkalies in the crystal structure has numerous unfavorable effects :
change in burnability
rheological disturbances due to the slow formation of ettringites brought about by the hydration of
very reactive orthorhombic C3A
strong sensitivity to weathering effects, which accentuates the rheological defects
expansion
increased shrinkage during the plastic state (24 hours)
increased shrinkage during drying at 28 days
inferior 28-day strength without any improvement in initial strengths
Given the fact that, in general, we are not able to control clinker alkali content, and given that alkali
sulfates present many advantages, it is imperative 12 that the SO3/alkali molar ratio be >1.0.
There are very few recent examples because of:
the nearly-generalized use of sulfur-rich fuels for many years now (thus limiting the cases of
orthorhombic C3A).
a lack of information on complaints or disputes from the plants that have SO3-poor clinkers (gas
burning for example: Venezuela) for which the rheological control of cement and concrete is done
either sporadically or not at all.
some tests for raw mix sulfate addition were not carried out under well controlled conditions
(Gabon).

11 M. Debos, G; CHAUDOUARD. Portland Cement: chemistry - mineralogy - properties of phases - reactivity (June 1991).
12 R. Ranc. Influence of alkalies on the physical and mechanical properties of Portland cements . Sept. 93.

______________________________________

________________________________
20

9-Alkali saturation

The above observations are taken from examples of industrial and lab testing which compare the
properties of normal clinkers without sulfates and clinkers made from a sulfate-rich raw mix as the result
of the addition of gypsum.
These tests were all carried out for the purpose of improving the rheological properties of cement (by
eliminating the causes of false set).

9.2

Ranteil

The table below presents the laboratory results 13 (burning and grinding) due to the addition of gypsum to
the raw mix at Ranteil (non-saturated alkalies).

Clinker as is
Sulf. raw mix
Sulf. raw mix

% raw mix
% gypsum SO3 kk
100
0,35
0
97,95
1,40
2,05
96,0
2,40
3,95

SSB
2
( cm / g )
3830

1d
MPa

28,6

Fluidity
(%)
88

2,50

26,0

112

10,5

2,90

26,2

125

12,5

SO3 cem.
2,0

3770
3920

W/C

6,5

Figure 28: Lab testing (burning and grinding)

The cements prepared from the clinker made from a raw mix with gypsum addition are more fluid than
the control clinkers. The higher the SO 3 clinker content, the better the fluidity appears to be.
.
Crystal form
As is

Orthorhombic ( alkalies in crystal )

Sulf. raw mix

9.3

C3A

Cubic ( pure )

Ste

Industrial tests14 were carried out in 1970:

SO3kk

As is
Cement (sulfated kk)

K20 tot.

Na2O tot.

SO3

SSB
(cm/g)

Rsidue17(mm)
after 2 min after 30 min

1d
MPa

0,1

0,37

0,10

2,80

3510

14

29

11,5

2,9

0,56

0,09

2,90

3500

10

19

16,0

Figure 29: Results of raw mixes with gypsum addition at Ste

Probe penetration tests show an improvement in the rheological characteristics of pure pastes and
mortars that come from clinker where gypsum has been added to the raw mix.

13 Ray. Allgre. Study on the influence of the addition of gypsum to the raw mix at Ranteil (1972)
14 Ray. Allgre. CB N.20 IDSG industrial trial at the Ste plant - OS 11445 March 1971.

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________________________________
21

10-Excess of sulfates

10 Excess of sulfates with respect to alkalies

If clinker SO3 is increased beyond the molar saturation of alkalies, an increase in both clinker
fineness and grinding energy is noted.

Order of magnitude:

+1% Excess SO315 + 5 kWh/t at 350 m2/kg

If the clinker excess SO3 is increased beyond the molar saturation of alkalies, the following are observed:
an increase in clinker fineness
an increase in grinding energy
Each of these points will be dealt with separately.

10.1 Increase in clinker fineness

This observation has been reported time and time again, but has never been really quantified through
granulometric analysis (see 1995 raw mix sulfate addition tests for Gabon). Nevertheless, the industrial
testing done at Ciments Lafarge in the 1970s showed that the presence of sulfates in the clinker beyond
the saturation of alkalies leads to a dustier clinker.
Below are shown three examples from industrial testing done with raw mix sulfate addition in the Ste
and Ranteil plants.

