Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid

Reactions
Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

📖 conduct practical investigations to analyse the reversibility of chemical

reactions, for example:

– cobalt(II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated ✅

– iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate Ž

– burning magnesium Ž

– burning steel wool Ž

Reversible Reactions
Reversible reactions are reactions that can occur in both directions allowing
products to reform back into reactants.
Examples include:

hydrated cobalt (II) chloride and dehydrated cobalt (II) chloride

iron (II) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate

Reverse reactions occur when the particles of products collide with more energy
than the reverse activational energy and reform into reactant particles.
Reactions release/absorb small amount of energy into or from surroundings. In
order to reverse a reaction, same amount of energy would need to be returned
or exited from the system. Since that amount of energy is insignificant, it is
easier to reverse the reaction.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 1

 Irreversible Reactions
Irreversible reactions are reactions that only occur in one direction not allowing
products to reform back into reactants.
Examples include:

burning magnesium

burning steel wool

Irreversible reactions release/absorb large amounts of energy into or from

surroudnings. Inorder to reverse the reactions, same amount of energy would
need to be returned or exited from the system. Since that amount of energy is
large, it is impossible to reverse the reaction.

Heating Cobalt (II) Chloride Hydrate

Cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate turning into anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride
demonstrates a reversible reaction.
CoCl2   ⋅  6H2 O (s) ⇋ CoCl2  (s)   +  6H2 O (l)
When pink cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate is heated causing water to
evapourate it forms into blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride. Then adding water to
blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride can turn it back into pink cobalt (II) chloride
hexahydrate.

Iron (III) Nitrate & Potassium Thiocyanate

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 2

 Iron (II) nitrate reacting with potassium thiocyanate also demonstarted a
reversible reaction
F e3+  (aq)   +  SCN −  (aq) ⇋ F eSCN 2+  (aq)
When iron (II) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate are mixed together they form
iron(III) thiocyanate. This reaction is reversible so the reverse reaction occurs
inorder for the system to reach equilibrium

Combustion Of Magneisum
The combustion of magnesium demonstartes a irreversible reaction
2Mg (s)   + O2  (g) ⇋ 2MgO (s)
Magnesium can be burned in oxygen its froms a white powder called
magneisum oxide. This reaction is irreversible since conbustion reactions
release alot of heat energy which cannot be returned back into the system.

Combustion Of Steel Wool

The combustion of steel wool also demonstarted a irreversible reaction
4F e (s)   + 3O2  (g) ⇋ 2F e2 O3  (s)
When steel wool is burned in oxygen it forms rust given the name iron (II) oxide.
This reaction is also irreversible since it is combustion and releases a lot of heat
energy into surroundings.

📖 model static and dynamic equilibrium and analyse the differences between
open and closed systems ✅
Thermodynamic Systems
A system is a part of a universe that is of interest to us like a particular chemical
or physical reaction. While everything around the system - the rest of the
universe - is regarded as the surroudnings.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 3

 A system can either be open, closed or isolated.

Open System
In an open system both matter and energy can be interchanged between the
system and its surroundings.
An example of a open system would be boiling water in a beaker. Heat energy is
transferred into the beaker (system) while water vapour is exiting the beaker into
the surroundings.

Closed System
In a closed system only energy can be exchanged between the system and its
surroundings.
An example of a closed system would boiling water in a coverd beaker. While
heat energy is still transferred inside the beaker, the water vapour is unable to
escape into its surroundings since it is restricted by the cover.

Isolated System
In a isolated system, niether matter nor energy can be exchanged between the
system and its surroundings.
The only true isolated system is the entire universe.

Equilibrium Systems
Reversible and irreversible reactions will eventually reach a state called
chemical equilibrium. A chemical equilibrium occurs when the concentrations of

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 4

 the products and reactants remain constant so that there is no observable
change.
The two types of chemical equilibrium are dynamic equilibrium and static
equilibrium.

