chemistry-summary-6545e854b3c2b

Mod 5: Equilibrium and acid reactions
IQ1: What happens when chemical reactions do not go through completion?
5.1.1 reversible reactions conduct practical investigations to analyse the reversibility of

chemical reactions, for example:
● cobalt(II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated
● iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate
● burning magnesium
● burning steel wool
5.1.1 Reversible Reactions

Chemical change can be reversed
● E.g. copper sulfate changing from blue to white and then blue again after water is added
Reversible reaction: the products of the reaction can react to reform reactants. The reaction can
proceed in both ways.
● Reactions are reversible as the reacting molecules in a closed system are able to collide with
each other creating energy for a reversible reaction
● Activation energy should be lower for it be easily reversed
Examples of irreversible reactions:

● Combustion of Mg
● Combustion of steel wool
Combustion reactions are usually irreversible as they release large amounts of energy
Open and closed systems:

● Open system: freely exchanges energy and matter with surrounding area
○ E.g. a reaction that creates gas and escapes into the air
● Closed system: exchanges only energy with surrounding area
○ E.g. formation of a precipitate in a jar with a lid
5.1.1 modelling static and dynamic equilibrium model static and dynamic equilibrium and analyse the
differences between open and closed systems
5.1.2: Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Dynamic equilibrium: when the forward and reverse reactions happen to at the same rate (reversible
reaction), creating reactants and products
When the colour stops changing in a reversible reaction, it does not mean that the reaction has stopped
● The forward and reverse reaction rates happen at the same time (equal)
Equilibrium will be reached when:

● In a closed system
● Involves a reversible reaction
At equilibrium:
● Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction
● Concentrations of the reactants and products stay the same
● Macroscopic properties are constant
The state of equilibrium is attached when:

● Rate of reaction = rate of reverse reaction
Forward reaction rate decrease as more products are produced

Reverse ration rate increase as more reactants are produced
Features of dynamic equilibrium:

1. Equilibrium is dynamic not static
● Continuous interchange between reactants and products
● Same rate as products change to reactants, and reactants to products
2. Macroscopic consistency
● All observable properties e.g. colour
3. Must happen in a closed system
● Can only exchange energy with surroundings, but not matter e.g. precipitate
4. Can be reached from either direction
● At equilibrium, there is a mixture of reactants and products
● Concentrations of reactants and products do not have to be equal
● A + B ⇌ AB
Modelling equilibrium:
● Experiment to explain dynamic equilibrium: two measuring cylinders full of water
○ The concentrations of reactants and products stay the same
○ The forward and reverse reactions are constantly occurring causing the equilibrium to
constant change
○ Forward reaction = reverse reaction
○ No water should be lost (closed system) to allow equilibrium to be reached
Graphing equilibrium:
● Graphs are used to show the rates of reaction or the concentrations over time
● Reaction rate and time
○ Observable traits include:
■ Forward reaction is initially high
■ Reverse reaction is initially 0
■ Forward reaction will decrease quickly at the
start then slow down
■ Reverse reaction will increase quickly at the start
then slow down
■ The reactions will then be equal, reaching
equilibrium
Static equilibrium:
● A closed system
● Reactants and products are present, but one reactant may have been used up
● Forward and reverse rates are 0
● E.g. magnesium is being combusted in a closed container with excess oxygen
5.1.3 non-equilibrium systems analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the

effect of entropy and enthalpy, for example:
● combustion reactions
● photosynthesis
5.1.3: Non-Equilibrium Systems

Irreversible reaction: when entropy and enthalpy strongly drive a reaction in the same direction
Combustion has a very negative ΔH (exothermic) and ΔG. ΔS can be either negative or positive but for
most organic molecules it is positive (e.g. ethanol, octane).
● The reverse reaction will have a high positive change in ΔG, therefore
making it not spontaneous and irreversible (equilibrium can’t be reached)
Photosynthesis has a positive ΔH and ΔG, and a negative ΔS

● The reaction is therefore endothermic and decreases entropy. The reaction
is therefore not spontaneous meaning equilibrium can’t be reached.
Although respiration is spontaneous
IQ2: What factors affect equilibrium and how?
5.2.1 le chatelier’s principle investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume

and/or pressure on a system at equilibrium and explain how
Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict such effects, for
example:
● heating cobalt(II) chloride hydrate
● interaction between nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen
tetroxide
● iron(III) thiocyanate and varying concentration of ions
5.2.1: Le Châtlier’s Principle

● If a system is ‘disturbed’ the equilibrium will shift in the
direction that tends to counteract the change until a new
equilibrium is established.
● Pure solids or liquids do not affect the equilibrium
What affects equilibrium?

● Change in concentration
● Change in gas pressure/volume
● Change in temperature
● Catalysts
Change in concentration:
● When the concentration of a reaction is changed, the system will try to react by counteracting
the change and return the concentration to its original equilibrium.
○ If [ ] is increased, the system will adjust
to decrease by favouring the forward
reaction, which shifts the equilibrium to
the right; increases the [ ] of products
and decreases the [ ] of reactants
○ If [ ] is decreased, the system will adjust to increase by favouring the reverse reaction,
shifting the equilibrium to the left; decreases the [ ] of products, and increases the [ ] of
reactants
● E.g. N2O4(g) ⇌ 2NO2(g) (add more NO2)
○ Adding more NO2 causes the system to increase
∴ the system will shift to the left to counteract the increase of NO2; NO2 is decreased
Change in pressure/volume:
● When the volume/pressure of a gaseous system is changed, the concentrations of all gaseous
substances in the system are altered. Both concentrations of reactants and products might
change. The one with the biggest change will have the greatest influence on the change of the
equilibrium.
○ ↑V=↓P ↓V=↑P
○ If the volume of a closed vessel is increased, the pressure is decreased as pressure and
volume are proportional to each other. Therefore, the reaction will counteract the
increase in volume by favouring the reaction that increases pressure by increasing the
number of gaseous molecules.
○ If both products and reactants spike after being
disturbed, the reaction has had a change in
pressure/volume
● Increasing P/decreasing V → favours side with fewer
moles of gas
● Decreasing P/increasing V → favours side with more
moles of gas
Changes in temperature:
● Increasing temperature → favours endothermic reaction
● Decreasing temperature → favours exothermic reaction
Exothermic reaction: releases heat energy
● A + B ⇌ C + heat ΔH < 0
Endothermic reaction: absorbs heat energy

● Heat + A + B ⇌ C ΔH > 0
The equilibrium will shift to the left, towards the endothermic

reaction to remove heat if the temperature of the system is
increased. This means heat will be removed to counteract the
increase in temperature.
The equilibrium will shift to the right, towards the exothermic reaction to remove heat if the
temperature of the system is decreased. This means more heat will be produced to counteract the
decrease in temperature.
Catalysts effect on equilibrium:

● Catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the Ea (reduces time taken for a reaction to reach
equilibrium)
● They don’t lead to a shift in equilibrium as the concentration, temperature, or pressure/volume
does not change
IQ2: What factors affect equilibrium and how?
5.2.2 explaining changes with collision theory explain the overall observations about equilibrium in terms of
the collision theory
5.2.2 Explaining Changes with Collision Theory

Collision theory: states that rate of reaction depends on the frequency of successful collisions between
particles
● Particles need to collide with sufficient kinetic energy to overcome activation energy
● Particles must collide in the correct orientation
● Not all collisions result in a reaction
Changes in concentration:
● A higher concentration allows for more particles to collide with each other
● E.g. N2O4 (g) ⇌ 2NO2 (g) add NO2
○ Adding more No2 will increase the amount of successful collisions, causing the reaction
to shift left due to the increase of reverse reaction
Changes in pressure/volume:
● A larger volume decreases the amount of collisions as the space in which the particles collide,
has expanded. A larger pressure will shorten the distance between particles causing the reaction
to shift to the side with fewer molecules
● E.g. N2O4 (g) ⇌ 2NO2 (g) decreasing V
○ The gas molecules become tightly packed, increasing the amount of successful collisions.
Although both reverse and forward reactions are increased, reverse reaction increases to
a greater extent, causing the equilibrium to shift left
Changes in temperature:
● Increases in temperature results in more successful collisions
○ Both reaction rates are increased
○ Equilibrium shifts right due to the greater increase in forward reaction rate (exothermic)
● E.g. heat + N2O4 (g) ⇌ 2NO2 (g) ΔH > 0
○ Increase in temperature causes the average KE of particles to increase, resulting in more
successful collisions. Both reverse and forward reactions will increase but the forward
reaction will increase by a greater extent. Therefore, the equilibrium will shift to the
right
IQ3: How can the position of equilibrium be described and what does the equilibrium constant represent?
5.3.1 equilibrium expression (Keq) deduce the equilibrium expression (in terms of Keq) for the
homogeneous reactions occurring in solution
5.3.2 calculating and applying Keq perform calculations to find the value of Keq and
concentrations of substances within an equilibrium system,
and use these values to make predictions on the direction in
which a reaction may proceed
5.3.1 Equilibrium Expression (Keq)

Constant equilibrium: shows the constant relationship between the amounts of reactants and products
in an equilibrium system
keq= [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b

● Only gases and aqueous solutions are included in Keq
○ Adding more solid or liquid will not affect the equilibrium but will dilute the substances
5.3.2 Calculating and Applying Keq

All concentrations must be in mol/L before starting calculations
● Gases: c=n/V
● Solutions: C1V1 = C2V2
● RICE tables can be used if limited concentrations are provided
Meanings of Keq if:

● Close to 1: similar amounts of reactants and products
● A very high number: more products than reactants (more C and D)
● A very low number (e.g. 0.5 x 10-4): more
reactants than products (more A and B)
RICE table:
● Convert all concentrations to mol/L
● Write all known values in RICE table,
including equation
● Find unknown values in the RICE table using ratios (sometimes ‘x’ may be used when the value is
not given)
● Write the Keq expression
Reaction quotient (Q): tells the relative amount of products and reactants in any mixture
● Used when the status of the equilibrium of a system is not assured
● If Q = Keq the system is at equilibrium
● If Q > Keq there is more products and the equilibrium will shift to the left to reach equilibrium
● If Q < Keq there is more reactants and the equilibrium will shift to the right to reach equilibrium
5.3.3 effect of temperature on Keq qualitatively analyse the effect of temperature on the value of
Keq,
5.3.3 Effect of Temperature on Keq

Temperature is the only factor that changes the Keq of a system
Changing either concentration, pressure/volume, and diluting the system will change the Q but the
equilibrium will shift to allow Q to return the original Keq value
Increasing temperature will always favour the endothermic direction (reverse) shifting the equilibrium to
the left; therefore there will be more reactants and Keq will decrease
● Heating an exothermic reaction decreases Keq
● Cooling an exothermic equilibrium increases Keq
● Heating an endothermic equilibrium increases Keq
● Cooling an endothermic equilibrium decreases Keq
5.3.4 experimentally determine Keq conduct an investigation to determine Keq of a chemical

equilibrium system, for example:
● Keq of the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium
5.3.4 Experimentally Determine Keq

Colourimetry: an analytical technique to measure the concentration of
a solution
● A light is shined through a solution and measures how much
light the substance absorbs
○ The concentration of the substance is able to be measured through this method
● A graph of absorbance vs concentration is then constructed to show a calibration curve (straight
line)
Transmittance:
I0 is the intensity of the light entering the solution
I is the intensity of the light transmitted
● Both are then compared to find the % of light transmitted (not directly proportional to the
concentration)
Absorbance:
● Directly proportional to concentration
5.3.5 using Keq explore the use of Keq for different types of chemical
reactions, including but not limited to:
● dissociation of ionic solutions
● dissociation of acids and bases
5.3.5 Using Keq

Limestone (CaCO3) is formed through the decay of marine organisms such as snails, clams, corals, and
algae. In water, the slightly soluble salt will set up the following equilibrium:
The chemical erosion of limestone occurs when it is in contact with acidic water: If the limestone deposit
is deep enough underground, the dissolution of the limestone produces a cave.
IQ4: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?
5.4.1 dissolving ionic compounds describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution
of ionic compounds in water
5.4.1 Dissolving Ionic Compounds

An ion is able to dissolve when enough ion dipoles are created that
are able to overcome the ionic bond
Solubility: the maximum mass of solute (grams) that can dissolve in 100g of the solvent (e.g. water)
● Dependent on the concentration of the compound
5.4.3 aboriginal and torres strait islander practices investigate the use of solubility equilibria by Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander Peoples when removing toxicity from
foods, for example:
● toxins in cycad fruit
5.4.3 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Practices

Cycads are rich in carbohydrates but contain cycasin (toxic substance) which causes, vomiting, nausea
and abdominal pains, as well as long-term damage to the nervous system and liver
Identify Describe Explain
Heating The fruits are heated with a Break down some cycasin by heating.
fire by roasting them
Grinding/ The seed is crushed exposing Increase surface area for leaching
crushing the inner kernel
Leaching They are then soaked in removal of cycasin - how did this work?
water and placed in a river,
using the strong currents to
remove the toxins
5.4.3 solubility rules and precipitation describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution
of ionic compounds in water
5.4.3 Solubility Rules and Precipitation

