Lecture 2 - Reinforced Concrete(I)

Topic: Introduction to reinforced concrete; structural behaviors of reinforced concrete;

Calculation of shearing force and bending moment

1.0 Introduction to reinforced concrete

Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is a manmade material created by the proper mixing of coarse aggregate, such as
fine aggregate, such as sand, and cement, with adequate and controlled amounts of water. The
cement forms a slurry with the water, which under chemical action starts to set. The fine
aggregate fills the interstices of the coarse aggregate and the slurry fills the interstices of the
fine aggregates, coating all the particles and binding the whole together into a monolithic
mass when set. This is concrete.

Concrete is a very strong in compression, and ultimate strength is about 40 to 60N/mm2 can
be obtained. However, concrete is very weak in tension, and so has to be adequately
reinforced with steel rebars. The concrete then takes the compression, and the steel takes all
the tension. Both materials work together as a composite material. This material is then called
reinforced concrete.

Failure of the beam due to bending, shear and deflection

The beam will have to be strong enough to withstand the loads, stable enough not to fall over,
and be stiff enough to meet the function requirement of serviceability. The stability of the
beam can be achieved by giving it sufficient lateral bracing, which will hold it firmly in
position, and the serviceability or function can be achieved by limiting the amount of the
deflection. However, the strength will depend upon two forces, the force which will cause the
beam to bend and the force which will cause the fibres to shear past each other. The first force
could produce failure due to bending and the second, failure due to shear. Assuming then,
there is sufficient stability, it is worth looking at a simple beam, and seeing how it may fail
under bending, shear and deflection.

Failure due to bending

Consider the beam in Figure 1, which is supported at point A and point B. If a number of
loads are placed on the beam, the beam will bend and deflect as shown in Figure 2.

The fibres in the top of the beam will be in compression while the bottom fibres will be in
tension. If the tension and compression exceed the natural strength of the material from which

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the beam has been made, then the beam will fail due to excessive bending stress.

Figure 1:-Simply supported beam

Figure 2

Figure 3:- Bending failure

Let us take the example of concrete beam (Figure 3.) the load on the beam will cause tension
cracks in the bottom fibres. If the load is increased, the cracks will become larger and the
beam will become fail. This is because concrete, although very strong in compression, has
very little strength in tension, and cannot on its own withstand tension stresses. Where tension
occurs, the concrete has to be reinforced with steel reinforcing bars. If the steel bars were
placed at the bottom of the beam, then the steel will resist the tension stress and the beam will
carry a much greater load before it fails under bending. For failure to occur, either the
concrete in the top of the beam has to crush, or the steel in the bottom has to be pulled apart.
Which will fail first will depend upon the amount of steel, then the steel will fail first, but if
there is a large amount, then the concrete in the top will crush long before the steel will begin
to yield.

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Failure due to shear

Figure 4:- Deep Beam

Figure 5:-Shear Failure

Consider a deep beam spanning between two supports A and B (Figure 4). If a very heavy
load is placed on the beam, it will punch a section out of the beam (Figure 5). This kind of
failure is called shear failure, because the molecules on one sides of the shear line have
sheared past the molecules on the other side of the line. The angle of the shear line is usually
at about 45 degrees as shown in Figure 5.

Take an example of a reinforced concrete beam, it is considered how this beam could be made
strong enough to resist the shear forces. Remember that concrete has little strength in tension,
so to resist the shear, steel reinforcement has to be placed across the 45 degree ‘shear crack’.
This can be done in two ways. The normal way is to use stirrups or links fixed vertically along
the beam. These links are vertical reinforcement bars which wrap around and hold the main
reinforcement bars in position. Because these links are vertical, they cross over the shear line
and prevent the concrete from cracking.