Dynamic Equilibrium
Dynamic equilibrium is reached when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to
the rate of the reverse reaction. Dynamic equilibrium can be only achieved by a
reversible reaction in a closed system.
Even thought at a macroscopic level there is no observale change between the
concentration of products and reactants, at a microscopic level the reactants are
turning into products at the same speed as the products are turning into
reactants.
Let us consider the system:

A  ⇌  B

Now, take 2 100mL beakers labelled A and B. Fill A with 100 mL water and leave
B empty. This represents initial concentrations of reactant A and B. Now to
initiate the reaction, fill up a 10 mL pippette from A and transfer its contents into
B. Take a 5 mL pipette and repeat procedure, transferring water from A to B with
10 mL pipette, then transfer back from B to A with 5 mL pipette.
Eventually the level of water in both beakers remains constant, which is the point
where dynamic equilibrium has been reached.

Static Equilibrium
Static equilibrium is reached when the rate of the forward and reverse reaction is
equal to zero. Static equilibrium can be achieved by reversible and irreversible
reactions in both open and closed systems.
Unlike dynamic equilibrium, both at a macroscopic and microscopic level the
reaction has completely stopped. This occurs when the activational energy of the
forward and reverse reaction is so high that either reaction does not proceed.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 5

 📖 analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the effect of
entropy and enthalpy, for example:

– combustion reactions ✅
– photosynthesis Ž
Enthalpy
Enthalpy refers to the total heat content of a system. Reactions that decrease
enthalpy are favourable while reaction that increase enthalpy are less
favourable.
Enthalpy change is the total heat energy absorbed or release by a system during
a chemical or physical reaction. The more negative the enthalpy change, the
more spontaneous a reaction.

Entropy
Entropy refers to a system's thermal energy that is not available to do useful
work. Reactions that increase entropy are favourable while reactions that
decrease entropy are less favourable.
The more positive the entropy change, the more spontaneous the reaction.

Gibbs Free Energy

Gibbs free energy is a value that helps predict the spontaneity of a reaction. The
spontaneity of a reaction is not related to the reaction's speed.

ΔG  =  ΔH  − T ΔS
when:

ΔG < 0, reaction is spontaneous (exergonic)

ΔG > 0, reaction is non spontaneous (endergonic)
Non - Equilibrium Systems
A non equilibrium system involves reaction that are irreversible and never reach
an equilibrium. Examples include photosynthesis and combustion.

Combustion
A combustion reaction is always exothermic meaning they have a negative
enthalpy change (favourable). They also increase entropy making them have a

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 6

 positive entropy change (favourable).
Due to the negative enthalpy change and positive entropy change, they are
spontaneous and exergonic. Therefore, combustion reactions are highly
favourable in the forward direction.
Example of a combustion reaction includes the combustion of glucose (cellular
respiration)
C6 H12 O6  (s)   +  6O2  (g)   →  6CO2  (g)   +  6H2 O (l)
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is endothermic meaning it has a positive enthalpy change (less
favourable). They also decrease entropy making them have a negative entropy
change (less favourable).
Due to the positive enthalpy change and negative entropy change, its non
spontaneous and endergonic. Therefore, photosynthesis is not favourable in the
forward direction.
6CO2  (g)   +  6H2 O (l)   →  C6 H12 O6  (aq)   +  6O2  (g)

📖 investigate the relationship between collision theory and reaction rate in

order to analyse chemical equilibrium reactions ✅
Collision Theory
Collision theory states that chemical reactions occur as a result of collision
between reacting particles. For a successful collision, particles must:

collide and make contact

collide with enough energy to break bonds

collide with the correct orientation to form bonds

For the collision theory we assume:

particles size is neglible relative to distance between them

particles move randomly inside the container

collisions are elastic (no energy is lost)

Rate Of Reaction

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 7

 The rate of reaction is the change of concentration over time - the speed of the
reaction. Factors affecting the rate of reaction include:

surface area

concentration

pressure

temperature

presence of a catalyst

Concentration
When concentration increases, so does the rate of reaction since there are now
more particles which are more frequently colliding.

Temperature
When temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction because of the
increased speed of particles which are more likely to collide with high energy.

Pressure
When pressure increases, the rate of reaction increases because particles come
close toagther increasing chances of collisions.

Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the reaction rate without being used up
by providing a alternate reaction pathway and lowering the activational energy.
Catalyst do not influence a reaction thermodynamiclaly (do not affect enthalpy
change nor entropy change).

Equilibrium Reactions
Thermodynamic and kinetic play an important role in an equilibrium system.
The position of equilibrium is determined by thermodynamics. Whether the
equilibrium is shifted left or right is dependant on how thermodynamically
favourable the forward and reverse reactions are.
The rate of reaction is determined by kinetics - how fast a system will reach
equilibrium.

Factors That Affect Equilibrium

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 8

 📖 investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume and/or
pressure on a system at equilibrium and explain how Le Chatelier’s
principle can be used to predict such effects, for example:

– heating cobalt(II) chloride hydrate ✅

– interaction between nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide Ž
– iron(III) thiocyanate and varying concentration of ions Ž
Le Chatelier's Principle
Le chatelier's principle states that if a stress is applied to a chemical system at
equilibrium, the system will shift to minimize the change and establish a new
equilibrium.
The shift refers to a change that temporary increases in reaction rate of the
forward or reverse reaction. So, the reaction in one direction will predominate for
a certain period until reaction rate equals and new equilibrium is achieved.
A stress applied could be:

Change in concentration

Change in pressure by chaning the volume

Dilution

Change in temperature

Presence of catalyst

Changing Concentration
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, or the concentration of a product
is decreased, the system will shift forwards by using up reactants to make more
products.

If the concentration of a product is increased, or the concentration of a reactant

is decreases, the system will shift backwards by using up products to make more
reactants.
The concentration of the species at the new equilibrium is not the same as the
original concentrations at original equilibrium. Adding or removing pure solids or
liquids does not change their concentration.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 9

 Changing Pressure

For a system's equilibrium position to shift when a change in pressure has

occured there must have been:

a change in the partial pressure of the gases in the system

at least one gaseous reactant or product in the equation

different number of gaseous moles on either side of the equation

A change in pressure is caused when volume is changed since pressure is

inversely proportional to volume. When pressure increases by decreasing
volume, system favours the side with fewer gas moles to counter the increase in
pressure. When pressure decreases by increasing volume, system favours the
side with greater gas moles to counter decrease in pressure.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 10

 Total pressure can be increased by adding an inert gas which would not effect
equilibrium position as partial pressure of reactants and products remain
unchanged.

Dilution
Dilution is the process of adding water, increasing total volume. For an
equilibrium system in solution, diluting is similar to increasing volume of a
gaseous system. Diluting reduces the number of particles per unit volume
(concentration) for all species.
This results the system to favour the side with a greater number of dissolved
particles. Since dilution is a irreversible process the volume of an equilibrium
system in solution cannot be decreased without removing some reactant /
products.

Changing Temperature
When a system's temperature is altered, the system will shift in the direction that
minimises the temperature change. Effect of temperature on an equilibrium
system depends on whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 11

 Increasing temperature of a system also increases energy of substances. In
order to counteract this change, heat energy must be used up by the system,
meaning endothermic reaction is favoured.
Inversely, decreasing temperature of a system also decreases energy of
substances. In order to counteract this change, heat energy must be produced,
meaning exothermic reaction is favoured.

Presence Of Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without
getting consumed in the reaction or undergoing any permanent chemical
changes itself.
When a catalyst is added to an equilibrium system, the rate of forward and
reverse reaction is increased to the same extent. Since the relative rates of both
reactions are unchanged, the equilibrium position will remain unaffected. A
catalyst will only increase the rate at which a reaction reaches equilibrium.

Heating Cobalt (II) Chloride Hydrate

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 12

 Recall the reversible reaction where pink cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate could
be heated to form blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride.
CoCl2   ⋅  H2 O (s) ⇋ CoCl2  (s)   +  6H2 O (l) ΔH > 0
This reaction is endothermic. So if heat is added, the equilibrium position shifts
right to favour forward endothermic reaction which absorbs heat. Inversely if
heat is taken away, the equilibrium position shifts left to favour reverse
exothermic reaction which releases heat.
Changing pressure would not affect the equilibrium position since no gasous
reagents are present. And since both salts are pure solid, adding or removing
either wouldn't change concentration and hence doesnt alter equilibrium
position.