Solubility: a measure of how much the substance will dissolve in water (e.g. NaCl is very soluble in
water)
Solutions that are always soluble:

● Nitrates (NO3-)
● Acetates (C2H3O2-)
● Group 1 (Li+, Na+, etc)
● **Sulfates (SO42-)
● Ammonium (NH4-)
● *Group 17 (F-, Cl-, Br-)
Insoluble substances:
● Do not dissolve in water
● Energy is required to break the ionic bonds forming a lattice
An ionic compound can be described as the following:

● Soluble >1g/100mL
● Slightly soluble 0.1g~1g/100mL
● Insoluble <0.1g/100mL
Saturation:
● Dissolution varies in all ionic compounds
○ All ionic compounds are soluble to some extent
● Solubility is dependant on the concentration of the compound
○ E.g. solubility of AgCl is described as 0.00019g/100mL of H2O
Unsaturated → a solution contains less solute than the solvent

Saturated → a solution containing maximum solute (more salt = precipitate)
Super saturated → more salt than the maximum; forms a precipitate
Precipitation reaction: when two solutions are mixed and an insoluble solid forms (precipitate)
Two ionic solutions mixed = ions interact = new substance with a lower solubility (can be a precipitate)
Spectator ions:
● Sodum (Na+)
● Nitrate (NO3-)
● Ammonium (NH4+)
● Acetate (CH3COO-)
● Potassium (K+)
An ionic compound will become insoluble when it has surpassed its saturated concentration
● Ksp (solubility product constant)
○ AB (s) ⇌ A+ (aq) + B- (aq)
■ Ksp= A+ · B-
5.4.4 Ksp for saturated solutions derive equilibrium expressions for saturated solutions in
terms of Ksp and calculate the solubility of an ionic substance
from its Ksp value
5.4.4 Ksp for saturated solutions

High Ksp= more ions and more soluble
Low Ksp= less ions and less soluble
Insoluble substances are hard to remove ions from the lattice as they rejoin quickly.
Two ways to quantify solubility:

1. State how many grams or models can dissolve in a set amount of solvent
2. State the equilibrium constant
E.g. saturated solution in a chemical equilibrium

● PbI2 (s) ⇌ Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq)
○ Ksp= [Pb+][I-]2
5.4.5 use Ksp to predict precipitate formation Predict the formation of a precipitate given the standard
reference values of Ksp
5.4.5 Use Ksp to predict precipitate formation

Reaction quotient (Q): tells the relative amounts of products and reactants in any mixture
● Q = Keq the system is at equilibrium
● Q > Keq there are too many products. The system will shift left to reach equilibrium
● Q < Keq there are too many reactants. The system will shift right to reach equilibrium
Qsp is used for the ionic product

● Qsp = Ksp the system is at equilibrium
● Qsp > Ksp there are more ions than at equilibrium. The system will shift left to reach equilibrium,
forming a precipitate
● Qsp < Ksp there are fewer ions than at equilibrium. The system will shift right to reach equilibrium,
dissolving more solid overall
Common ion effect

● The common ion effect states:
○ ‘The addition of a common ion in saturated solution will decrease the solubility of the
salt’
● E.g. AxBy (s) ⇌ xAy+ (aq) + yBx- (aq)
○ Adding CxBy (s) ⇌ xCy+ (aq) + yBx- (aq) will increase the concentration of yBx-, by LCP, the
system will counteract the disturbance by favouring the reverse, hence increasing the
amount of precipitate
● *common ion is an ion contained inside another ionic compound which is the same as the ion
inside the equilibrium system*
Mod 6: Acid/Base Reactions
IQ1: What is an acid and what is a base?
6.1.1 naming and properties Investigate the correct IUPAC nomenclature and properties of
common inorganic acids and bases
6.1.1 Naming and properties

Acids
● Sour taste
● Conduct electricity in solution
● Turn blue litmus red
● Neutralise bases
● Many are corrosive and caustic
○ Corrosive: corrodes substances, especially metals
○ Caustic: Corrodes or burns organic tissue e.g. human skin
● An acid is considered weak when it can’t ionise readily
strong acids strong bases

hydrochloric acid (HCl) All group 1 & 2 hydroxides
nitric acid (HNO3) e.g. NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Many non-metal oxides

(diprotic - fully ionises for first H) e.g. calcium oxide (CaO)
weak acids weak bases

acetic acid (ethanoic acid - module 7) ammonia (NH3)
carbonic acid (H2CO3)
citric acid
Naming acids
● Any compound with a formula follows the same naming
○ E.g. HF: hydrofluoric acid, HBr: hydrobromic acid, HI: hydroiodic acid (all with valency of
1)
● Oxyacids
○ Contain H, O and another element
■ E.g. nitric acid: HNO3 , sulfuric acid: H2SO4
○ The salt that forms has an -ate ending e.g. nitrate
Bases
● Soapy or slippery feel
● Bitter taste
● Conduct electricity in solution (if soluble)
● Turn red litmus blue
● Neutralise acids
● Many are corrosive and caustic
Naming bases
● Most common bases are metal hydroxides and oxides
○ Metal hydroxide example (group 1 & 2 hydroxides are all strong):
■ Sodium hydroxide
○ Ammonia (NH3)
■ Common base
● Alkalis: water soluble bases
6.1.2 indicators conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and

use of indicators as illustrators of the characteristics and
properties of acids and bases and their reversible reactions
6.1.2 Indicators
Indicator: substance that changes colour depending on how acidic or basic the solution is
● Common lab indicators:
○ Bromothymol blue (yellow-green-blue)
■ Acidic: yellow
■ Neutral: blue
■ Basic: pink
○ Methyl orange (red-yellow)
■ Acidic: reddish
■ Neutral: yellow
■ Basic: yellow
○ Phenolphthalein (colourless-pink)
■ Acidic: colourless
■ Neutral: colourless
■ Basic: pink
○ Litmus (red-blue)
● Indicator reactions are reversible
6.1.3 acid reactions predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced
equations to represent:
● acids and bases
● acids and carbonates
● acids and metals
6.1.3 Acid Reactions
Acid + base → salt + water
Acid + carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide + water
Acid +metal → salt + hydrogen
A salt is formed when an acid and base react together

● Cation: from base, carbonate or metal
● Anion: from acid
Recognising acid reactions

● Carbonate (CO3)
○ Insoluble
○ Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
○ Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3-)
● Base
● Metals
○ Metals above H+/H2 will react with acids
○ Metals below H+/H2 will not react with acids
6.1.4 neutralisation investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday

life and industrial processes
6.1.4: Neutralisation
When an acid and base are mixed, a reaction (neutralisation) occurs forming a salt and water
● pH of the salt is not normally exactly 7
Neutralisation in biological processes and industry:

● Too much hydrochloric acid produced can be treated with antacid (neutralises stomach acid) that
contains either of the bases:
○ Calcium carbonate
○ Magnesium hydroxide
○ Aluminium hydroxide
○ Magnesium oxide
● Acidic soil can be neutralised with the bases (together):
○ Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
○ Calcium oxide (quick lime)
○ Calcium carbonate (limestone)
● Basic soil can be neutralised with sulfur or manure
6.1.5 enthalpy of neutralisation conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of

neutralisation
6.1.5: Enthalpy of Neutralisation

Net ionic equation of neutralisation:
● H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l) or H3O+ (aq) + OH- → 2H2O (l)
When bonds form, energy is released. Therefore neutralisation is always exothermic. Enthalpy change
(ΔH) is negative.
(ΔH) is always around 55-58 kJ/mol of water produced
Diprotic acids release twice as much heat per mole of acid, but it is the same per mole of water
produced
Calorimetry
● A process that measures heat absorbance or released heat in a reaction.
○ Reaction takes place in an insulated container with a known mass of water (or another
substance)
○ The change in temperature of the water is used to calculate the energy absorbed or
released
● Equation to find heat released: q=mcΔT
● Find moles of water produced from the amount of acid and base (don’t confuse the two
different water masses)
● Then use the equation ΔH= -q/n to find enthalpy change
○ *Note*:
■ Units in the c are J. Convert to kJ (/1000)
■ q is positive and ΔH is negative
■ Express the answer per mole of water produced
● Sources of error are heat lost to the surroundings and the calorimeter itself
6.1.6 what are acids and bases? explore the changes in definitions and models of an acid and a
base over time to explain the limitations of each model,
including but not limited to:
● Arrhenius’ theory
● Brønsted–Lowry theory
6.1.6 What are Acids and Bases?

Arrhenius’ theory (main theory)
● Acids form H+ in water, bases form OH- in water
● Limitations:
○ Some acids don’t contain hydrogen (e.g. CO2)
○ Some bases don’t contain OH- (e.g. ammonia)
○ Acid/base reactions can occur without a solution
○ Doesn’t explain why many salts are acidic or basic
○ Doesn’t consider the role of water in a reaction as a solvent
Brønsted-Lowry (main theory)

● Acids are proton donors
● Bases are proton acceptors
● Limitations
○ Some acid reactions don’t involve proton transfer
○ Some acidic substances don’t contain H
○ The model only works in solvents that contain H
Amphiprotic: can donate or receive a proton

● E.g. water
Lewis acids (extension)

● Acid is an electron pair acceptor
● Acid is an electron pair donor
IQ2: What is the role of water in solutions of acids and bases?
6.2.1 measuring pH conduct a practical investigation to measure the pH of a range

of acids and bases
6.2.1: Measuring pH
More acidic= higher [H+]= low pH
More basic= lower [H+]= high pH
Equation: pH= -log [H3O+]

● E.g. if [H3O+]= 10-6 then pH=6
pH can be below 0 and above 14
Indicator paper and pH metres are both accurate
6.2.2 pH, pOH, [H+] , [OH-] calculate pH, pOH, hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) and
hydroxide ion concentration ([OH–]) for a range of solutions
6.2.2: Calculate pH, pOH, [H+] , [OH-]

If a strong acid/base is diluted:
● If diluted to 1/10, pH moves 1 towards 7
(never gets there)
● Otherwise, use dilution formula
(C1V1=C2V2) to find new [H+] and [OH-]
A change of 1 in pH= # of H+ ions changes by 10
Pure water ionises: H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) +OH- (aq)

Kw = 10-14 so [H+] [OH-] = 10-14 and pH + pOH = 14
6.2.3 strength of acids and bases conduct an investigation to demonstrate the use of pH to
indicate the differences between the strength of acids and
bases
6.2.3: Strength of Acids and Bases

Concentration: amount of acid in a certain volume of solution
● Property of a particular solution
● Use words concentrated or diluted
Strength: of an acid or base is the degree of dissociation

● Measured by how much acid forms hydronium
ions in solution
● Use words strong or weak
If a strong base and a weak acid with identical concentrations are prepared, their pHs will be different
Dissociation: when atoms in a molecule or ionic lattice form ions in a solution

● Can be used to describe acids forming ions in solution
● Strong acids fully dissociate in solution, weak acids only partially dissociate in solution
● Can be used to describe bases
6.2.4 dissociation and acid and base pairs write ionic equations to represent the dissociation of acids
and bases in water, conjugate acid/base pairs in solution and
amphiprotic nature of some salts, for example sodium
hydrogen carbonate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
6.2.4: Acid/Base Equations and Salts

Dissociation equations show what happens when an acid/base is in a solution
For all dissociation equations:

● Use an arrow (→) for strong acids/bases
● Use an equilibrium sign (⇌) for weak acids/bases
Dissociation reactions for acids

● Acids dissociate in water to for H3O+ ions
● Acid donates a proton (H) to the water to for H3O+
● Strong: HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
● Weak: CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Dissociation reaction for bases

● Bases do not dissociate in water to form OH- ions
● If base doesn’t contain OH- write it as the following:
○ NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
● If base does contain OH- ions water needs to be included:
○ NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
○ The base accepts the H proton from the water
Polyprotic acids
● Can donate more than one proton
○ E.g. sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and carbonic acid (H2CO3) are diprotic, phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
is triprotic
● Write separate dissociation equations as each proton is donated
Conjugate acid/base pairs

● An acid and a base that differ by a single hydrogen atom (proton)
● Acid donates a proton= conjugate base forms
● Base receives a proton= conjugate acid forms
● In a neutralisation reaction:
○ Acid + base ⇌ conjugate base + conjugate acid
● Strong acids/bases produce a very weak conjugate acid/base (not significant)
● Weak acids/bases produce a strong conjugate acid/base that affects the pH of a solution
pH of solutions formed by neutralisation