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 Figure 6:- Shear Reinforcement links

If the shear loads are very large, it may be necessary to increase the shear strength by bending
the main reinforcing bars up at 45 degrees so that they cross the ‘shear cracks’ at right angle.
(Figure 7)

Figure 7:- Shear reinforcement bent-up bars

Failure due to deflection

Consider a shallow beam spanning between two supports A and B (Figure 8). A small load
on this beam will cause it to deflect. If the load is increased then the deflection may be
excessive, causing the beam to look unsafe although structurally it is not. In addition, it may
be causing damage to the finishes such as plaster around the beam, and causing the floors to
tilt. Therefore, from a serviceability or function point of view, the beam has failure due to
excessive deflection. (Figure 9)

Figure 8:- Simply supported beam

Figure 9:- Deflection failure

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Bending moment and Shear Force
If loads are applied to a beam, then the internal fibres in the beam have to resist these applied
external loads by developing bending moments and shear forces within the beam. These
moments and forces are a measure of what is happening inside the beam.

Bending moment

Figure 10:- Moments in a beam

When a beam bends under the load (Figure 10), the horizontal fibres will change in length.
The top fibres will become shorter and the bottom fibres will become larger. That is, the very
top fibre will become the shortest and be under maximum compression, while the very bottom
fibre will be the longest and be under maximum tension. from the top fibre to the central fibre,
the compression gradually decrease until it is zero at the centre, which is called the neutral
axis (N.A.). From the neutral axis to the bottom fibre, the fibres are in tension gradually
increase from zero to a maximum at the bottom fibre.

Figure 11

The load on the beam is resisted by the compression force in the top and the tension force in
the bottom of the beam. These forces form a ‘couple’, and this couple produces a moment to

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counterbalance the external bending moment, which in turn is generated by the applied loads.
Now remember that a moment is a force times a distance, and a couple is two equal but
opposed forces parallel to one another. A couple cannot resolved into one force, but it does
produce a constant moment about any axis, perpendicular to the plane containing the forces.
Thus, in Figure 11, the tension force and the compression force act as a couple, so that:-

Force C = Force T
Moment about A = Force C x Z
Moment about B = Force T x Z

Figure 12

Thus the internal bending moment within a beam (Figure 12) is equal to the distance between
the compression and tension forces times either the tension or compression force T or C. The
forces are the summation of all the small forces in each fibre varying from zero at the centre
to a maximum value at the top and bottom. These small forces can be diagrammatically
represented by a triangular as shown in Figure 12 and the total forces will act at the centroid
of a triangle is one-third the height above the base, and it can been seen from Figure 13, that if
the depth of the beam is d, then the distance between the forces equals two-third d and the
internal bending moment equal M:

M = C×z =T ×z

where z = 2 d .
3

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 Figure 13.

Shear force

Figure 14:-Vertical Shear Force

A small section of a beam is shown in Figure 14. on the left there is a vertical force pushing
upwards, and on the right there is a vertical force pushing downwards. The fibres between the
two forces will try to slide or shear over one another. These forces are described as the
vertical shear forces and are generated by the loads applied on the beam and the
corresponding support reactions, the reactions pushing upwards and the loads pushing
downwards.

The value of the shear force and bending moment will vary along the beam. As the beam has
to be made large enough and strong enough to resist the maximum shear force and bending
moment, it is useful to plot their values, so that the positions of the maximum values can be
located. The diagram produced by plottings are called shear-force and bending-moment
diagrams, and they are a direct reflection of ideal visual proportions for the beam. This is
because the dept of the beam at any section is a function of the bending moment and the shear

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force. If the shear force is relatively small, then the depth should follow the pattern of the
bending moment. This is very evident in the design of bridges and long span roofs (Figure 15),
but it is not often very practical to vary the depth of a beam within a building.

Figure 15

2.0 Shearing Force (SF) and Bending Moment (BM)

Introduction and Classification of BEAMS

Whenever a HORIZONTAL BEAM is loaded with VERTICAL LOADS, sometimes it bends
due to the action of the loads.

The amount with which a beam bends, depends upon the amount and the type of the loads,
length of the beam, elasticity and types of the beam.