Nitrogen Dioxide & Dinitrogen Tetraoxide

When brown nitrogen dioxide gas or colourless dinitrogen tetraoxide gas is
placed into a closed vessel, an equilibrium is established between the two:
2NO2  (g) ⇋ N2 O4  (g) ΔH < 0
This reaction is exothermic. So if temperature is increased, the equilibrium
position shifts left to favour reverse endothermic reaction which absorbs heat.
Inversely, if heat is taken away, the equilibrium position shifts right to favour
forward exothermic reaction which releases heat.
If pressure were increased, the equilibrium shifts right to favour forward reaction
with fewer gas moles to counteract pressure increase. Inversely, if pressure
decreases, the equilibrium shifts left to favour reverse reaction with more gas
moles.
If NO2 gas is added or N2O4 gas is removed, the equilibrium shifts right to
favour forward reaction to use up NO2 and produce N2O4. Inversely, if N2O4
gas is added or NO2 gas is removed, the equilibrium shifts left to favour reverse
reaction to use up N2O4 and produce NO2

Iron (III) Nitrate & Potassium Thiocyanate

Again recall the reversible reaction between yellow iron (III) nitrate & colourless
potassium thiocyanate to produce red iron (III) thiocyanate.
F e3+  (aq)   +  SCN −  (aq) ⇋ F eSCN 2+  (aq) ΔH < 0
This reaction is exothermic. So if temperature increases, the equilibrium position
shifts left to favour reverse endothermic reaction which absorbs heat. Inversely,

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 13

 if temperature decreases, the equilibrium position shifts right to favour forward
exothermic reaction which releases heat.
Changing pressure would not affect the equilibrium position since no gasous
reagents are present
Adding Fe(NO3)3 will increase [F e3+ ], causing equilibrium position shift right to
favour forward reaction and use up excess iron (III) ions. Adding KSCN will
increase [SCN − ], causing equilibrium position shift right to favour forward
reaction and use up excess thiocyanate ions. Adding NaH2PO4 will decrease
[F e3+ ], causing equilibrium position shift left to favour reverse reaction and
replenish iron (III) ions.

📖 explain the overall observations about equilibrium in terms of the collision

theory & examine how activation energy and heat of reaction affect the
position of equilibrium. ✅
Collision Theory & Equilibrium
Le chatelier's principle aligns very well with the collision theory.

Concentration
If concentration of a reactant increases, more reactant molecules are present
and moving randomly. As such, there is a higher liklehood of reactant molecules
colliding with each other causing a reaction to take place.
As new equilibrium is apporached, there becomes fewer reactant molecules and
more product molecules decreasing freqeuncy of reactant molecules colliding
and increasing frequency of product molecules colliding until the rate of reaction
of both forward and reverse reaction becomes equal and new equilibrium is
reached.

Pressure
When pressure is increased by decreasing volume, particles are closer together
and will find themselves at a higher concentration. Reaction rate of reverse and
forward reaction will increase since collisions become more frequent. However,
the reaction rate of the reaction that produces less moles of gas will be higher
because a higher concentration has a greater effect on the side which has
greater number of moles.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 14

 This is why adding inert gases doesnt effect equalibrium position because they
dont change concentrations of reactants and products even though total
pressure increases.

Temperature
When temperature increases, molecules gain kinetic energy causing them to
move more rapidly and with mroe energy. For a successful collision particles
must collide and with sufficient energy.
Since alot more molecules now possess sufficient energy due to an increase in
temperature, it will increase the likelihood of a collision being successful.