● strong acid + strong base → neutral salt + water
e.g. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) solution pH = 7
● strong acid + weak base → acidic salt + water

e.g. HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l) solution pH <7
● weak acid + strong base → basic salt + water

e.g. CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) solution pH > 7
pH of salts
● If the positive cation comes from a weak base, then the salt is acidic.
e.g. Look for NH4+ from ammonia, which is the main weak base we studied.
● If the negative anion comes from a weak acid, then the salt is basic.
e.g. CH3COO– from acetic acid, or CO32-, PO43- , F-
● If the salt was formed from a strong base and strong acid, it is neutral.
e.g. a group 1 or 2 ion (Na+, Ca2+, K+) with Cl- or NO3–.
Amphiprotic salts
● Form from weak polyprotic acids
○ Starts with an acid removing one hydrogen
● E.g. HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) receives
HCO3- (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CO32- (aq) + H3O+ (aq) donates
*6.2.5 relates to 6.2.3*
6.2.6 pH of mixed acids and bases calculate the pH of the resultant solution when solutions of
acids and/or bases are diluted or mixed
6.2.6: Calculating pH
Find [H+]
● Strong monoprotic acids: [H+]= [acid], then find pH
● Strong bases: [OH-]= [base] x # of OH- ions in formula, then find pOH and pH
● Dilute by factor of 10: add/subtract 1 to pH to move is closer to 7
● Dilute by another factor: find [H+] then use C1V1=C2V2 to find new [H+]. For bases use [OH-]
● When base and acid are mixed:
○ Find (n) of each
○ Find (n) of excess acid/base using
balanced equation (ratio)
○ Find excess [acid/base] using new
volume
○ Find [H+] and pH
IQ3: How are solutions of acids and bases analysed?
6.3.1 titration conduct practical investigations to analyse the concentration

of an unknown acid or base by titration
6.3.1: Titration
Volumetric glassware
● Volumetric flask: for dilutions and preparing primary standard solutions
○ Rinse 3 times with water
○ The final solvent is added dropwise with a wash bottle or Pasteur pipette until the
bottom of the meniscus is touching the line
● Burette: the measure volume of solution dispensed during the titration
○ Rinse with water then 3 times with the solution it will be filled with
○ Run solution through the tap before beginning (to remove air)
○ Remove funnel after filling to avoid extra drops from funnel
● Pipette: to measure fixed volume of solution
○ Rinse with water then 3 times with the solution
○ Fill above the line and then release some until the bottom of the meniscus touches the
line
○ Tap the tip on the surface of the liquid to remove the drop, but ignore any solution
remaining inside pipette
Preparing a standard solution

Calculate (n) of solid and use volume to calculate concentration of the solution (primary standard)
Secondary standard solution (or standard solution): prepared by titrating another solution against a
primary solution
Requirements for a primary standard?
● Highly soluble
● Large, accurately known molar mass (smaller % error)
● Pure, including not hygroscopic (i.e. doesn’t absorb moisture from the air)
● Stable in the presence of air
Most common acids/bases do not reach these requirements
Equivalence point and end point

● Equivalence point: when the amount of acid and base is exact and correct
● Sudden change in pH
● All acid/base titrations have an equivalence point, even when indicator is not used (pH metre
can be used)
● If an indicator is present, a colour change will occur when equivalence point is reached. The
colour change is the end point
● End point: the observable colour change in an indicator when the equivalence point is reached
Choosing an indicator
strong acid - strong base 7 bromothymol blue
strong acid - weak base below 7 methyl orange
weak acid - strong base above 7 phenolphthalein
Titration pH at Suitable indicator

equivalence point
Titration calculation steps

1. Find (n) of known using n=cV
2. Find (n) of unknown using the ratio from the balanced equation
3. Find [unknown] using c=n/V
6.3.2 titration curves and conductivity graphs investigate titration curves and conductivity graphs to analyse
data to indicate characteristic reaction profiles, for example:
● strong acid/strong base
strong acid/weak base
● weak acid/strong base
6.3.2: Titration Curves and Conductivity Graphs

Titration curves
When a base is added to an acid:
● Starts at a low pH
● Slowly increases as base is added to neutralise the acid. For weak acids, the curve is steep at first
but then becomes flatter for a while (buffer zone) because more acid dissociates as base is
added
● At the equivalence point, there is a sudden increase. The pH depends on the strength of acid and
base used because of the effect of the conjugate acid or base
● Slow increase as excess base is added
Conductivity graphs
Electrolytes: ions in a solution that can move and so allow an electrical current
to pass through the solution
Acids and bases in solution conduct electricity because they dissociate into
ions, and so electrolytes are present
A higher concentration of ions allows a greater current to pas through the solution, so the conductivity
can be used to monitor the progress of a titration
Conductivity graphs are useful:

● With very dilute solutions
● With coloured or cloudy solutions
6.3.3 modelling neutralisation model neutralisation of strong and weak acids and bases
using a variety of media
6.3.3: Modelling Neutralisation

Whenever the syllabus mentions models, be ready to:
● State the model you used
● Describe the model
● Explain the model (showing how it represents the chemical processes taking place)
● Evaluate the model by:
○ Identifying strengths and limitations of the model
○ Stating your opinion of its benefit/usefulness
Be ready to do these steps for more than one model and possible compare two models to argue which
one is the best out of the two
● Be ready to state the general benefits of using models or defend their use in chemistry
6.3.4 dissociation constant Ka calculate and apply the dissociation constant (Ka) and pKa (pKa
= -log10 (Ka)) to determine the difference between strong and
weak acids
6.3.4: Dissociation Constant Ka

Ka provides an easy way of determining the strength of an acid
● pKa (like pH)= -log10Ka
○ Smaller pKa= greater acid strength
● pH= pKa + log10 [A-] / [HA] (important for buffers)
In a weak acid only some molecules dissociate
Weak acids and Ka equation:

● Ka= [H+][A-] / [HA]
○ [A-] = [H+] as both come from [HA]
● A RICE table can be used with Ka
● Used for calculating pH of weak acids
[acid] at equilibrium is the same as the initial [acid] as very little is dissociated
Ka doesn’t change with concentrations therefore shows the difference in strength between different
acids
Weaker acids → equilibrium lies to the left= lower Ka, higher pKa
Stronger acids → equilibrium lies to the right= higher Ka, lower pKa
Strong acid= large Ka (larger concentration of products over reactants)

● Size of dissociation reveals degree of ionisation that occurs
● The greater [ions] (products) compared to [undissociated acid] (reactants), the greater the
dissociation
Ka of polyprotic acids
● Separate equations are written for each step of ionisation (written as Ka1, Ka2, etc.)
○ First Ka is the largest
● Strong polyprotic acids
○ Ka1 is much larger than Ka
○ The weaker the acid, the stronger the conjugate base
● Weak polyprotic acids
○ Donates electrons through a series of steps, however the smaller Ka values of these steps
results in a different group of species in the solution
Base constant (Kb)

● The greater the [ions] (products) compared to [undissociated base] (reactants), the higher the
dissociation
● Kb of a strong base is very large due to high percentage in dissociation
● Used to calculate weak bases
● Relation between conjugate acid-base pairs: Ka x Kb = Kw
● Kb= [BH+][OH-] / [B]
○ At equilibrium [B] is the same as initial as only a small degree is ionised in water
○ [OH-] produced has no effect on calculations
Calculating Ka/Kb from Ka/Kb

● Ka from Kb
○ Ka = Kw / Kb (Kw = 1.0 x 10-14)
● Kb from Ka
○ Kb = Kw / Ka (Kw = 1.0 x 10-14)
6.3.5 applications of acid/base analysis explore acid/base analysis techniques that are applied:
● by industries
● by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
● using digital probes and instruments
6.3.5 Applications of acid/base analysis

Use of clay
● Both ochre and clay can treat ailments (minor illness)
● Ochre contains hydrated iron oxide (FeO(OH)·nH2O)
● White clay contains Al2(Si2O5)(OH)
● Ochre
○ Used by ATSI people to preserve food (helps in times of shortage)
○ Plant food (e.g. berries) are buried inside a ball of ochre
○ Can be used to protect hunting tools from termites
● Clay
○ Can be ingested or directly applied to the skin
○ ATSI people in Arnhem Land eat small balls of white clay and pieces of termite mound to
cure diarrhoea and stomach aches
■ Can also cure gastrointestinal toxins (produced in infections)
○ Can used to cover wounds (physical barrier to infection)
○ The alkaline clay neutralises excess stomach acid similar to indigestion tablets
■ The iron oxide provides essential mineral that may be missing in diets
○ Removes oils, secretions, toxins and impurities from the skin
6.3.6 conduct a chemical analysis conduct a chemical analysis of a common household

substance for its acidity and basicity, for example: soft drink,
wine, juice, medicine
6.3.6: Vinegar Titration

*prac in workbook*
Volumetric analysis: determining the concentration of a sample by measuring the volume of the sample
that reacts with a known volume of another substance of known concentration
● Main technique: titration
6.3.7 prepare a buffer conduct a practical investigation to prepare a buffer and

demonstrate its properties
6.3.7: Prepare a Buffer

Buffer: a solution of a weak acid and conjugate base (vise versa)
● Resists changes in pH
○ A weak acid will resist changes in pH
● E.g. CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) → CH3COO- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
○ CH3COOH (acetic acid) and CH3COO- (sodium acetate) mixed together forms a buffer
● The pH only changes slightly when an acid/base is added to the buffer solution
● Can also be made be made by partially neutralising a weak acid with a strong base
Buffer capacity: the amount of acid or base that can be added without a significant change in pH
● Greatest when the number of moles of weak acid and conjugate base are equal (able to
counteract addition of acid and base)
● Affected by actual amount of weak acid and conjugate base
○ More reactants and products present; both forward and reverse reaction occur at
greater extent to counteract change
6.3.8 importance of buffers describe the importance of buffers in natural systems
6.3.8: Importance of Buffers

Buffering in environments
● Soil
○ pH range=6.0-7.0
○ Buffer: minerals and organic matter in soil
○ Acid rain can cause the soil to become acidic, taking away:
■ Beneficial nutrients
■ Kills beneficial bacteria responsible for nitrification of the soil
■ Decomposition of organic matter
● Ocean
○ pH range= 8.0-8.3
○ Change in pH alters the thickness of shells of aquatic organisms and the ability of an
organism to take up calcium
○ Buffer: bicarbonate (weak acid) and carbonate (conjugate base)
■ HCO3- (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CO32- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
○ Increase in CO2 levels and breakdown of organic matter and fish waste cause the ocean
to become more acidic
■ Added acid=[H3O+] ions increase
● Reverse reaction will be favoured to counteract increase, keeping the
pH close to its original value
○ Mg ions and Ca ions cause water to become more alkaline
■ Occurs when shells are added to environment and minerals in surrounding soil
are in run-off entering the water
■ Added base= [H3O+] ions decrease, causes neutralisation
● Forward reaction is favoured to counteract decrease, keeping the pH
close to its original value
Buffering in biological systems

● Blood
○ pH range: 7.35-7.45
○ Main buffer system is the carbonic acid/hydrogen carbonate ion system
■ H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
○ Acidic blood= reverse reaction favoured to reduce excess H3O+
○ Basic blood= forward reaction favoured to increase H3O+ to neutralise excess base
○ Buffer also transports waste CO2 from cells
■ CO2 needs to dissolve in blood (aqueous medium)
● CO2 (g) ⇌ CO2 (aq)
■ Dissolved CO2 reacts with H2O in the blood from H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
■ Majority of CO2 is transported in the blood to the lungs as the hydrogen
carbonate ion:
● Ka1: CO2 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq)
● Ka2: H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ HCO3- (aq) + H3O+(aq)
■ More dissolved CO2=more acidic blood
Mod 7: Organic Chemistry
Carbon can share 4 electrons to form strong covalent bonds
● Single, double and triple covalent bonds form between
carbon atoms
● Stable covalent bonds form between carbon and H,O,N,C or the halogens (F, Br, Cl, I)
Element Symbol Electrons in Valency Number of bonds

valence shell that form
Hydrogen H 1 1 1
Oxygen O 6 2 2
Nitrogen N 5 3 3
Carbon C 4 4 4
Halogens F, Cl, Br, I 7 1 1
IQ1: How do we systematically name organic chemical compounds?
7.1.1 naming organic compounds investigate the nomenclature of organic chemicals, up to C8,
using IUPAC conventions, including simple methyl and ethyl
branched chains, including:
● alkanes, alkenes and alkynes
● alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary)
● aldehydes and ketones
● carboxylic acids
● amines and amides
● halogenated organic compounds
7.1.1: Naming Organic Compounds
Functional group Structure Suffix
Carboxylic acid C(=O)OH -oic acid
Amide C(=O)H -amide
Aldehyde C(=O)H -al
Ketone C=O -one

Alcohol OH -ol
Amine C-N -amine
Alkane C–C -ane
Alkene C=C -ene
Alkyne C≡C -yne
Naming hydrocarbons
● Hydrocarbons: compounds only containing hydrogen
and carbon
● IUPAC naming steps:
○ The number of carbon atoms in the main chain
○ Whether there are, single, double, or triple
bonds between the carbon atoms
○ Whether there are groups attached on branches of the main chain
a. The prefix/stem shows the number of carbon atoms in the longest main chain
● 1= meth-
● 2=eth-
● 3=prop-
● 4=but-
● 5=pent-
● 6=hex-
● 7=hept-
● 8=oct-
● 9=non-
● 10=dec-
b. The suffix/ending shows whether it has a single, double, or triple bond