Classification of Beams
(a) Cantilever Beam

Figure 16

A beam FIXED at one end and free at the other hand. (Figure 16)

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(b) Simply Supported Beam (Figure 17)

Figure 17

Support A is a HINGED or PINNED (FIXED)

Support B is on a Roller

(c) Overhanging Beam

Figure 18
A beam having its end portion extended in the form of cantilever beyond the support (Figure
18)

Figure 19
An overhanging beam may be overhanging on one side or on both sides. (Figure 19)

(d) Rigidly Fixed Beams or Built-in Beams(Figure 20)

Figure 20

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A beam whose both ends are RIGIDLY FIXED or BUILT-in WALLS

(e) Continuous beam (Figure 21)

Figure 21

A beam supported on more than TWO supports.

(Note: A continuous beam may or may not be an OVERHANGING beam)

Types of loads
A beam may be subjected to the following TYPES OF LOADS:

(a) Concentrated or Point Load (Figure 22)

A load acting at a point on a beam is known as CONCENTRATED or POINT LOAD

Figure 22

(b) Uniformly Distributed Load (Figure 23)

Figure 23

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A load which is spread over a beam in such a manner that each unit length is loaded to the
same extent is known as a UNFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (U.D.L)

For calculations the total UDL may be assumed to act the centre of gravity of the load

(c) Uniformly Varying Load

Figure 24
A load which is spread over a beam with uniform variation is known as UNIFORMLY
VARYING LOAD.

Shearing Force
* Sign Convention

Figure 25

External force UPWARDS to LEFT of a section or DOWNWARDS to the RIGHT of a

section are defined as positive. (Figure 25)

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 Figure 26

External force DOWNWRDS to LEFT of a section or UPWARDS to the RIGHT of a section

are defined as positive. (Figure 26)

A Shearing Force Diagram is one which shows the variation of S.F. along the length of a
beam.

Figure 27

A beam carried loads W1 ,W2 ,W3 and is simply supported at two points (C and B) – Figure 27
R1 and R2 are the reactions at support C and B.

The shearing force at any section (X-X) of a beam represent the tendency for the portion of
the beam to one side of the section to shear laterally relative to the other portion.

The resultant of the loads and reactions to left of the section X-X is ‘F’ vertically upwards.

At the point X-X,

SF = F = R1 − W1 − W2
Since the whole beam is in equilibrium, the resultant of the forces to the right of X-X must
also be F, acting downwards,
SF = F = W3 − R2

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Bending Moment (B.M.)
Sign convention

Figure 28- Positive (+) B.M. [Sagging Moment]

Clockwise BM to the LEFT of a section X-X and Counterclockwise (Anti-clockwise) B.M. to

the RIGHT of a section are POSITIVE. (Figure 28 and Figure 29)

Figure 29:-Negative(-) BM [Hogging Moment]

In addition to shear, every section of the beam will be subjected to bending. For example, to a
resultant BM, which is net effect of the moment of each of the individual loads. (Figure 30)

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 w
Figure 30

Again, for equilibrium, the values on either side of the section X-X must have equal values.

“M” is called the BENDING MOMENT (BM) at section X-X.

BM is defined as the algebraic sum of the moment about the section X-X of all the forces
acting on either sides of the section

The Bending Moment (B.M.) of the Loads and reaction to left of the section X-X is
M = − w1a1 + R1b1 − w2 a2

Since the whole beam is equilibrium, the BM of the force to the right of X-X must also be
M = R2 b2 − w3 a 3

Diagrams which show their variation in the BM and SF along the length of a beam or
structure for any fixed loading condition are termed BM and SF diagrams. They are therefore
graphs of BM and SF value drawn on the beam as a base and they clearly illustrate in the
early design stages the positions on the beam which are subjected to the greater SHEAR or
BENDING STRESSES and hence they may require further consideration or strengthening.

Example 1:
A cantilever of length ‘L’ carried a uniformly distributed load of intensity ‘w kN/m’. Draw the
SF and BM diagram.