Calculating the Equilibrium Constant

📖 deduce the equilibrium expression (in terms of Keq) for homogeneous

reactions occurring in solution ✅
Homogenous Reactions
A hemogenous reaction is any reaction which occurs in a single phase - all the
products and reactants are of the same state (solids, liquids or gas)

A (g)   +  B (g)   →  C (g)

Heterogenous Reactions
A heterogenous reaction is any reaction which does not occur in a single phase -
products or reactants are of different states

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 15

 A (aq)   +  B (s)   →  C (g)

The Equilibrium Constant

The equilibrium constant Keq is a quantitative value that describes the position
of equilibrium. The larger the value of Keq, the more equilirbium is shifted to the
right. Inversly, the smaller the value of Keq, the more equilibrium is shifted to the
left.
It is calculated as the product of the concentrations of each product to the power
of its coefficient, divided by the product of the concentrations of each reactant to
the power of its coefficient.
The equilibrium constant for the system:

aA  +  bB  ⇌  cC  +  dD

Is given by:

[C]ceq [D]deq
Keq =
[A]aeq [B]beq

assuming A, B, C and D are either gaseous or in solution. Solids and pure

liquids are omitted from the equilibrium constant expression because their molar
concentrations do not change and stay constant throughout the reaction. They
are assigned a concentration value of 1 because their concentrations do not
depend on how much of the pure substance is present.
This is because the concentration of a solid or pure liquid equal to density over
molar mass. Since density is an intensive property – do not depend on the
amount of matter present, density remains constant. Hence, solids and pure
liquids are not included in the calculation of Keq.

Importance Of An Equation
The equilibrium constant depends on the chemical equation for a particular
reaction.

If an equation is reversed, Keq is inverted

If coefficents are doubled, Keq is squared

If coefficents are halved, Keq is square rooted

Reaction Quotient

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 16

 The reaction quotient (Q) is a mathematical relationship between concentrations
of the reactants and products in a chemical system similar to the equilibrium
constant.
The reaction quotient for the system:

aA  +  bB  ⇌  cC  +  dD

Is given by:

[C]c [D]d
Q=
[A]a [B]b

While the equilibrium constant only uses the concentration of the reactants and
products when the system is at equiibrium, the reaction quotient uses the
concentration of products and reactants at any point in time.

If Q < K, system equilibrium will shift to the right since they are not enough
products.

If Q > K, system equilibrium will shift to the left since they are not enough
reactants.

If Q = K, system equibrium will remain unchanged since system is at

equilibrium.

📖 perform calculations to find the value of Keq and concentrations of

substances within an equilibrium system, and use these values to make
predictions on the direction in which a reaction may proceed ✅
Determining Equilibrium Constant Expression

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 17

 To determine an expression for the equilibrium constant of a system at
equilibrium a full balanced chemical equation describing the reaction is needed.

1. For the system:

2NO2  (g)   ⇌  N2 O4  (g)

The equilibrium constant expression is given as:

[N2 O2 ]
Keq =
[NO2 ]2

2. For the system:

NaCl (s)   ⇌  Na+  (aq)   +  Cl −  (aq)

The equilibrium constant expression is given as:

Keq = [Na+ ][Cl − ]

3. For the system:

H2 CO3  (aq)   ⇌  CO32+  (aq)   +  2H +  (aq)

The equilibrium constant expression is given as:

[CO32+ ][H + ]2
Keq =
[H2 CO3 ]

4. For the system:

CO2  (g)   +  H2 O (l)   ⇌  HCO3−  (aq)   +  H +  (aq)

The equilibrium constant expression is given as:

[HCO3− ][H + ]
Keq =
[CO2 ]

Calculating Equilibrium Constant

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 18

 To calculate the equilibrium expression for a reaction, not only a full balanced
chemical equation describing the reaction is needed but also the moles or
concentrations of every specie in the reaction at equilibrium.

1. At equilibrium, concentration of ammonia is 0.02 mol/L, while the

concentrarion of nitrogen is 0.0031 mol/L and the concentration of hydrogen is
0.012 mol/L. Calculate the equilibrium constant.