● -ane= single bond
● -ene= double bond
● -yne= triple bond
For alkenes and alkynes, the position of the bond needs to be stated by writing for example, but-2-ene
to indicate the bond lies on the second carbon
c. Groups attached to the main chain are called ‘substituents’

● 1 atom= methyl
● 2 atoms= ethyl
● 3 atoms= propyl
● 4 atoms= butyl
To name halogen compounds (haloalkanes):

● Number the carbon atoms to give the lowest first number
● If there are multiple ways to do this, give the lowest number to the halogen that is first in
alphabetical order
● List the halogens in alphabetical order (ignore di, tri, etc.)
● If there are multiple of the same halogen use di, tri, etc.
IQ1: How do we systematically name organic chemical compounds?
7.1.2 isomers explore and distinguish the different types of structural

isomers, including saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons,
including: (ACSCH035)
chain isomers
position isomers
functional group isomers
7.1.2: Isomers
Isomer: compounds with the same molecular formula, but with a different structures
E.g. pentane and methyl butane
Ways to represent organic compounds:

1. Expanded structural formula
2. Condensed structural formula

● CH2=CH-CH3 (side chains are represented by brackets)
3. Skeletal formula (not used as much)
4. Molecular formula (not enough information)

● C3H6
Structural isomers: compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula
a. Chain
b. Position
c. Functional group
a. Chain isomers: involve rearrangement of the carbon

skeleton
● Atoms can freely rotate around single carbon-carbon bonds
b. Position isomers: changing the position of

double or triple bonds, or different placement
of substituent
● Functional group is in a different
position
c. Functional group isomers: the same

elements combine to form a different
functional group
IQ2: How can hydrocarbons be classified based on their structure and reactivity?
7.2.1 homologous series construct models, identify the functional group, and write
structural and molecular formulae for homologous series of
organic chemical compounds, up to C8 (ACSCH035):
● alkanes
● alkenes
● alkynes
7.2.1: Homologous Series

The properties of an alkane depend on the number of carbon atoms it contains
Homologous series: a group of compounds that all have similar properties because they contain the
same functional group
1. Their functional group is the same
2. All members follow a general formula
● General formulae for some series:
○ Alkanes: CnH2n+2
○ Alkenes: CnH2n
○ Alkyne: CnH2n-2
○ Alcohols: CnH2n+1OH
● Saturated hydrocarbon=a hydrocarbon with single bond
Alkanes are generally unreactive due to their stable single bonds

7.2.2 investigate trends in homologous series conduct an investigation to compare the properties of organic
chemical compounds within a homologous series, and explain
these differences in terms of bonding (ACSCH035)
7.2.2: Investigate Trends in Homologous Series

Functional groups: introducing new atoms or different types of bonds opens up the compound to
different chemical reactions
Alkanes → single bonds=no lone pairs of electrons → not very reactive

Alkenes → double bonds=can be opened and attach 2 more atoms
Alkanes only have dispersion forces as there is no relatively positive or negative parts of the molecules
● Increasing size of the molecule=more electrons orbiting
Longer chains of molecules have more dispersion forces between them
Boiling point
● Heat is used to supply energy needed to break dispersion forces
○ Stronger dispersion bonds=higher bp
● Alkenes have non-polar forces=dispersion forces
● Intermolecular forces: forces of attraction between molecules
As the length of the carbon chain increases:

● Melting and boiling points increase
● Density increases
7.2.3 shapes of molecules analyse the shape of molecules formed between carbon
atoms when a single, double or triple bond is formed between
them
7.2.3: Shapes of Molecules

Hydrocarbon: a molecule purely out of carbon and hydrogen
● 3 types (all non polar; insoluble in water):
○ Alkanes
○ Alkenes
○ Alkynes
1. Alkane (saturated with hydrogen- all bonding electrons are bonded to atoms other than carbon)
● Each atom has 4 single bonds, either to hydrogen or another carbon
● A tetrahedron is around each carbon, forming its shape
● Bond angle= 109.5˚ (between bonds)
2. Alkene
● Functional group=double bond
● Undergo different reactions
● Unsaturated: some bonding electrons are available to form bonds with new
molecules
● Look at the type of bond separately to determine shape
● A trigonal planar forms as each carbon is in the middle of an equilateral
triangle
● Bond angle= 120˚
● Trigonal planar shape
3. Alkyne
● Functional group=triple bond
● Each carbon is bonded to one other atom
● Bond angle=180˚
● Linear shape
7.2.4 explain trends in homologous series explain the properties within and between the homologous
series of alkanes with reference to the intermolecular and
intramolecular bonding present
7.2.4 Explain Trends in Homologous Series

Branched alkanes: standard alkane chains with alkyl groups coming off them
● The shape differentiates a branched and unbranched alkane
● As branching increases, the melting and boiling points decrease
Weaker intermolecular forces → lower boiling point → lower density
Stronger intermolecular forces → higher boiling point → higher density
A longer chain has higher bp, mp and density as the dispersion forces are stronger, increasing the surface
area of interaction between atoms
● Increased size= increased amount and strength of dispersion forces
Although boiling point of branched alkanes increases, they don’t stack well on top of each other,
affecting boiling point
Small SA of interaction (branched) → weak dispersion forces → lower boiling point

Large SA of interaction (unbranched) → strong dispersion forces → higher boiling point
● Does not mean more reactive than branched
Polar solvents dissolve in polar substances, and non polar solvents dissolve in nonpolar substances,
which is why hydrocarbons can’t dissolve in water. Water is polar therefore preventing the hydrocarbons
from dissolving in the substances
7.2.5 handling and disposing of organic describe the procedures required to safely handle and dispose
compounds of organic substances (ACSCH075)
7.2.5: Handling and Disposing of Organic Compounds

Complete combustion: burning alkanes in an excess of oxygen to produce carbon and water
● E.g. combustion of pentane
C5H12 (l) + 8O2 (g) → 5CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
Incomplete combustion: burning alkanes in a limited supply of oxygen

● E.g. burn 2 mol of methane in 2.5 mol of oxygen
2CH4 (g) + 2.5O2 (g) → C (s) + CO (g) + 4H2O (l)
Soot (C) forms which can cause breathing problems, carbon monoxide forms which are toxic to
humans. Therefore, this form of combustion is fairly dangerous
● More likely to occur in long chain alkanes

Long chain=harder to vaporise
Small amounts of alkane produce large amounts of energy

7.2.6 impact of hydrocarbons examine the environmental, economic and sociocultural

implications of obtaining and using hydrocarbons from the
Earth
7.2.6: Impact of Hydrocarbons

● Large amounts of energy can be taken from hydrocarbons (e.g. fossil fuels), this lead to the
industrial revolution
● The invention of plastic transformed material technology and is now an important material used
today
Environmental Economic Sociocultural
Obtaining Negative: Positive: Positive:

- Mines damage the - Many jobs in mining - Creates
land communities, health
- Oil spills from centres
tankers and rigs Negative:
- Health effects +
mining deaths
- Fly-fly out workers,
causes social
problems
Using Negative: Positive: Positive:

- Burning - Huge economic - Transport
hydrocarbons development - Travel,
releases CO2 (global through better cultural
warming) transport, cheap interaction
- Plastic pollution, electricity - Cheaper
micro plastics goods
- Energy/heating
- Heating and
cooling,
refrigeration
- Lighting
- Electricity
- Lighting
- Plastics
- Cheap plastic
products e.g.
clothing,
stationary
Obtaining hydrocarbons
a. Mining: conventional oil is extracted from underground reservoirs using traditional drilling and
pumping methods
b. Cracking: the breakdown of large hydrocarbons into smaller, more useful alkanes and alkenes.
Improves the supply of fuel
Use of hydrocarbons
a. Transport and energy
● Transport (benefits)
○ Economic
■ Increase of transport, increases the income of the government
from tourists
○ Sociocultural
■ Allows cultural groups to gather together
● Energy (benefits)
○ Economic
■ Meat lasts longer so it can be transported further
○ Sociocultural
■ Heating and cooling systems
IQ3: What are the products of reactions of hydrocarbons and how do they react?
7.3.1 addition to unsaturated hydrocarbons investigate, write equations and construct models to
represent the reactions of unsaturated hydrocarbons when
added to a range of chemicals, including but not limited to:
● hydrogen (H2)
● halogens (X2)
● hydrogen halides (HX)
● water (H2O) (ACSCH136)
7.3.1: Addition- Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

● Alkenes are nucleophiles which initiate a chemical reaction with a nearby molecule
○ Neutrophils are negatively charged (either formal {ionic charge} or partial {due to dipole
dipole bonds} charge)
● Unsaturated carbons have at least one double or triple bond
○ Therefore, only alkenes and alkynes can readily undergo addition reactions as they have
free electrons for atoms to bond to
● Addition reactions: joining two or more molecules to form a larger molecule
○ Limited to specific organic compounds
○ 4 types of addition reactions:
1. Halogenation
● Adding a hydrogen to an alkane to form a haloalkane
● Alkene + halogen → haloalkane
● No catalyst needed as they’re of electrophilic (electron-loving: react
with nucleophiles) charge
2. Hydrogenation
● Adding a hydrogen gas to an alkene to form an alkane
● Alkene + hydrogen → alkane
● Metal catalyst (platinum) needed due to slow reaction
3. Hydration
● Adding a water to an alkene form an alcohol
● The double bond opens allowing for the H to bond with one of the
● Alkene + water → alkane
● Free carbons and OH to bond with the other free carbon
● Dilute H2SO4 is needed as a catalyst
4. Hydrohalogenation
● Adding a hydrogen halide (HX) to form a haloalkane
● No catalyst required
● Alkyne + HX → haloalkane
● Markovnikov’s rule applies
○ For non-symmetrical reactants (HX) the hydrogen atom will
attack to the carbon with the most hydrogens attached
IQ3: What are the products of reactions of hydrocarbons and how do they react?
7.3.2 substitution in saturated hydrocarbons investigate, write equations and construct models to
represent the reactions of saturated hydrocarbons when
substituted with halogens
7.3.2: Substitution- Saturated Hydrocarbons

● Substitution reaction: replacing one species on a molecule with another
○ Only alkanes undergo substitution as they are fully saturated (no free atoms)
● Halogenation
○ Requires UV to break the bond of the molecule trying to join the alkane
○ Free radicals (unpaired electrons) form when the bond is broken
■ Really reactive in broken state
○ Further substitution can occur as long as there is enough halogens to substitute for the
hydrogens attached to the carbon
IQ4: How can alcohols be produced and what are their properties?
7.4.1 introduction to alcohols investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional
group including:
● primary
● secondary
● tertiary alcohols
7.4.1: Introduction to alcohols

Alcohol: a compound that contains a hydroxyl group joined to a saturated carbon
● General formula: CnH2n+2OH
● 3 types of alcohols:
1. Primary (1˚)
● The OH group is joined to a carbon that is only joined to one other carbon e.g.
but-1-ol
2. Secondary (2˚)
● The OH group is joined to a carbon that is joined to only two other carbons e.g.
but-2-ol
3. Tertiary (3˚)
● The OH group is joined to a carbon that is joined to only three other carbons e.g.
2-methylbutan-2-ol
● Tertiary alcohols are the most reactive, and primary are least reactive
Naming alcohols
1. Identify longest carbon chain, choose correct stem name
2. Write the alkane name, changing the ending to -ol
3. Indicate the location of the OH group, using a number (give it the lowest number possible)
4. Add names of the substituents at the beginning with their numbers
7.4.2 homologous series of alcohols explain the properties within and between the homologous
series of alcohols with reference to the intermolecular and
intramolecular bonding present
7.4.2: Homologous Series of Alcohols

The properties of a molecule are greatly affected by:
● The presence of functional groups
● The length of the carbon chain
Boiling point
● Alcohols have higher mp and bp than alkanes with the same chain length
○ Due to the presence of hydrogen bonds (the strongest intermolecular force)
○ Therefore, more energy is required to break these bonds
● Bp is determined by the strength of the intermolecular force(s) present
● Electrons in the OH bond are strongly attracted to highly
electronegative oxygen atoms, thus the bond is polar.
○ Hydrogen bonds occur between negatively
charged oxygen atoms and positively charged
hydrogen atoms on nearby molecules
● Trends:
○ Bp and density increases as the number of
carbon increases (increase in dispersion forces), but decreases as branching increases
Solubility
● Alcohols are more soluble in water compared to alkanes
○ Due to the OH group being able to form hydrogen bonds with the H2O molecules
● Alcohols are amphiprotic (can dissolve in polar and nonpolar substances)
● Solubility is determined by the carbon chain length
● Trends:
○ Solubility in water decreases as the chain length increases
○ Solubility in nonpolar solvents increases as the chain length increases
7.4.3 measuring enthalpy of combustion conduct a practical investigation to measure and reliably
compare the enthalpy of combustion for a range of alcohols
7.4.3: Measuring Enthalpy of Combustion

