Chapter 10:

10.1
Bolded Points
You measure the amount of something by counting, mass, and volume.
A mole of any substance contains Avogadros number of representative particles
The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is the mass of a mole of the
element.
Vocab
Mole: an amount of a substance; SI unit for measuring; 6.02 x10^23
representative particles
Avogadros Number: number of representative particles in a mole 6.02 x10^23
Representative Particle: the species present in a substance: usually atoms,
molecules, or formula units
Molar mass: mass of a mole of an element
To calculate molar mass of a compound, find the number of grams of each
element in one mole of the compound. Then add the masses of the elements in the
compound.
Formulas

1mole
6.02 x 10 representative particles
6.02 x 10 23 representative particles

representative particles = moles x

1mole
23
(number of atoms)
6.02 x 10 molecules
moles to atoms = moles x
x
1molecule
1mole

Moles = representative particles x

23

10.2
Bolded Points
Use the molar mass of an element or compound to convert between the mass of
a substance and the moles of a substance
At STP, 1 mol or 6.02 x10^23 representative particles, of any gas occupies a
volume of 22.4 L.

Vocab
Avogadros Hypothesis: states that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of particles
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): a temperature of 0 C and a pressure
of 101.3 kPa or 1 atmosphere (atm)

Formulas

mass (grams) = number of moles x

mass( grams)
1 mole

1 mole
mass( grams)
22.4 L
volume of gas = moles of gas x
1 mole
grams
grams
22.4 L
molar mass (
)=
x
mole
L
1 mole

moles = mass (grams) x

10.3
Bolded Points
The percent by mass of an element in a compound is the number of grams of the
element divided by the mass in grams of the compound, multiplied by 100%
The empirical formula of a compound shows the smallest- whole number ratio of
the atoms in the compound
The molecular formula of a compound of either the same as its experimentally
determined empirical formula, or its simple whole- number multiple of its empirical
formula
Vocab
Percent Composition: percent by mass of each element in the compound
Empirical Formula: gives the lowest whole-number ratio of the atoms in a
compound
Formulas

mass of element
x 100%
mass of compound
mass of element1 mol compound
x 100%
molar mass of compound

% mass of element =

% mass =

Chapter 11
11.1
Bolded Points
To write a word equation, write the names of the reactants to the left of the arrow
separated by plus signs; write the names of the products to the right of the arrow, also
separated by plus signs
Write the formulas of the reactants to the left of the yield sign and the formulas of
the products to the right
To write a balanced equation, first write a skeleton equation. Then use
coefficients to balance the equation so that it obeys the law of conservation of mass
Vocab

 Skeleton Equation: chemical equation that does not indicate the relative amounts
of the reactants and products (no coefficients)
Catalyst: a substance that speeds up the reaction but is not used up in the
reactio
Coefficients: small whole numbers they are placed in front of the formulas on an
equation in order to balance it
Balanced equation: each side of the equation has the same number of atoms of
each element and mass is conserved
11.2
Bolded Points
The five types of reactions are Combination, Single- Replacement, DoubleReplacement, Combustion, and Decomposition
The number of elements and/ or compound reacting is a good indicator of
possible reaction type thus possible products

Vocab
Combination Reaction: a chemical change in the which 2 or more substances
react to form a single new substance
Decomposition Reaction: chemical change in which a single compound breaks
down into 2 or more simpler products
Single - Replacement Reaction: chemical change in which 1 element replaces a
second element in a compound
Double - Replacement Reaction: chemical change involving an exchange of
positive ions between two compounds
Combustion Reaction: chemical change which an element or a compound reacts
with oxygen
Activity Series: lists metals in order of decreasing reactivity; halogens (7A)
decrease as you go down
- ex) Br 2 (aq) + NaCl (aq) > No reaction
- ex) Br 2 (aq) + NaCl (aq) > NaBr (aq) + I2 (aq)
Formulas

Combination Reaction: R + S > RS

Decomposition Reaction: RS > R + S
Single - Replacement Reaction: T + RS > R + TS
Double - Replacement Reaction: RS + TU > RU + TS
Combustion Reaction: CH + O2 > CO2 + H20

11.3
Bolded Points
A net ionic equation shows only those particles involved in the reaction and the
traction is balanced

 You can predict the formation of a precipitate by using the general rules for
solubility

Vocab
complete ionic equation: an equation that shows dissolved ionic compounds as
disassociated free ions (expand)
spectator ion: ion that appears on both sides of the question
net ionic equation: equation that show only the particles directly involved in the
change ( no spectator ions)
Solubility Rules for Ionic Compounds
Salts of alkali metals and ammonia