N2  (g)   +  3H2  (g)   ⇌  2NH3  (g)

[NH3 ] = 0.02 mol/L
[N2 ] = 0.0031 mol/L
[H2 ] =  0.012mol/L

[NH3 ]2
Keq =
[N2 ][H2 ]3

0.022
Keq =
0.0031 × 0.0123
Keq = 7.5 × 10−4    (2 s.f.)

2. At equilibrium, a 500 mL aqueous solution contains 0.020 mol cobalt (II)

hexahydrate ion, 0.40 mol chloride ion and 0.015 mol tetrachloridocobaltate ion.

(Co(H2 O)6 )2+  (aq)   +  4Cl −  (aq)   ⇌  (CoCl)2−  (aq) +  6H2 O (l)

[Co(H2 O)2+
6 ]=
0.020 mol
0.500 L
= 0.040 mol/L
0.40 mol
[Cl − ] = 0.500 L = 0.80 mol/L
[CoCl 2− ] = 0.015 mol
0.500 L
= 0.030 mol/L

[CoCl 2− ]
Keq =
[Co(H2 O)2+
6 ] [Cl ]
− 4

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 19

 0.030
Keq =
0.040 × 0.804

Keq = 1.8    (2 s.f.)

Harder Calculations Involving Equilibrium Expression

Harder questions involving calculating equilibrium dont give the cocentrations of
all species in the reaction but have to be calculated using a method called ICE
The steps to the ICE method are:

1. Determine the known quantities and convert to concentrations

2. Set up an I.C.E table with all known concentrations

3. Identify the specie for which initial and equilibrium concentration is known
and calculate its change in concentration

4. Use stoichiometric ratios to find the change in concentration for all other
species.

5. Use initial and change in concentration to calculate equilibrium concentration

of all species.

6. Determine the equilibrium constant expression and substitute in the

equilibrium concentration

1. A 10.0 L vessel intially contained 0.250 mol nitric oxide and 0.160 mol
oxygen. After equilibrium, 0.100 mol nitric acid remained. Calculate the
equilibrium constant.

2NO (g)   +  O2  (g)   ⇌  2NO2  (g)

0.250 mol
[NO]i = 10.0 L = 0.0250 mol/L
[O2 ]i = 0.160 mol
10.0 L
= 0.0160  mol/L
[NO]eq = 0.100 mol
10.0 L
= 0.0100  mol/L

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 20

 [NO2 ]2
Keq =
[NO]2 [O2 ]

0.01502
Keq =
0.01002 × 0.00850
Keq = 265     (3s.f.)

📖 qualitatively analyse the effect of temperature on the value of Keq ✅

Changes In The Equilibrium Constant
The value of the equilibrium constant is only altered by the temperature. If
pressure or concentration of a species is changed, the value of the equilibrium
constant will remain the same.
This is because, when pressure or concentration changes the system will shift
but when a new equilibrium is established, the concentrations of each specie will
be such that the equilibrium constant remains unchanged, if temperature
remains constant.
Effect of a change in temperature on Keq depends whether the reaction is
exothermic or endothermic

Effect Of Temperature On Keq (Exothermic Reaction)

If the temperature of a exothermic reaction increases then the value of Keq

decreases. Inversely, if the temperature of a exothermic reaction decreases then
the value of Keq increases.

Effect Of Temperature On Keq (Endothermic Reaction)

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 21

 If the temperature of a endothermic reaction increases then the value of Keq
also increases. Inversely, if the temperature of a endothermic reaction decreases
then the value of Keq also decreases.

📖 conduct an investigation to determine Keq of a chemical equilibrium

system, for example:

– Keq of the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium ✅

Investigating Keq in the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium
The system is:

F e3+  (aq)   +  SCN −  (aq) ⇋ F eSCN 2+  (aq)

In the system:

F e3+ is a very pale yellow colour

SCN − is colourless
[F eSCN]2+ is an intense red colour
To determine Keq, we can combine known amounts of Fe3+ and SCN-, then
measure concentrations of iron thiocyanate using spectrophotometry at
equilibrium.
The first step is to combine known amounts of iron (III) and thiocyanate ions.
Once solutions have been combined, test tube is left until colour remains
unchanged indicating equilibrium. Next step is to measire equilibrium
concentrations of iron (III) thiocyanate using a spectrometer.
There is not universal mathematical conversion to determine absolute
concentration. Hence, a calibration curve is required. This is done by taking
standard solutions of known iron (III) thiocyanate concentrations and measureing
their absorbances.