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Solution
Shearing Force (SF)
SF at X-X, F = − wx (linear variation)
When x = 0 , F = − w(0) = 0
When x = L , F = − wL

Bending Moment (BM)

BM at X-X, M = − wx x ( 2 ) = wx 2

2
(Parabolic curve)

When x = 0 , M = 0
(
When x = L , M = − wL2 / 2 )

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Example 2:
A cantilever beam of length ‘L’ carries a concentrated load ‘w’ at its free end. Drawing the
shear force (SF) and Bending moment (BM) diagram.

Solution:

Shearing Force (SF)

SF at X-X, F = − w
This is constant along the whole beam

Bending Moment (BM)

BM at X-X, M = − wx
When x = 0 , M = 0
When x = L , M = − wL

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Relationship between SHEARING FORCE and BENDING MOMENT

Figure 31

Figure 31 shows a short length δx of a loaded beam at a distance ‘x’ from a fixed origin ‘O’.

Let the shearing force at ‘x’ br F,

And the shearing force at x + δx be F + δF
Similarly let the Bending moment at ‘x’ be ‘M’ and the bending moment at x + δx be
M + δM .

Let w = uniform distributed load on the length δx

The total load = wδx =acting approximately (exactly, if uniformly distributed) through the
centre ‘C’

The element must be equilibrium under the action of these force and moment.

Take moment about C: (clockwise as positive)

M + (F ⋅ δx / 2 ) + (F + δF ) ⋅ δx / 2 − (M + δM ) = 0

Neglecting the product δF ⋅ δx

δF ⋅ δx = δM

dM
Taking the limits, then F =
dx

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October 2006 (rev.b)
Resolving vertically upwards
F − wδx − (F + δF ) = 0

w = − dF
dx

In other words, the maximum or minimum Bending Moment occurs when dM = 0 but
dx
dM
F=
dx

Thus
When Shear force is being zero, Bending Moment is Maximum or Minimum.

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Appendix: Resultant of Distributed Load

A resultant force of distributed load should satisfy the following criteria.

a. The magnitude of the resultant force equals the total force of the distributed load.
b. Take moment about any point, the moment of the resultant equals to the moment of the
distributed load.

1.0 Resultant of uniformly distributed load (UDL)

Refer to Figure A1, the resultant of UDL equals load intensity, q, times the length of the UDL,
i.e. R = q L. The resultant acts at the middle of the UDL, Figure A1(b) refer.

Figure A1:- Resultant of UDL

Example
Determine the resultant force for the UDL in Figure A2

Figure A2

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Example
Calculate the moment of force of the UDL in Figure A3 with respect to point A.

Figure A3

Solution
Since the moment of force of distributed load equals to the moment of its resultant, determine
the resultant first.

The magnitude of the resultant force is 16 (3) = 48kN (download)

The moment of the resultant force with respect to point A is

48 (2.5) = 120kNm (clockwise)

Therefore, the moment of the UDL with respect to A is 120kNm (clockwise)

2.0 Resultant of triangle distributed load (TDL)

Refer to Figure A4, the intensity of the triangle distributed load (TDL) varies from 0 to a
q0 L
maximum value, q 0 . The magnitude of resultant of TDL is R = acting at position
2
shown in Figure A4(b).

Figure A4:- Resultant of triangular distributed load

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Example
Calculate the moment of force of the TDL in Figure A5.

Figure A5
Solution:
Magnitude of resultant force is (12 x 6 ) /2 = 36Kn (download)
Resultant acts at 6m x 2/3 = 4m from the end of zero intensity

Refer to Figure A5(b), moment of force of the TDL with respect to A is 36 x 7 = 252kNm
(clockwise)

3.0 Resultant of general distributed load

Example
Calculate the total force and moment of force with respect to point A for the distributed load
in Figure A6.

Figure A6

Solution:
The load in (a) is divided into a UDL and a TDL as indicated in Figure A7.