● Defined as the heat energy given out when 1 mol of a substance burns completely in oxygen
Enthalpy formulas to remember:

● q=mcΔT
● ΔH= -q/n
Calculation tips:
● Always convert to kg before proceeding with calculations
● Split the working out with a line to avoid confusion
● m (q=mcΔT) stands for the difference in mass of water at the beginning and end
● ΔT (q=mcΔT) stands for temperature change (difference between beginning and ending
temperature)
*Combustion with different alcohols was done and all results varied and were not close to the
published enthalpy of combustion.*
● Assessment of accuracy, validity and reliability
○ Accuracy:
■ Inaccurate
■ Some heat from the flame escaped and was lost to the surrounding area
■ The opening of the can allowed heat to escape and heat also escaped through
radiation
■ The can absorbed some of the heat
○ Validity:
■ Colourimetry used
■ Heat lost was so significant it became invalid as heat was no longer being
measured
○ Reliability:
■ Unreliable as there was a lack of consistency between heat lost and final result
● Improvements
○ Enclose the area that the flame is lit with a curved piece of aluminium around the space
between the flame and can ( prevents heat loss)
○ Insulate can (e.g. with styrofoam cup) and plug the hole around the thermometer with
bluetac
○ Find temperature change of can to improve accuracy
7.4.4 reactions of alcohols write equations, state conditions and predict products to
represent the reactions of alcohols, including but not limited
to (ACSCH128, ACSCH136):
● combustion
● dehydration
● substitution with HX
● oxidation
7.4.4: Reactions of Alcohols

Combustion
● Alcohols burn readily in the presence of an excess amount of oxygen to form CO2 and H2O
● Really exothermic ∴ pure alcohol can be used as fuel
Dehydration
● The removal of one oxygen and two hydrogens form the structure to form water
● Dehydration of an alcohol → alkene and water
● Heat and concentrated acid needed
● A dehydrating agent is needed in the form of a catalyst
○ Suitable catalysts include:
■ Concentrated sulfuric acid
■ Concentrated nitric acid
■ Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
● 3˚ alcohols dehydrate quickly at room temperature in the presence of a catalyst while 1˚ and 2˚
alcohols require the addition of heat
Substitution with HX (hydrogen halides)
● Alcohols + hydrogen halides → haloalkanes (same process as alkanes) + water
● The reactivity of the hydrogen halides increases as you go down the group
○ HI is the most reactive
7.4.5 production of alcohols investigate the production of alcohols, including:

● substitution reactions of halogenated organic
compounds
● fermentation
7.4.5: Production of Alcohols

Hydration reactions
● Alkene + H2O → alcohol (addition reaction)
● H2O is in the form of steam
● Catalyst is required (e.g. dilute sulfuric acid)
Substitution of haloalkanes reaction

● Alcohols can be produced from haloalkanes (except fluoroalkanes) when they react with water in
a substitution reaction
● Haloalkane + H2O → alcohol
● The halogen is replaced by an OH from the water
● No catalyst needed
Fermentation of glucose reaction
● Fermentation: the chemical breakdown of a substance using a living microorganism like bacteria
or yeast
● Glucose → ethanol + CO2
● An enzyme (e.g. yeast) acts as a catalyst to break down sugar into ethanol and CO2
● Conditions for reaction:
○ Temperature of 25˚C - 35˚C is needed
○ Low oxygen concentration
○ Glucose must be hydrated (prevent high [ethanol] causing denaturing of enzymes)
● Process:
○ Sterilise a container and add yeast and sugar solution
○ Seal to prevent entry of microbes, but provide a means for CO2 to escape
○ After a week us fractional distillation to separate ethanol and water
7.4.6 oxidation of alcohols investigate the products of the oxidation of primary and
secondary alcohols
7.4.6: Oxidation of Alcohols

Oxidation: the loss of electrons in a chemical reaction
Oxidising agent: a substance that has the ability to oxidise other substances by removing electrons from
them
● H+/ potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O72-)
○ Used for acidic environments
○ Dichromate ions = initially orange
○ Chromate ions = initially green
○ Therefore colour change from orange to green indicates reduction of dichromate ions
(either 1˚ or 2˚)
● H+/ potassium permanganate (MnO4-)
○ Used in acidic environments
○ Safer compared to potassium dichromate
○ Colour changes from purple to clear (MnO4- is reduced to Mn2+)
fOxidation of 1˚ alcohols
● Distillation must be performed as alcohol oxidised to form an aldehyde
○ No distillation will cause carboxylic acid to form
● Forms aldehydes but if further oxidised (adding heat and more oxidising agent) , carboxylic acid
forms
● Adding more K2Cr2O72- will show a distinction between 1˚ and 2˚ as 1˚ will further oxidised into
carboxylic acid
Oxidation of 2˚ alcohols
● Forms a ketone
*3˚ alcohols are resistant to oxidation by inorganic oxidising agents*
7.4.7 biofuels compare and contrast fuels from organic sources to

biofuels, including ethanol
7.4.7: Biofuels
Renewable fuels → can reform at a similar rate they’re used
Non-renewable fuels → take longer to reform (not replaceable)
Fossil fuels: form form the ancient remains of animals, plants and microorganisms
● Non-renewable
● Coal
○ Forms when wood degrades over a long period of time
■ Wood converts to peat then to brown coal then finally, black coal
○ Highest carbon percentage
○ Used to generate more than 75% of the electricity in aus
● Crude oil
○ Mixture of hydrocarbons consisting mostly of alkanes of different lengths
○ Forms when remains of organisms (e.g. algae and plankton) become trapped under rock
and are put under high heat and pressure
○ Separated through fractional distillation
○ Used to power vehicles
● Natural gas
○ Mixture of gases formed from animal and plant remains exposed to intense heat and
pressure
○ Mostly comes in gas form and its main constituent is CH4, with some larger hydrocarbons
like C2H6 and C3H8
○ Can extracted from gas reservoirs, petroleum deposits or shale rock
Biofuels: derived from plant materials

● Renewable
● Biogas
○ Formed during the anaerobic breakdown of organic waste
○ Materials used affects the composition of the biogas created, but main component is
typically methane
● Bioethanol
○ Produced during the fermentation of starch
● Biodiesel
○ Consisting of esters derived from vegetable oils and animal fats
IQ5: What are the properties of organic acids and bases?
7.5.1 carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones, investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional
amines, amides group including:
● primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
● aldehydes and ketones (ACSCH127)
● amines and amides
● carboxylic acids
7.5.1: Carboxylic Acids, Aldehydes, Ketones, Amines, Amides

Carboxylic acids
● Functional group: carboxyl group (at the end of the chain)
● General formula: CnH2n+1COOH
● Suffix: -oic acid
Aldehydes
● Functional group: carbonyl group (at the end of the chain)
● General formula: CnH2nO
● Suffix: -al
Ketones
● Functional group: carbonyl group (in the middle of the chain)
● General formula: CnH2nO
● Suffix: -one
Amines
● Functional group: N
● Suffix: -amine
Amides
● Functional group: CONH2
● Suffix: -amide
7.5.2 comparing boiling points and solubility of

organic compounds
7.5.2: Comparing Boiling Points and Solubility of Organic Compounds

Physical properties of a compound is determined by the intermolecular forces present
Boiling point
● Compounds with N-H or O-H (stronger than N-H) have hydrogen bonds, having higher
boiling points
○ Therefore, alcohols have higher boiling points than amines but higher than
hydrocarbons
● Molecules that are polar have dipole-dipole forces present, giving it higher boiling
points but not as high as molecules with hydrogen bonds
○ Therefore, aldehydes, ketones and halocarbons have lower boiling points than
alcohols but higher than hydrocarbons
● Carboxylic acid has one of the highest boiling point in this homologous series due to the
presence of the O-H and C=O functional groups
● Although, amides have the overall highest boiling point due to the presence of both
NH2 and C=O bonds
Solubility
● Polar molecules dissolve in polar solvents
○ Main polar solvents are water and ethanol
○ Polar molecules contain -OH, C=O and/or COOH, forming dipole-dipole forces or
hydrogen bonds
● Nonpolar molecules dissolve in nonpolar solvents
○ Main nonpolar solvents are carbon tetrachloride, benzene and hexane
○ *solubility in water decreases as nonpolar carbon chains grow longer*
7.5.3 esters investigate the production, in a school laboratory, of simple

esters
7.5.3: Esters
● R: carbon chain of any length
● Contain the ester functional group in the middle of the carbon chain
● Suffix: -oate
● Has a range of smells that can be produced
● Often used in foods that produce a smell (e.g. flavoured lollies)
Predicting what ester forms

● Carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester
● The first part of the name of the ester comes from the alcohol, and the second part from the
carboxylic acid (seen in diagram above)
Conditions to producing esters

● Carboxylic acid and alcohol need heat in order for ester reaction to occur
● The vessel also must be open to the atmosphere to stop pressure from building up
○ This unfortunately lets reactants evaporate, causing it to be quickly lost
○ Therefore, reflux conditions are needed
● Reflux: the process of cooling the vapour that forms so that it condenses and
returns to the reaction vessel
○ Done by placing a condenser tube or reflux condenser vertically over the
reaction vessel. Cool water enters through the bottom of the tube and
comes out the top.
Safety conditions
● Heating mantle: allows for no naked flames to be present, minimising the risk of fires (hot water
baths can be used instead as well)
● Concentrated acids: Wear PPE to prevent injuries
Purification process
1. A separating funnel allows for less dense esters to be separated
from more dense water (water is removed from the bottom of
the funnel via the tap)
2. The mixture can be distilled to separate the ester from remaining
contaminants like alcohol because they have different boiling
points
*investigation in workbook*
7.5.4 acid/base reactions
7.5.4: Acid/Base Reactions

Organic acids (carboxylic acid)
● The hydrogen atom joined to the oxygen can be easily
lost as it isn’t strongly bonded to the oxygen
● Therefore, carboxylic acids can donate a proton (acids according to Brønsted-Lowry model)
● Carboxylic acid dissociates in water to form hydronium ions (H3O+)
○ CH3CH2COOH (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ CH3CH2COO- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
● Carboxylic acids are very weak therefore, equilibrium lies on the left and Ka is very low (pKa is
high)
Organic bases (methanamine)

● Very weak base, equilibrium lies on the left and Kb is very small
● Have an NH2 group, similar to ammonia (NH3) and acts in the same way by accepting protons
● Receives a proton from the water so OH- ions are present in the solution
● Same process for ammonia (NH3) → forms NH4+ ions and OH- ions
7.5.5 soaps and detergents investigate the production of alcohols, including:

● substitution reactions of halogenated organic
compounds
● fermentation
7.5.5: Soaps and Detergents

● Both allow for nonpolar and polar substances to mix
● Soap is surfactant (reduces the surface tension between two liquids)
Structure of soaps and detergents

● Soap
○ Have long carbon chains with COO-Na+ at the end
○ In water the sodium ion separates leaving COO- (anionic)
How soaps and detergents work
● The long nonpolar tail of the soap or detergent molecule are
attracted to the nonpolar fats and oils by weak dispersion
forces
● The soap molecules surround the grease with their tails
towards the grease. The round structure that forms is called
a micelle
● The soap molecules surround the grease and is able to pull
away from the surface to form micelles
● The polar heads of the molecules are able to form dipole-dipole forces or hydrogen bonds with
the water molecules allowing for the contained grease to be mixed with the water
○ Therefore, creating an emulsion
Drawing diagrams to explain the action of a soap

● To draw a soap molecule, draw a round head with a long tail attached
to it (not straight line)
● Label the polar head and nonpolar tail on one of the molecules
Detergents
● Same structure as soaps
● Although the polar head is different to COO-Na+
7.5.6 reaction pathways draft and construct flow charts to show reaction pathways for
chemical synthesis, including those that involve more than
one step
7.5.6: Reaction Pathways
IQ6: What are the properties and uses of polymers?
7.6.1 addition polymers model and compare the structure, properties and uses of
addition polymers of ethylene and related monomers, for
example:
● polyethylene (PE)
● polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
● polystyrene (PS)
● polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (ACSCH136)
7.6.1: Addition Polymers

Polymers: substances made of very long chains of repeating units
● The same units are called monomers
● Plastics are a type of polymer
Addition polymers
● Made from alkenes
● Polyethylene/polyethylene: formed when many ethene molecules join end to end
● Polyethylene
○ Ethene/ethylene → polyethene/polyethylene
○ Different conditions will result in the formation of different polyethylenes
○ Low density polyethylene (LDPE) → branch chained
■ Conditions included: high temperature and pressure
■ Results in random chain lengths and structure (forms branch chained polymers)
■ Under these conditions back-biting occurs
● As the polymer grows, it may curl back on itself
● The free radical ends remove a H and a CH2 in the chain and forms a
terminal CH3 (radical and H swap spots)
○ High density polyethylene (HDPE) → straight chained