Spectrophotometer

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 22

 A spectrophotometer measures the absorbance of light at a particular
wavelength. The higher the concentration of coloured complex, the greater the
absorbance. Absorbance is a directly proportional to concentration.

📖 explore the use of Keq for different types of chemical reactions, including
but not limited to:

✅
– dissociation of ionic solutions

– dissociation of acids and bases Ž

Dissociation Of Ionic Solutions

The equilibirum constant can be used to describe the dissociation of ionic
solutions. The equilibrium constant, written for the dissolution of a solid into pure
water is knows as the solubility product Ksp.
For the system:

Ab Ba  (s)   ⇌  aA+  (aq)   +  bB−  (aq)

Its solubility product if given by:

Ksp = [A+ ]aeq [B− ]beq

The Ksp for a solid describes its solubility. The higher the Ksp, the more the
equilibrium is shifted to the right and the soluble the substance is since at
equilibrium more of the salt exists as dissociated, hydrated ions in solution.
Conversely, a low Ksp means that the salt is not very soluble, as the equilibrium
is shifted left and most of the salt exists in solid precipitate form.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 23

 Dissociation Of Acids
The equilibrium constant can also be used to describe the dissociation of acids.
When an acid ionises in water, it gives an H + to water which produces a
hydronium ion (H3 O + ), conjugate base.

HA (aq)   +  H2 O (l)   ⇌  H3 O +  (aq)   +  A−  (aq)

where:

HA is the acid
A− is the conjugate base
The conjugate base is the acid molecules minus a H + . The degree to which this
happens depends on the strength of the acid. The stronger the acid, the greater
the degree of ionisation, and the more this equilibrium is shifted to the right.
The equilibrium constant for the ionisation of an acid is called the acid
dissociation constant, Ka .

[H3 O + ][A− ]
Ka =
[HA]

The higher the value of Ka , the more the equilibrium is shifted right, which
means that more of the acid ionised, which describes a stronger acid. Thus, a
higher Ka means a stronger acid.

Dissociation Of Bases

The equilibirum constant can also be used to describe the dissociation of bases.
When a base ionises in water, it takes a H + from water which produces
hydroxide ions (OH − ) and a conjugate acid.

A−  (aq)   +  H2 O (l)   ⇌  OH −  (aq)   +  HA (aq)

where:

A− is the base
HA is the conjugate acid
The conjugate acid is the base molecules plus an extra H + . The degree to
which this happens depends on the strength of the base. The stronger the base,
the greater the degree of ionisation, and the more the equilibrium is shifted to the
right.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 24

 The equilibrium constant for the ionisation of a base is called the base
dissociation constant, Kb .

[OH − ][HA]
Ka =
[A− ]

The higher the value of Kb , the more the equilibrium is shifted right, which
means that more of the base ionised, which describes a stronger base. Thus, a
higher Kb means a stronger base.

Dissociation Constant Of Water

The dissociation constant or ionisation constant of water, Kw , has a relationship
with the dissociation of an acid and the dissociation of an base.

Kw = Ka   ×  Kb

[H3 O + ][A− ] [OH − ][HA]

Kw =   × 
[HA] [A− ]

Kw = [H3 O + ][OH − ]

Since Ka and Kb multiply to equal a constant Kw at given temperature, Ka

and Kb are inversely proportionate. Hence, a higher Ka necessitates a lower
Kb and a higher Kb necessitates a lower Ka .

Solution Equilibria

📖 describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution of ionic

compounds in water ✅
Structure Of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds have a crystalline structure in which positive and negative ions
are arranged in a lattice with every cation surrounded by anions and every
anions surrounded by cations.
The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged cations and anions
extends throughout the whole crystal and hold the lattics together

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 25

 Structure Of Water
Water, composed of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to an oxygen atom,
is a polar molecule because of the large difference in electronegativity between
oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

Oxygen becomes slightly negatively charged and hydrogen becomes slightly

positively charged. Water is also an excellent solvent over a temperature range
from 0°C to 100°C.