Soluble

Nitrate and Chlorate Salts

Soluble

Sulfate Salts except compounds with Hg2^2+, Soluble

Pb^2+, Ag +, Ba^2+, Sr^2+, Ca^2+
Chloride salts except compounds with
Hg2^2+, Pb^2+, Ag +

Soluble

Carbonates, Phosphates, Chromates,

Hydroxides, Sulfides

Most are insoluble

Chapter 12
12.1
Bolded Points
A balanced chemical equation provides the same kind of quantitative information
that a recipe does.
Chemists use balanced chemical equations as a basis to calculate how much
reactant is needed or product in a reaction.
A balanced chemical equation can be interpreted in terms of different quantities,
including numbers of atoms, molecules, or moles; mass; and volume
Mass and atoms are conserved in every chemical reaction
Vocab
Stoichiometry: calculation of quantities in chemical reactions is a subject of
chemistry

12.2
Bolded Points
In chemical calculations, mole ratios are used to convert between moles of
reactant and moles of product, between moles of reactant, or between moles of products
In a typical stoichiometric problem, the given quantity is first covered to moles.
Then the mole ratio from the balanced equation is used to calculate the number of moles
of the wanted substance. Finally, the moles are converted to any other unit mole, as the
problem requires.

Vocab
mole ratio: is a conversion factor derived from the coefficients of a balanced
chemical equation interpreted in terms of moles
12.3
Bolded Points
In a chemical reaction, an insufficient quantity of any of the reactions will limit the
amount of product that forms.
The percent yield is a measure of the efficiency of a reaction carried out in the
laboratory
Vocab
Limiting Reagent: the reagent that determines the amount of product that can be
formed by a reaction
Excess Reagent: the reactant that is not completely used up in a reaction
Theoretical Yield: maximum amount of product that could be formed from given
amounts of reactants
Actual Yield: amount of product that actually forms when the reaction is carried
out in the laboratory
Percent Yield: ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a
percent

Formulas

Chapter 13
13.1
Bolded Points

Percent Yield =

actual yield
x 100%
theoretical yield

 The particles in a gas are considered to be small, hard spheres with an

insignificant volume
The motion of the particles in a gas is rapid, constant, and random
All collisions between particles in a gas are perfectly elastic
Gas pressure is the result of simultaneous collisions of billions of rapidly moving
particles in a gas with an object
The Kelvin temperature of a substance is directly proportional to the average
kinetic energy of the particles of the substance

Vocab
Kinetic energy: energy an object has because of its motion
Kinetic Theory: all matter consists of tiny particles that are in constant motion
Gas pressure: results from force exerted by a gas per unit surface area of an
object
Vacuum: an empty space with no particles and no pressure
Atmospheric pressure: results from the collisions of atoms and molecules in air
with objects
Barometer: device that measures atmospheric pressure
Pascal (Pa): SI unit of pressure
standard atmosphere (atm): pressure required to support 760 mm of Hg in a
mercury barometer at 25 C
Formulas

1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 101.3

13.2
Bolded Points
The interplay between the disruptive motions of particles in a liquid and the
attractions and among the particles determines the physical properties of liquids
During evaporation, only those molecules with a certain minimum kinetic energy
can escape the surface of the liquid.
Dynamic equilibrium exists between the vapor and liquid. The system is in
equilibrium because the rate of evaporation of liquid equals the rate of condensation of
vapor.
When a liquid is heated to a temperature at which particles throughput the liquid
have enough kinetic energy to vaporize, the liquid begins to boil.
Vocab
Vaporization: conversion of a liquid to a gas or vapor
Evaporation: conversion occurs at the surface of a liquid that is not boiling
Vapor Pressure: measure of the force exerted by a gas above a liquid
Boiling point: temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is just equal
to the external pressure on the liquid
Normal boiling point: the boiling point of a liquid at a pressure of 101.3 kPa

13.3
Bolded Points
The properties of solids reflect the orderly arrangement of their particles and the
fixed locations of their particles
7 Types of Crystal System: Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, Triclinic,
Hexagonal, Rhombohedral
Vocab

shape

Melting Point: (mp); the temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid

Unit Cell: smallest group of particles within a crystal that retains its geometric
Allotropes: 2 or more different molecular forms of the same element
Amorphous solid: lacks an ordered internal structure

13.4
Bolded Points
Sublimation occurs in solids with vapor pressures that exceed atmospheric
pressure at or near room temperature
The conditions of pressure and temperature at which 2 phases exist in
equilibrium are indicated on a phases diagram by a line separating the phases
Vocab
Sublimation: change of state from a solid directly to a gas or vapor
Phase Diagram: gives the temperature and pressure at which 2 phases exist in
an equilibrium
Triple Point: describes the only set of conditions at which all three phases can
exist in equilibrium with one another