■ Produced through the Ziegler-Natta process
■ Low temperatures, pressures and a titanium (III) chloride + trialkylaluminum
catalyst is required
■ Results in straight chained polymer
■ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
● Monomer: polychloroethene
○ Dipole-dipole forces present
● Properties:
○ Strong dipole-dipole forces
○ High melting point (due to dipole-dipole forces)
○ Rigid
○ Durable
● Uses:
○ Window frames
○ Water pipes
○ Wire covering
○ Rain coats
■ Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) → teflon
● Monomer: polytetrafluoroethylene
● Properties:
○ Highly electronegative
○ Non-polar
○ Weak intermolecular forces
○ Non-stick
○ Waterproof
● Uses:
○ Frying pans (non-stick)
○ Waterproof fabric
Factors affecting properties

● Chain length
○ Longer chain → higher molecular weight → greater dispersion forces → higher melting
point and increased hardness
● Chain branching
○ Unbranched polymer:
■ Tightly packed
■ Crystalline structure
● Allow for increased strength of dispersion forces
○ Branched polymer:
■ Unable to align with each other
■ Amorphous structure
○ Amorphous regions → random disordered arrangement
○ Crystalline regions → no branches, lines up in regular arrangements
○ Polymers with high degrees of crystallinity have the following:
■ High melting points
■ Hardness and strength
■ High density
■ Less flexibility
● Substituents
○ Larger and bulkier substituents reduce the flexibility of the polymer chain → higher
rigidity and brittleness
○ Increased strength of intermolecular forces → hardness and higher melting point
● Cross-linking
○ Polymers can be held together by intramolecular covalent bonds rather than
intermolecular dispersion forces
○ Polymers with only intermolecular forces are thermoplastics, where forces are weak and
easily broken and re-moulded
○ Cross-linking polymers are thermosets, the forces between the polymers are strong,
allowing for high rigidity, hardness and heat resistance
○ Since broken bonds can’t be reformed they decompose/burn when heated
● Additives
○ Properties of polymers can be changed by using additives:
■ Dye: colour
■ Plasticisers: small molecules inserted between polymers, decreasing strength of
dispersion forces, increasing flexibility
■ Stabilisers: protection from UV damage
■ Segmented natural polymers: copolymerisation with natural polymers to
increase biodegradability
■ Air: allows for expansion of polymers during production
Identifying monomers and polymers

● Predicting the polymer that forms from a monomer
1. Redraw the monomer so that the C=C of the molecule is horizontal and everything else if
above or below the carbon atoms
2. Join the carbons into a single chain
○ E.g.
● Identifying the monomers that form a polymer

1. Draw one repeating unit of the polymer
2. Join the two carbon atoms with a double bond
IQ6: What are the properties and uses of polymers?
7.6.2 condensation polymers model and compare the structure, properties and uses of
condensation polymers, for example:
nylon
polyesters
7.6.2: Condensation Polymers

Formation
● Condensation polymerisation: the joining of monomers with the elimination of a small molecule
(usually water)
○ By products always form in condensation reactions
○ Form between the reaction between -COOH and -OH (or NH2)
● -COOH and -OH or -NH2, must be present for a condensation polymer to form
Identifying condensation polymers

● O or N is always present in the carbon chain
● A condensation polymer from an acid and alcohol is a polyester and has C-O-C in the chain
● A condensation polymer from an acid and amine is a polyamide/nylon and has C-N-C in the chain
Polyesters
● A condensation polymer consisting of repeating units joined by an ester link (-COO-)
● Polyesters can formed through 2 ways:
○ Single monomer with both groups: hydroxyl carboxylic acids
○ Two combined monomers (co-polymer/monomer): -diol, dicarboxylic acid
● Lactic acid
○ Can be used in making clothes
○ Single monomer could have -COOH at one end and -OH or NH2 at the other end
○ Drawing the molecule with -OH at one end and -COOH at the other makes it
easier to see where the reaction takes place to form a polymer, creating water as
a by-product
○ 4 different types of the lactic monomer:
○ An ester bond can also form between the -COOH and -OH, creating a structure as
follows:
Polyamides
● A condensation polymer consisting of repeating units joined by an amide link (-CONH-)
● Polyamides can be formed through 2 ways:
○ Single monomer with both groups: amine carboxylic acids
○ Two combined monomers (co-polymer/monomer): -diamine, -dicarboxylic acid
● Amino acid
○ One monomer has a -COOH group at each end (dioic acid) and the other
monomer has -OH or -NH2 at each end (diol or diamine)
Identifying monomers and polymers

● Predicting the polymer that forms from a monomer
1. Draw the monomers in a line so the -COOH of one monomer is next to the -OH or
-NH2 of the next monomer
2. Form ester or amide bonds between them (removing H2O each time)
3. E.g. with one monomer
○ E.g. with two monomers
● Identifying the monomer that forms from a polymer

1. Put a vertical line through each part of the polymer that is an ester or amide
bond
2. Identify the repeating unit
3. If there is an ester or amide bond in the middle of the repeating unit, it was
formed from two different miners. Redraw the repeating units as two separate
units by dividing it at this bond
4. Add OH to the -C=O (forms -COOH) and add H to the O or N-H (forms -OH or
-NH2)
○ E.g.
Factors affecting polymer properties

● Longer chains → increased dispersion forces → harder, higher melting point
● Increased branching → less area of contact, weaker dispersion forces → less dense,
softer, lower melting point
● Function groups (e.g. with, O, OH, N, NH) → presence of dipole-dipole forces or
hydrogen bonds → harder, higher melting point
● Crosslinking between chains → harder, rigid
Mod 8: Applying Chemical Ideas
IQ1: How are the ions present in the environment identified and measured?
8.1.1 monitoring the environment Analyse the need for monitoring the environment
8.1.1: Monitoring the Environment

Pollutants: any substance that when introduced into an environment has undesired effects
● Ions are major sources of major pollution
● Pollutant ions:
○ Pb2+, Fe2+, Hg+: heavy metal ions released into water processing ores during mining
○ SO42-, NO3-, PO43-: anions contained in agricultural runoff
● High water quality must be maintained with considerations of:
○ Domestic and industrial use
■ Domestically, clean water for drinking, growing crops and sanitation
■ Industrially, clean water to prevent contamination of manufactured goods
○ Aquatic organisms
■ Aquatic organisms are reliant on clean water to ensure the proper functioning of
ecosystems
Major environmental management case:

● Eutrophication
○ The excessive nutrient enrichment (with sulfates and phosphates) of water which leads
to algal blooms
■ Algal blooms are the rapid growth of algae
○ This will deprive the aquatic ecosystem of oxygen in four ways
■ Algae prevents sunlight from penetrating the surface, preventing aquatic plants
from undergoing photosynthesis
■ A layer of algae prevents diffusion of oxygen in water
■ Excess algae also consumes oxygen from water
■ Bacteria require oxygen to decompose dead organisms, therefore aquatic
organisms get deprived of oxygen and will die
8.1.2 qualitative investigations conduct qualitative investigations – using flame tests,

precipitation and complexation reactions as appropriate – to
test for the presence in aqueous solution of the following
ions:
● cations: barium (Ba2+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium
(Mg2+), lead(II) (Pb2+), silver ion (Ag+), copper(II) (Cu2+),
iron(II) (Fe2+), iron(III) (Fe3+)
● anions: chloride (Cl–), bromide (Br–), iodide (I–),
hydroxide (OH–), acetate (CH3COO–), carbonate
(CO32–), sulfate (SO42–), phosphate (PO43–)
8.1.2: Qualitative Investigations

Cation tests
1. Colours of solutions
○ Some cations have characteric colours when their salts are dissolved
○ By looking at the colour, a reasonable guess can be made as to the ion present
■ For example: copper (III) salts are dark blue in solution
○ Advantages:
■ Cheap and quick
○ Disadvantages:
■ Not accurate as some salts are colourless and some salts have the same colour
■ We cannot distinguish between the presence of multiple ions in the same
solution
2. Flame tests
○ Certain cations produce vibrant colours when they are volatilised (vapour state) in a
bunsen flame
○ Electrons absorb a quanta of energy, and are excited to higher energy levels
■ Quanta of energy refers to a discrete amount of energy
○ These electrons are unstable at higher energy levels and hence, will return to its ground
state, emitting absorbed energy, which has a certain wavelength
○ Each element has unique, discrete energy levels → different wavelengths
○ Method:
1. Clean a nichrome wire in concentrated HCl, then palace the wire into the blue
bunsen flame
● Removes any contaminants, which could otherwise affect the flame
colour
● Rinse with distilled water after
2. Dip the wire into the sample and place into the bunsen flame
3. Observe the colour of the flame produced
● Alternatively, spray bottles containing cation in solution can be used
○ Examples:
Metal Cation Colour in Flame Test
Lithium (Li+) Deep Red
Strontium (Sr2+) Crimson Red
Calcium (Ca2+) Brick Red
Sodium (Na+) Yellow
Magnesium (Mg2+) Bright White
Lead (Pb2+) Grey/Icy-Blue
Barium (Ba2+) Apple Green
Copper (Cu2+) Blue-Green
Potassium (K+) Lilac/Violet

○ Advantages:
■ Cheap and efficient to conduct
● Can be used as a confirmatory test with ppt reactions
○ Disadvantages:
■ Some metal cations don’t emit a distinct colour when volatilised in a bunsen
flame
■ Some cations produce similar colour (Barium and Copper → green)
■ Cannot readily distinguish between ions of same element (Fe2+, Fe3+)
■ Cannot be used on samples with multiple cations
■ Cannot be used for anions which emit UV light
■ Unsafe for heavy metal cations such as Pb2+
■ Inconclusive results as ions in atmosphere can interfere
■ Flame tests are destructive tests → sample cannot be recovered
3. pH tests
○ Use of red/blue litmus to determine whether the solution is acid or basic
○ Red → blue in base
○ Blue → red in acid
4. Precipitation tests: Cations
○ If Ksp has a power ≥ 10-6, then sparingly soluble, otherwise insoluble
○ Castro bear is slightly soluble in carbonates, phosphates and hydroxides
● Note: once precipitate has formed, it must be precipitated to excess & then filtered off
○ By eliminating the cations, it cannot interfere with future tests, hence improving
accuracy of the tests
● Ions are tested in this order to prevent cross-reactions
○ E.g both Pb2+ & Ba2+ precipitate with SO42-
○ Therefore, HCl is added first to confirm the presence of Pb2+ and then SO42- can be added
to confirm the presence of Ba2+
● Single cations in solution require a fresh sample for each test
○ This is to ensure consistency between each test
○ Using a fresh sample each time will not interfere with future tests as there are multiple
cations present
● Multiple cations in solution will resume testing without a fresh sample
○ Using a fresh sample may interfere with future tests as there are multiple cations
present
○ Adding excess reagent & filtering out precipitate & continuing with resulting solution will
ensure that the cation being tested is eliminated and will not interfere with future tests
■ Exception: addition of NaF
Additional Cation Precipitation Tests

● Sometimes addition precipitations are used to confirm the presence of cations
○ Pb2+ forms yellow ppt with NaI solution
○ Ca2+/Ba2+: Small amounts of NaF will make Ca2+ ppt, excess NaF will make Ba2+ ppt
Anion tests
1. Using Red Litmus
○ Red litmus will turn blue if the pH of the solution is alkaline and will remain red if the pH
of the solution is acidic
■ However, if red litmus remains red, the presence of CO32-, OH-, CH3COOH- and
PO43- can be ruled out
■ However, if it turns blue, the presence of Cl-, Br-, I-, SO42- cannot be ruled out
● Because blue ions act as conjugate bases, however red and black ions
don’t act as conjugate bases (strong acid)
2. Addition of Acid (HNO3): A test for CO32-
○ Nitric acid is chosen as all nitrates are soluble
■ Observe for effervescence → confirms presence of CO32-
3. Addition of Fe(NO3)3: A test for OH-
○ Hydroxide precipitates with Fe3+ → Brown precipitate
4. Addition of Ba(NO3)2: A test for SO42- and PO43-
○ Test for the presence of SO42- by adding Ba(NO3)2 after addition of HNO3
■ A white ppt indicates presence of SO42-
○ However, PO43- precipitates with barium only when solution is not acidified
■ This is because the equilibrium lies heavily towards the reactants for PO43-
whereas it is closer to the products for SO42-.
■ As a result, adding acid shifts both equilibrium towards the reactants, making
concentration of PO43- negligible whereas SO42- can still precipitate.
○ Therefore, to identify the presence of PO43-, NH3 should be added
5. Addition of AgNO3: A test for Cl-, Br-, I-
○ Cl- → White precipitate (AgCl),
○ Br- → Creamy yellow precipitate (AgBr)
○ I- → Bright yellow precipitate (AgI)
Additional Anion Precipitation Tests

