Chemistry Summary 3

The mole concept

● Particles are classified as either: Atoms, ions, molecules or formula units
● To perform chemistry, moles of substance are used, and this allows us to make
comparisons between chemical species.

The Mole
● Avogadro’s constant N = 6.02 x 10  mol
A 
23 -1

● Mole: a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance

● Molar mass: mass of 1 mole of a substance (g mol )-1

● Number prefixes which are important to know:

Mole Calculations

Relative atomic mass & molar mass

● Isotopes: Atoms of the same element which have same number of protons
 ● Isotopes of an element have different mass numbers
● Relative abundance: Measure of percentage of isotopes present in element
● Relative atomic mass (A ): weighted average of the atomic masses of its isotopes
r

and their relative abundances

● Relative because compared to 1 atom of carbon-12 ( C) which is 12
12

units
● Relative molecular mass (M ): Combining individuals A  values of atoms in
r r

molecule or formula unit

Empirical and molecular formula determination

● Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of atoms or amount (in mol) of
each element present in a compound
● Molecular Formula: the actual number of atoms or amount (in mol) of elements
in one structural unit or one mole of the compound

Reacting masses and volumes

Stoichiometry
● Stoichiometry is the quantitative method of examining the relative amounts of
reactants and products

The limiting reagent

● Limiting reagent is completely consumed during a reaction, the remaining
reactants are in excess
● The limiting reagent is what is used to determine the amount of products formed

Percentage Yield
● Percentage yield is used to determine the efficiency of a reaction
● Some factors for where yield is lost include:
● Loss of products from reaction vessels
● Impurity of reactants
● Changes in reaction conditions, such as temperature and pressure
● Reverse reactions consuming products in equilibrium systems
● Existence of side reactions due to impurities

Molar volume of a gas

● Ideal gas is a gas which follows the kinetic theory of gases. They are found in
systems with high temperature and low pressure.
 ● Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): The conditions where temperature
is 273K and pressure is 100 kPa.
● At STP, the Molar Volume of an ideal gas is 22.7 dm  mol
3 -1

● Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of any gas measured at the same temperature

and pressure contain the same number of molecules
● This can be applies to stoichiometric relationships in which the
coefficients correspond to the ratio of volumes of gases

The Gas Laws

1. Boyle’s Law

A.
2. Charles’s Law

A.
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law

A.
4. Combined Gas Law

A.
5. Ideal gas equation

A.

Molar Concentration
●

Titrations
● Titration involves a standard solution of known concentration which is added to a
solution of unknown concentration until the chemical reaction is complete
● Watch this video
Measuring energy changes
● Chemical Potential Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of reactants and
products
● Heat: Represented by symbol q is energy transferred from warmer body to cooler
body. It is a form of energy
● Kinetic Energy: energy that a body possesses by virtue of being in motion
● Temperature: Measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles

Chemical Energy
● When examining energy changes involved in a chemical reaction, we divide the
universe into parts:
● System: The focus, which is the chemical reaction
● Open System: Transfer of matter and energy is possible
across its boundary
● Closed System: Transfer of matter and is not possible
across the boundary
● Isolated System: Matter can neither enter or exit the
system
● Surroundings: The apparatus in which the reaction is taking place in
● When a chemical reaction takes place, there are bonds broken and bonds made
● Energy required to break bond is called bond disassociation
energy and is an endothermic process
● Energy released when new bond is created is an exothermic process

Enthalpy and thermochemistry

● Enthalpy is an example of a state function. A state function is measurement in
which you only record the initial and final, ignoring any changes which occur
throughout a measurement
● Thermochemistry: is the study of heat changes that occur during chemical
reactions
● At constant pressure, the change in enthalpy ΔH (measured in kJ
mol ) is defined as heat transferred by closed system during chemical
-1

reactions
● Calorimeter: Any apparatus used to measure the amount of heat being
exchanged with the surroundings
Exothermic and Endothermic reactions
● Exothermic Reaction: Heat is transferred from system to surroundings, ΔH is
negative.
● Endothermic Reaction: Heat is absorbed from surroundings, ΔH is positive.

Calculations
● q=mcΔT is a relationship used to calculate the heat of a group
● Standard Enthalpy Change of Reaction
● Change in enthalpy measured at 25°C and pressure of 100 kPa.
Denoted by ΔH ѳ

● Enthalpy Change of Formation

● The energy change upon formation of 1 mol of a substance.
Denoted by ΔH ѳ
f

● Enthalpy Change of Combustion

● Heat evolved upon the complete combustion of 1 mol of a
substance. Denoted by ΔH ѳ
c

Hess’s Law: Regardless of the route by which a chemical reaction proceeds, the

enthalpy change will always be the same providing the initial and final states of
the system are the same.

Bond Enthalpy
● Bond (dissociation) Enthalpy: The energy required to break 1 mol of bonds in
gaseous covalent molecules under standard conditions
● Bond breaking is endothermic process and has a positive enthalpy
value
● Average values found in section 11 of the data booklet
● Bond length
● As atomic radius increases, so does bond length. This results in
decrease on bond strength
● Bond Strength
● Bond enthalpy reflects strength of covalent bond
● As number of bonds increase (single, double, triple), the bond
strength increases, and bond length decreases
● Bond Polarity
● Determined by difference in electronegativity