100

% p a s s in g

80
60

0,1 % S03

40

1,3 % SO3

20
0
0

10

15

20

25

mm

Figure 30: Comparison of clinker granulometries (Ranteil plant 72-73)

15 excess SO3 = SO3 clinker - 1.29 (% total Eq. Na2O)

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________________________________
22

10-Excess of sulfates

10.1.1 Ste 1971

100

passing

60

0,1 % SO3

40

2,9 % SO3

80

20
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

mm
100

% passing

80
60

0,1 % SO3
1,2 % SO3

40
20
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

mm

Figure 31: Comparison of clinker granulometries (Ste plant 1971)

Figure 32: Comparison of clinker granulometries (Ste plant 1971 16)
It is likely17 that in these tests, there was a significant volatilization factor due to a poorly controlled
burning atmosphere and that the increase in fines could (partially) be the result of alkali sulfate
volatilization. Recent tests have shown that the burning zone length has a significant effect on clinker
particle size and that the level of SO3 in the kiln load influences burnability.

10.2 Increase in grinding energy

An excess of SO3 in the clinker beyond the saturation of alkalies worsens grindability.
This is a fact that has been observed and reported time and again in numerous documents.
The attempts to quantify the impact of clinker SO3 (total SO3, excess SO3, etc.) on grindability have been
numerous, both industrially and through laboratory and statistical studies.
For the statistical studies, the results are influenced by the parameters taken into consideration.
Some results are reported below.
For the studies carried out in the plants, the recent increase in high sulfur fuel usage should give
us more data. These data are difficult to exploit, however, insofar as the clinker SO3 parameter
was not the only one to fluctuate (burner, combustion, optimized mill operations, fineness
changes, changes in cement additive ratios, etc.).

10.2.1 Mekns
At the Meknes18 plant, a gradual switch to coke was made without any major changes to equipment, raw
mix or products.

16 Ray. Allgre / CB 20 OS n 11445 Industrial test JDSG at the Ste plant March 1971
17 M. Debos Sulfates conference (L'Isle d'Abeau) : Influence of sulfates on kiln operations Nov. 1993
18 Meknes plant. Market reports 1994/95

______________________________________

________________________________
23

10-Excess of sulfates
coke

coal

fuel

SO3
F2

kk

K2OT

Na2OT

C/K

Mill kW
CPJ 45

F3

1994

47,37

51,01

4,62

0,45

0,75

~ 0,35

#0

1,222

38,52

1995

74,14

21,30

3,56

0,95

1,18

~ 0,35

#0

1,237

40,29

Figure 33: Results of an increase in sulfur (Mekns plant)

* CPJ 45 = CEM II 32.5
These results show that despite a slight increase in the additive ratio (limestone, easier to grind than
clinker), cement grindability (CPJ 45) decreases with an increase in the percentage of coke.

10.2.2 Ste
In the industrial study16 on sulfate addition to the raw mix at the Ste plant (1971), cement grinding trials
were carried out both in the lab and in the plant.
The results are expressed in terms of:
output for the industrial trials
mill rotations and SSB (Blaine specific surface) for the lab trials.
SO3 kk

K2OT

Na2OT

SO3 cem

Prod.
t/h

Industrial tests
kk normal
kk sulfated

0,1
2,9

0,37
0,56

0,10
0,09

2,8
2,9

Lab.tests
kk normal
kk sulfated

0,1
2,9

0,37
0,56

0,10
0,09

SSB # of mill rev

cm/g

21
17

3150
2700

2880
2580

2000
2000

Figure 34: Cement grinding results for raw mixes with gypsum addition (Ste plant)

10.2.3 La Couronne
The use of petcoke at the La Couronne19 plant produced an increase in clinker SO3 content and a
reduction in terms of pure cement production rate from the various mills.
1991

1992

SO3 kk

0,80

1,45

K2 O

0,89

0,92

Production t / h
(B0)

CPA 55

21,6

20,3

(B3)

CPA 55

19,3

18,2

(B3)

CPA HPR

14,2

13,2

Figure 35: Results of sulfur increase at La Couronne

The study done on 12 clinkers at La Couronne shows that the SO3/alkalies ratio correlates with clinker
grinding energy.
W 4000 SSB

5.44 SO3 /alkal. + 55.7

with:

r2 =0.67

SO3 /alkalies between 1 and 4

19 M. Debos Sulfates conference Nov. 18-19, 1993. : Grindability Nov. 1993

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24

10-Excess of sulfates

10.2.4 Cantagalo Clinker

On a series of 17 industrial clinkers 20 taken from the Cantagalo plant, it was determined that lab grinding
energy is correlated with clinker SO3 (or with the excess of SO3), according to the equation:
W (# of mill rotations BB 10) = 1008 SO3 kk + 3250

r2 =0.66

shows the increase in the number of BB10 mill rotations (image of industrial grindability) to obtain a
cement at 350 10 m2/kg.

4800
4600

rotations BB10

4400
4200
4000

y = 1008 x + 3255

3800

r 2 =0.66

3600
3400
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

SO3 kk

Figure 36: Grindability as a function of SO3 (Cantagalo plant)

20 P. Barriac : Cantagalo clinker , May 1995

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________________________________
25

1.6