● OH-/CH3COO-
○ All acetates are soluble, therefore add any cation which precipitates with hydroxides to
confirm which one is present
● Cl-/Br-/I-
● After addition of AgNO3, it can be difficult to determine whether AgCl, AgBr or AgI is present
based off their colour
○ AgCl dissolves in dilute NH3 to form a colourless complex ion
○ AgBr dissolves in concentrated NH3 to form a colourless complex ion
○ AgI does not dissolve in NH3
● PO4 3-
● PO43- will form a bright yellow complex ion when reacted with nitric acid and ammonium
molybdate solution
Advantages of Precipitation Reaction:
● Can identify both cation & anions safely (heavy metals, unlike flame test)
● Can be used in conjunction with flame tests as a confirmatory test
● Can identify multiple cations or anions at a time, unlike other qualitative tests
Disadvantages of Precipitation Reaction:
● Need to have a wide variety of reagents in solution in order to test for the presence of all
pathways
○ Can be ambiguous if not performed properly (e.g many ppt are white, however if
incorrect order is used, incorrect conclusions will be made)
● Tedious & prone to human error
● Precipitation tests may not detect the presence of ions if it is in trace quantities
○ Quantitative techniques are required for this
● Precipitation tests cannot determine concentration, only a qualitative test
1. Complexation Reactions
● Complex ions form when a central metal cation is surrounded by ligands
○ Ligands are molecules or ions which donate a lone pair of electrons to a central cation
■ Common ligands are H2O, NH3, Cl-
○ This forms a coordinate covalent bond
● Complexations can be confirmatory tests for the following metal cations:
● Cu2+
● When copper ions are in solution, they are often hydrated
○ They exist as hexaaquacopper (II) or [Cu(H2O)6]2+
○ This complex ion is a deep blue colour in solution
● Addition of NaOH will form a dark-blue precipitate
○ Tetraaquadihydroxycopper (II) or [Cu(H2O)4(OH)2]
● Ammonia (NH3) can be added to dissolve the precipitate, forming a deeper blue solution
○ Tetraaminediaquacopper (II) or [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+
● Alternatively, ammonia can be added to the initial solution to form this deeper blue precipitate.
● Fe2+ & Fe3+
● Fe3+ forms a blood-red complex ion when reacted with KSCN whereas Fe2+ does not
● Ag+ & Pb2+
● Silver can form complex ions with ammonia
○ This can be used as a second test to distinguish between Ag+ & Pb2+ as Pb2+ doesn't
precipitate form complex ions with ammonia
8.1.3 gravimetric analysis & precipitation conduct investigations and/or process data involving:
titrations ● gravimetric analysis
● precipitation titrations
8.1.3: Gravimetric Analysis & Precipitation Titrations

Gravimetric analysis
● Determines the amount or concentration of a substance by very accurately measuring the
weights of substances
● Used when a mixture contains different substances and a particular substance in the substance
needs to be found
● Steps of gravimetric analysis:
1. Weigh the original sample very accurately
2. Separate the particular component we are analysing
3. Reweigh the sample or isolated component
○ *allows us to determine the percentage concentration*
● E.g. lead in water
1. Accurately weigh the water sample
2. (to separate the lead): add iodide ions until the lead has precipitated, then filter and dry
the lead iodide
3. Accurately weigh the lead iodide
○ Concentration of lead can then be calculated from the mass of lead iodide
● Gravimetric analysis calculations
1.
2. Calculate the % of this in the entire sample mass
● The final value may be reported in other units besides in %
● E.g. mol/L, g/kg, g/L or mg/kg
● Ppm = 1 mg per kg
Precipitation titrations
● Similar to a normal titration but instead of an acid/base reaction occurring, a precipitation
reaction occurs
● Signs that a reaction is complete:
○ Colour change of an indicator
○ Conductivity (it’s lowest at the end point)
● Determines the concentration of ions in solution
● Done by adding another ion that will form a precipitate and measuring how much is required
before the precipitate no longer forms
● Deionised water when diluting or preparing the solutions must be used
○ Any extra ions present in the solution will affect the reaction
● Mohr’s method to find chloride ion concentration
○ Add potassium dichromate (indicator)
○ Titrate using silver nitrate to form silver chloride precipitate
○ When no chloride are left, the silver will react with the dichromate to form a
reddish-brown silver dichromate precipitate
8.1.4 instrumental techniques conduct investigations and/or process data to determine the
concentration of coloured species and/or metal ions in
aqueous solution, including but not limited to, the use of:
● colourimetry
● ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry
● atomic absorption spectroscopy
8.1.4: Instrumental Techniques

● All of the following techniques are used to for inorganic substances
Beer-Lambert Law (transmittance and absorbance)

● Statement of relationship between transmittance and absorbance: A= Ꮛlc
○ A: absorbance
○ Ꮛ: molar absorptivity
○ l: length or distance the light travels through the solution
○ c: concentration
● Beer’s law shows that absorbance is linearly proportional to concentration
○ If the path length is increased, the absorbance increases and the measurement is more
sensitive
● Formula for calculating absorbance: A= log10 I0/I
● A= Ꮛlc = log10 I0/I
○ Reason why the calibration curve is a straight line
○ Used to calculate absorbance from measured light intensities
○ Reason why increasing path length increases sensitivity
○ Reason why many instruments split the light into two and pass one beam straight into a
detector while the other passes through the solution and then the detector
Colourimetry
● Used for determining the concentration a chemical in a solution using its colour and
concentration a solution
○ The passing of light through the substance being tested and using the amount of light
absorbed or transmitted to determine the concentration
● Relies of the Beer-Lambert law (the linear relationship between absorbance and concentration
of an absorbing species)
○ Colour intensity is proportional to concentration- higher concentration
= more intense colour
● The colour of light absorbed is the opposite colour that the solution appears to
us (uses colour wheel)
● Focuses on only one frequency (visible spectrum)
● Used in the food and beverage industry for quality control of products, in the analysis of
fertilisers for manganese and iron (III), and in environmental monitoring for measuring
contaminants in soil and water
○ Also used in forensics to determine the presence of toxic metal ions (lead, cadmium and
chromium) in a variety of samples
● E.g. a copper sulfate solution appears blue to us due to the blue light that passes through the red
light it absorbs
○ Measured accurately with red light (650nm)
● How it works
○ Light from a bulb is passed through filter to produce the required wavelength that is
absorbed by the species being analysed
○ The solution is placed in glass cuvette and the filtered light passes through the solution
and some is absorbed
■ The amount of light absorbed is measured by a detector
■ A cuvette of distilled water is used to calibrate the instrument by setting it to
read zero
○ The particular filter that is used depends on the colours that are absorbed by the
chemical species benign investigated
○ The complementary colour to that of the solution is used for the filter
○ The filter must be chosen to match the band of wavelengths that are more strongly
absorbed by the coloured solution
● A set of standard solutions of accurately known concentrations is used to create a calibration
graph
○ Absorbance data is obtained from samples of known concentration and the data is used
to construct a calibration curve of concentration vs absorbance
○ The absorbance of a sample of an unknown concentration of the same species is
measured and the calibration curve is used to determine the concentration in the
sample
Ultra-violet and visible spectrometry (UV-VIS)

● The analysis of solutions using light in the visible and uv ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum
● Any substance which dissolves in a solvent (e.g. water, alcohol, hexane) and absorbs UV or visible
light, can be analysed using UV-VIS
● UV-VIS is used in analytical chemistry to:
○ Confirm the presence of a specific compound by comparing its absorption spectrum, in
solution, with known compounds
○ Determines the concentration of a compound in solution
■ The spectrum produced is compared with spectra of known concentrations, and
the absorbance is directly proportional to the concentration of the chemical
present
● A sensitive method that can accurately measure very low concentrations of chemicals
● Can be used to measure concentrations of transition metal ions, organic compounds and
biological macromolecules (all absorb light in the UV and/or visible regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum
● Organic compounds containing unsaturated groups (-N=N-, -NO2, C=C, C=O) absorb in the UV
range
○ The ability to absorb UV light can be used to detect colourless organic compounds-
radiation has been absorbed and out eyes can’t detect the UV light
● Organic compounds such as steroids, drugs and amino acids, absorb different wavelengths of UV
light depending on their structure
○ The absorption spectra can be used to detect and identify them
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)

● Used to perform quantitative analysis (find the amount of an element present)
● Uses the absorption of light by electrons in the atom to measure how much of an element is
present in a sample of a substance
● Widely used to determine the concentration of metal ions present in particular substances
(especially when metal ions are extremely toxic to humans → can cause severe illness, DNA
damage and death)
○ Metal examples: mercury, lead, aluminium, arsenic and cadmium
■ All have high atomic masses
● Able to detect low levels of metal ions → detects potential problems to humans
● How it works
○ The element being analyses id determined
■ Usually the element being tested is
part of a sample of materials such as:
food, paint or soil
● Multiple elements present in
these substances will be
present so shining a normal light would be useless
○ The lamp used will be made of the same element that is being tested
■ An electric current is passed through a gaseous sample of the element so it will
emit light
■ When the lamp is made of a single element, the light emitted has only the
unique set of wavelengths particular to that element
○ The light passes through the sample and is focused through a slit before entering a
monochromator
■ Selects just one wavelength of the light for analysis by the detector
■ The detector measures the intensity of the light (displayed as a number)
● The number is the amount of light that passed through the sample
without being absorbed (absorbance value)
● The greater the concentration, the more light is absorbed → less light
reaches the detector
○ As concentration increases, absorbance value decreases
● To measure the amount of an element present, absorbance of the sample is compared to that of
known samples
○ Uses calibration curve
○ Allows for the concentration of a sample to be compared and determined
IQ2: How is information about the reactivity and structure of organic compounds obtained?
8.2.1: qualitative tests for organic molecules conduct qualitative investigations to test for the presence in
organic molecules of the following functional groups:
● carbon–carbon double bonds
● hydroxyl groups
● carboxylic acids (ACSCH130)
8.2.1: Qualitative Tests for Organic Molecules

Double bond (C=C)
● Bromine water test
○ Add a few drops of brown bromine water
■ If it loses colour, a double or triple bond is present
Hydroxyl group (-OH)

● Ester test
○ Add glacial (concentrated) acetic acid and 2-3 drops of concentrated H2SO4
○ Warm for 10 mins then pour into cold water
○ Test for fruity smell
● Oxidation test
○ Add a few drops of acidified potassium permanganate
○ The pink colour fading indicates primary or secondary alcohol
● Sodium test
○ Add CaCl2 granules to remove water, then a small piece of sodium
○ If gas is produced, use pop test to confirm hydrogen
Carboxylic acid (-COOH)

● Turns blue with litmus red
● Reacts with sodium carbonate to produce CO2 gas (use limewater test)
● Reacts with alcohol to form an ester (fruity smell)
IQ2: How is information about the reactivity and structure of organic compounds obtained?
8.2.2: instrumental analysis of organic investigate the processes used to analyse the structure of
compounds simple organic compounds addressed in the course, including
but not limited to:
● proton and carbon-13 NMR
● mass spectroscopy (ACSCH19)
● infrared spectroscopy (ACSCH130)
8.2.2: Instrumental Analysis of Organic Compounds