Resultant UDL = 3 x 6 = 18kN (downward)

Resultant TDL = (5 x 6) / 2 = 15kN (downward)

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Total force = 18 + 15 = 33kN (downward)

Figure A7

Refer to Figure A7, moment of force of the distributed load is

15 x 4 + 18 x 3 = 114kNm (clockwise)

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Tutorial Question
For the following beams:
(1) Calculate the reactions
(2) Calculate the shear force and bending moment for drawing the shear force and bending
moment diagrams

Question (a)

Question (b)

Question (c)

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Question (d)

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Solution to Tutorial Question

Question (a)
Take moment about point B,
20(4) + 10(8) = R A (10)
10 R A = 80 + 80
→ R A = 16kN

R A + R B = 10 + 20
→ R B = 14kN

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the shear force,
S .F . = +16kN
When x = 0,

S .F . = +16kN
When 0 < x ≤ 2,

S .F . = +16 − 10 = +6kN
When 2 < x ≤ 6,

S .F . = +16 − 10 − 20 = −14kN
When 6 < x < 10,

S .F . = −14kN
When x = 10,

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the bending moment,
When x = 0, BM = 0kNm
When 0 < x < 2, BM = R A ⋅ x = +16( x)kNm
When x = 2, BM = 16(2) = +32kNm
When 2 < x < 6, BM = R A x − 10( x − 2)
When x = 6, BM = +16(6) − 10(4) = +56kNm
When 6 < x < 10, BM = R A x − 10( x − 2) − 20( x − 6)
When x = 10, BM = 0kNm

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Question (b)
Take moment about B,

( 2)
R A (8) = 20(8)(8) 1
→ R A = 80kN

and R A + R B = 20(8)
→ R B = 80kN

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the shearing force,
When x = 0, S .F . = +80kN
When 0 < x < 8, S .F . = R A − 20 ⋅ x
When x = 8, S .F . = −80kN

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the bending moment,
When x = 0, BM = +0kNm
When 0 < x < 8,
BM = R A x − 20 ⋅ x ⋅ x
2
When x = 8, BM = +0kNm

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Question (c)
Take moment about B,

(
R A (3 + 4 + 3) = 20(4) 3 + 4
2
)
R A (10) = 80(3 + 2)
R A = 40kN

R A + R B = 20(4)
R B = 80 − 40
→ R B = 40kN

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the shearing force,
When x = 0, S .F . = R A = +40kN
When 0 < x ≤ 3, S .F . = R A = +40kN
When 3 < x ≤ 7, S .F . = R A − 20( x − 3) = 40 − 20( x − 3) = 100 − 20 x
When 7 < x < 10, S .F . = R A − 20(4) = 40 − 80 = −40kN
When x = 10, S .F . = R B = −40kN

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the bending moment,
When x = 0, BM = R A = +0kNm
When 0 < x ≤ 3, BM = R A ⋅ x = +40 x
When 3 < x ≤ 7,
BM = R A ⋅ x − 20( x − 3) x − 3(2
)
When 7 < x < 10, BM = + R B ⋅ x = +40 x
When x = 10, BM = + R a = +0kNm

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Question (d)

Take moment about B,

( 2 ) − 2000(5)(13 ) = 0
R A (5) − 4000(5) 1
→ RA = +2667 N

R A + R B = 800(5) + 800(5)
2
→ R B = +3333 N

Qy = x → y = 160 x
800 5

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the shearing force,
When x = 0, S .F . = R A = +2667 N
When 0 < x < 5,
S .F . = R A − 800 x − 1 xy = 2667 − 800 x − 80 x 2
2
When x = 5, S .F . = R B = −3333 N

Consider a section X-X at a distance ‘x’ from A and considering the bending moment,
When x = 0, BM = R A = +0kNm
When 0 < x < 5,
2 2 3
( ) ( )
BM = R A ⋅ x − 800 x ⋅ x − 1 ( xy )( x ) 1 = 2667 x − 800 x
2

2
− 160 x 3
6
When x = 5, BM = + R a = +0kNm

Since the max bending moment is where the shear force is equal to zero,

Let 2667 − 800 x − 80 x 2 = 0

Then x = 2.64 or − 12.6(rejected )
Maximum bending moment at x = 2.64 = 7040.88 – 2787.84 -490.66 = 3762Nm

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 -END-

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