Proton and carbon-13 NMR
● Energy source: radio waves
● Peaks that are useful for determining the C-H backbone of a molecule
● Determines the structure of organic and inorganic compounds, and biological macromolecules in
solution
● Rely on the behaviour of nuclei when placed into a magnetic field
● The atoms are identified by a characteristic melody that they emit
● Principles of NMR
○ When matter is placed in a magnetic field, some nuclei act like microscopic magnetic
compass needles
■ The charged nuclei spin and create small magnetic fields
● Only nuclei with an odd number of nucleons (protons + neutrons)
posses spin that creates the magnetic field
○ Nuclei aligned with the field can absorb the energy of the radio wave and flip to a higher
energy spin (not aligned) when the radio waves have the exact frequency that matches
the resonance of the nuclei
○ The nuclei will flip back to the more stable lower energy state and emit energy
■ The energy difference between the aligned and unaligned spins depends upon
the nature of the nuclei and chemical environment of the nuclei
○ Consists of a large magnet, sample holder, source of radio waves and a detector
○ How it works
■ A sample is placed into the magnetic field
■ The sample will be irradiated with range if different frequencies of radio waves
■ A number of these frequencies will be absorbed as particular nuclei flip
■ The detector records the energy waves emitted when the nuclear spin returns to
the lower energy state
■ Produces NMR spectra that shows series of lines correlating to the type and the
environment of the nuclei
● Chemical environment
○ The energy required to flip the nucleus indicates the chemical environment of the
nucleus
○ When protons are in an identical environment, they will absorb the same frequency and
produce one peak
○ The electron clouds close to the nuclei can shield the proton form the effect of the field
○ Shielded nuclei would require higher energy to be flipped
○ Each atom involved in a chemical bond shares electrons
○ Polarity affects the sharing of the electrons
○ Nuclei are in the same environment when they are bonded to the same group of atoms
in the same way
○ When the bonding of nuclei is different, the chemical environment is different
■ Means each nucleus has a different frequency that will be absorbed, producing a
different line on the spectrum
● Chemical shift
○ NMR frequencies depend on the strength of the magnetic field
○ A chemical shift is produced by the difference from an agreed reference that is divided
by the absorption frequency of the reference
■ Measured in parts per million (ppm)
● Independent of the magnetic field and can be used for comparing
spectra from any magnetic field
○ The chemical shift has the same value regardless of the strength of the field
● Interpreting NMR spectra
○ When a compound is irradiated with radio waves of different frequencies, a number of
different frequencies will be absorbed
○ When these frequencies are emitted, they will produce a number of peaks on the
spectrum
○ The spectrum produced shows the calibration peak (at zero) and a series of line along
the horizontal scale labelled chemical shift
Mass spectroscopy
● Shows the structure of a substance e.g. molar mass of elements present and its ability to detect
the isotopes of an element
● Found in satellites
● Only requires a small amount of material but offers a wealth of information
● How does it work?
○ The mass spectrometer consists of an ionisation chamber, a path along which the
particles travel and a detector
○ A vaporised sample is injected into the ionisation chamber where it is bombarded with
high-energy electrons that can knock an electron off the molecule or atom
○ If more than one electron is knocked off, then the charge corresponds to the number of
electrons removed
○ In the original molecules, every electron was paired, so when an electron is knocked off,
the resulting molecular ion has an unpaired electron (radical)
○ These positive particles are accelerated along the path by an electrical field
○ They then pass through a magnetic field, which then deflects the ions based upon mass
(m) and charge (z)
○ Smaller, higher charged particles are easier to deflect
○ Ions can be separated by the varying strengths of the magnetic field by their mass and
collected by a detector
○ The intensity of the ion beam hitting the detector provides a measure of abundance
○ The results are represented as a mass spectrum: m/z
○ Only cations are detected
○ The firing of high-energy electrons onto an organic molecule can cause the molecule to
fragment
○ The initial molecular cation can break to form a smaller cation and a free radical
○ A free radical still has an unpaired valence electron and is very reactive
■ The free radical is neutral and uncharged, so it is not detected by mass
spectrometry
● Interpreting mass spectra
○ The plot produced by a mass spectrograph is called a mass spectrum
■ Has a series of lines at different m/z values along the x axis
○ A cation will be detected at the point that corresponds to the abundance of the species
○ The most abundant peak on the spectrum is called the base peak and it gives a relative
abundance of 100%
○ The other peaks are plotted as a relative percentage to the abse peak
○ The most important peak on the mass spectrum is the molecular ion (M+) or parent
molecular ion
■ Gives the MM of the original compound
○ *the parent molecular ion peak may not be the base peak*
● Fragmentation pattern
○ Provides clues to the structure of the molecule
○ Look closely at the peaks that form in the mass spectra
● Isotopes and mass spectra
○ As mass spectra produces peaks based on the mass of the molecule and its fragments,
the presence of isotopes of the elements means there may also be peak for isotopic
variations of the molecules
○ The abundance of some isotopes is very small, so if additional peaks are present, they
will usually be small and can be ignored
○ If only one element is being examined using mass spectroscopy, the different peaks will
only be due to the presence of isotopes of that element
○ The position of the peaks indicates the relative isotopic mass and height of the peaks
indicates the relative abundance of each isotope
Infrared spectroscopy
● Useful technique for determining the bonds or functional groups that are present or absent in a
compound
● Can be used in industrial application for monitoring chemical pathways, in forensic examinations
and drug developments
● Principles of infrared spectroscopy
○ The two basic modes of vibration: stretching, bending
■ Vintrations can be either symmetrical or asymmetrical
○ A molecule can absorb infrared energy and change to higher energy vibration mode
■ The molecule will then vibrate with more energy and amplitude
■ The spring will then be stretched to greater lengths and be more compressed
○ When bending vibrations are excited, the change in
angle is greater
○ *only works for POLYATOMIC molecules (e.g. H2O) and
not DIATOMIC molecules (e.g. O2)*
○ The energy absorbed by the atoms depends on the
bond length, strength, and the atom's size
■ Heavier atoms require more energy to increase
vibration
■ Double bonds require more energy than single
bonds to increase vibration
○ When a sample is placed in a cell the percentage
transmitted is recorded against the energy of the
frequency
○ Consists of a series of troughs from a baseline: the
spectra looks ‘upside down’
○ The baseline shows 100% of the light still being
transmitted
○ When the wavelength is absorbed, less of it will be
transmitted → produces a lower percentage
● Interpreting infrared spectra
○ Look for key troughs or absorption bands
○ Consists of large number of bands that are ignored when interpreting spectra due to the
many different vibrational modes of the molecules that do not provide useful
information
○ Looking at the higher wavenumber regions rather than the ‘fingerprint region’ will
provide information on the compound
■ Troughs to the right of around 1500 cm-1 are called fingerprint regions (unique
to a compound)
IQ3: What are the implications for society of chemical synthesis and design?
8.3.1: chemical synthesis evaluate the factors that need to be considered when
designing a chemical synthesis process, including but not
limited to:
● availability of reagents
● reaction conditions (ACSCH133)
● yield and purity (ACSCH134)
● industrial uses (eg pharmaceutical, cosmetics,
cleaning products, fuels) (ACSCH131)
● environmental, social and economic issues
8.3.1: Chemical Synthesis

Availability of reagents
● Reagents may affect the surrounding environment so location must be closely considered
● Mining at Broken Hill: concentrations of metals such as lead and zinc are 2-3%, so it is not viable
yo transport the ore to another region if 97-98% of the transported material will end up as waste
● Diary and cheese: it is a practical to process the milk close to the source (south-eastern NSW)
● Coal-fired power stations: located near the cola deposits to eliminate transport costs
● Port facilities: high volumes of raw materials and high volumes of exports
● Remoteness: lead smelters produce significant emissions (including SO4). tailings from the
smelter can lead to high lead content in local soils. → better for plants to be located in remote
areas away from fewer people
● Water supply: facilities such as coal-fired power stations need to be close to an adequate water
supply
Reaction conditions
● The conditions of a chemical reaction are designed to maximise the yield of the desired product
→ ensures minimum production of unwanted byproducts
● Heat and pressure can increase reaction rate, but it is highly costly to maintain high
temperatures and pressures and has many risks
○ Another pathway is using lower temperature and pressures
● Catalysts can change the rate of reaction without being used up in a reaction
○ Catalysts such as inhibitors can slow down rate of reaction
○ Industrial synthesis reactions use catalysts to increase rate of reaction
○ Although, they can be expensive to purchase
○ Recovery and reuse of catalysts can help reduce the cost of using them
○ Catalysts are also now being used as nanoparticles
■ Reduces cost as well as increases effectiveness of the catalyst
Yield and purity

● Yield
○ Refers to the amount of product actually produced from the reactants
■ A reaction with a high yield will produce a large amount of product from the
reactants
○ Maximising yield
■ Conditions should be managed so that equilibrium lies as far to the right as
possible
■ The conditions required will vary depending on the reaction; however, there are
some features:
● Removal of the product: favours forward reaction, shifting the
equilibrium to the right
● Conducting the reaction at the right temperature: the temperature
should favour the forward reaction, shifting the equilibrium to the right
○ Cost and effect on the rate of reaction of temperature must also
be considered
● Choosing a suitable pressure for a system: pressure should favour
forward reaction, shifting equilibrium to the right
○ Cost and safety should be considered
● Using a catalyst: allows product to be produced in shorter amounts of
time
○ The reaction should have a high yield producing at a faster rate
■ Maximises profit and wastage
○ Theoretical yield
■ The amount of product that can theoretically be produced from the reactants
■ Based on the assumption that the reactants react with 100% efficiency
■ As soon as one reactant runs out, the reaction can no longer proceed and no
more product can be made (limiting reactant/reagent)
■ A yield of 90% means that only 90% of the amount of the products can be
theoretically produced form the reactants produced
■
● Purity
○ Any unwanted by products must be removed before the final product is collected or
removed from the final product following collection
○ There are varying grades of purity that may or may not be acceptable depending on the
final use of the product
○ Determining purity
■ Levels of purity:
● Technical grade: products used of non-critical laboratory tasks including
rinsing, dissolving and as raw materials
● Synthesis reagents: suitable for organic synthesis
● For analytical purposes: suitable for quantitative analysis, research and
quality control
● Pharmacopoeia grade: products that meet the purity requirements for
the production of pharmaceuticals
○ Consumers need to be confident that the product they are purchasing is pure enough to
perform as expected
○ Instrumental methods such as mass spec, NMR, and IR spectroscopy are used to monitor
a product for the presence of impurities
Environmental, social and economic issues

● Chemical industries take in raw materials and convert them to new substances
○ Produces a lot of waste
○ Disposal of waste may pose an issue if it involves toxic material or gaseous emissions
○ Ways that increases energy uses:
■ To power machines for physical processes such as crushing and grinding
■ For transporting materials in trucks to conveyor belts or in pipes
■ For heating chemicals in roasting or evaporative processes such as distillation
■ For electrolysis of chemicals either of aqueous solutions or molten solutions
● Environmental issues
○ Acid rain
■ Produced when waste products of industry are released into the atmosphere
where they react with water to form acids
■ Burning fossil fuels produces sulfur oxides (reacts with water to form sulfuric
acids)
■ Acid rain can make it way to rivers, lakes and other waterways through draining
systems and run-offs from the land
● Causes the water to become acidic negatively affecting the aquatic life
■ Many soils contain negatively charged silicate ions
● These bind to the ions in the soil
● Some of these ions may be useful (e.g. potassium and magnesium) and
some may be harmful (e.g. aluminium)
■ When acid rain falls, the hydrogen ions in the rain displace the ions form the soil
silicates and the harmful ions are free to wash into waterways
■ Some plants and animals can tolerate acidic conditions, but many are sensitive
to change in pH
● The eggs and young of aquatic animals are particularly sensitive to low
pH and the presence of aluminium ions
● At pH of 5 or less, fish eggs will not hatch
● If the pH is lower than adult fish are directly affected and will die
■ Effects ecosystems when some organisms die as some animals rely on these
organisms for food
■ Also affects trees as it slows down the growth rate and cause leaves to turn
brown and photosynthesis to stop
○ Chemical spills
■ Spills can be caused by fires, explosions leaks or damage to transport vehicles or
storage tanks
○ Green chemistry
■ Aims to reduce the impact of chemistry on the environment by reducing or
eliminating the use or production of hazardous substances
■ Requires all aspects of chemical production to be analysed to ensure that
nothing potentially harmful ir used or produced *prevention>cure*
■ Hierarchy of pollution of green chemistry:
● Prevent pollution
● Treat chemicals to make them safe prior to disposal
● Dispose of untreated chemicals safety

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Mod 5: Equilibrium and acid reactions

IQ1: What happens when chemical reactions do not go through completion?

5.1.1 reversible reactions conduct practical investigations to analyse the reversibility of

5.1.1 Reversible Reactions

Examples of irreversible reactions:

Open and closed systems:

5.1.2: Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Equilibrium will be reached when:

The state of equilibrium is attached when:

Forward reaction rate decrease as more products are produced

Features of dynamic equilibrium:

IQ1: What happens when chemical reactions do not go through completion?

5.1.3 non-equilibrium systems analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the

5.1.3: Non-Equilibrium Systems

Photosynthesis has a positive ΔH and ΔG, and a negative ΔS

IQ2: What factors affect equilibrium and how?

5.2.1 le chatelier’s principle investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume

5.2.1: Le Châtlier’s Principle

What affects equilibrium?

Endothermic reaction: absorbs heat energy

The equilibrium will shift to the left, towards the endothermic

Catalysts effect on equilibrium:

IQ2: What factors affect equilibrium and how?

5.2.2 Explaining Changes with Collision Theory

5.3.1 Equilibrium Expression (Keq)

keq= [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b

5.3.2 Calculating and Applying Keq

Meanings of Keq if:

5.3.3 Effect of Temperature on Keq

5.3.4 experimentally determine Keq conduct an investigation to determine Keq of a chemical

5.3.4 Experimentally Determine Keq

5.3.5 Using Keq

IQ4: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?

5.4.1 Dissolving Ionic Compounds

IQ4: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?

5.4.3 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Practices

Identify Describe Explain

5.4.3 Solubility Rules and Precipitation

Solutions that are always soluble:

An ionic compound can be described as the following:

Unsaturated → a solution contains less solute than the solvent

IQ4: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?

5.4.4 Ksp for saturated solutions

Two ways to quantify solubility:

E.g. saturated solution in a chemical equilibrium

IQ4: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?

5.4.5 Use Ksp to predict precipitate formation

Qsp is used for the ionic product

Common ion effect

6.1.1 Naming and properties

strong acids strong bases

sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Many non-metal oxides

weak acids weak bases

IQ1: What is an acid and what is a base?

6.1.2 indicators conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and

IQ1: What is an acid and what is a base?

A salt is formed when an acid and base react together

Recognising acid reactions

IQ1: What is an acid and what is a base?

6.1.4 neutralisation investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday

Neutralisation in biological processes and industry:

6.1.5 enthalpy of neutralisation conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of

6.1.5: Enthalpy of Neutralisation

(ΔH) is always around 55-58 kJ/mol of water produced

6.2.5 relates to 6.2.3