Dissolution Of An Ionic Compound In Water

When a solid ionic lattice is initially placed in the water, then ions begin to
dissolve and forwards reaction predominates:

Salt (s)   ⇌  Cation (aq)   +  Anion (aq)

The dissolution process occurs due to the ion dipole interaction between ions
and water. Since water is polar, the slightly negative oxygen is attracted to cation

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 26

 and the slightly positive hydrogens attracted to anions.
As a result from these interactions, water molecules are able to pull away the
ions from their solid lattice and form hydrated shells around the free ions,
stabilising the ions in solution.

📖 investigate the use of solubility equilibria by Aboriginal and Torres Strait

Islander Peoples when removing toxicity from foods, for example:

– toxins in cycad fruit ✅

Detoxifying Bush Foods
Many plant based foods the indigenous Australians ate contains toxins –
substances that may cause harmful affects or even death, forcing them to
demonstrate detoxification of bush foods. The first step was to cook the plant,
then pounded, sliced or ground to increase surface area then leaching.
Leaching involves using water to dissolve toxins and remove it from the food.
The food was placed in a flowing creek so toxins would dissolve and flow away
with the river. The flowing creek serves to constantly decrease the concentration
of aqueous toxin near bush food by replacing it with fresh water.
By Le Chatelier's Principle, decreasing concentration of aqeeous toxins in water
would cause the equilibrium to shiift right, which turns more of the solid toxin in
the food into dissolved toxin in water. Hence, dynamic equilibrium is never
reached and toxins continously exit the food.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 27

 📖 conduct an investigation to determine solubility rules, and predict and
analyse the composition of substances when two ionic solutions are
mixed, for example:

– potassium chloride and silver nitrate ✅

– potassium iodide and lead nitrate Ž
– sodium sulfate and barium nitrate Ž

Precipitation Reaction

A precipitation reaction occurs when two soluble substances are mixed toegther
to form an insolube salt called precipitate and a soluble substance. Ions that are
present but not involved in the reaction are called spectator ions. These ions
make up the soluble substance at the end.
Example: when sodium chloride is added to silver nitrate

NaCl (aq)   +  AgNO3  (aq)   →  AgCl (s)   +  NaNO3  (aq)

In this reaction, the precipitate formed is silver chloride while the spectator ions
are sodium and nitrate.

Solubility
Solubility referse to the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a
given quantity of a solvent at certain temperature. To describe the solubility of

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 28

 ionic substances:

When a substance is soluble, more than 0.1 mol will dissolve in 1L of water

When a substance is insoluble, less than 0.01 mol will dissolve in 1L of

water

When a substance is slightly soluble, about 0.01 - 0.1 mol will dissolve in 1L
of water

Solubility Rules
To determine whether two ionic solutions will form a precipitate, the solubility
rules table can be used to determine if one of the two combination of the two
solutions is insolube.

Potassium Chloride & Silver Nitrate

The chemical equation for the potassium chloride & silver nitrate reaction is:

KCl (aq)   +  AgNO3  (aq)   →  AgCl (s)   +  KNO3  (aq)

For this chemical system, the precipitate formed is silver chloride and the
spectator ions are potassium and nitrate. The net ionic equation for this reaction
is:

Ag+  (aq)   +  Cl −  (aq)   →  AgCl (s)

Potassium Iodide & Lead Nitrate

The chemical equation for the potassium iodide & lead nitrate reaction is:

2KI (aq)   +  P b(NO3 )2  (aq)   →  P bI2  (s)   +  2KNO3  (aq)

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 29

 For this chemical system, the precipitate formed is lead iodide and the spectator
ions are potassium and nitrate. The net ionic equation for this reaction is:

P b2+  (aq)   +  2I −  (aq)   →  P bI2  (s)

Sodium Sulfate & Barium Nitrate

The chemical equation for the sodium sulfate & barium nitrate reaction is:

Na2 SO4  (aq)   +  Ba(NO4 )2  (aq)   →  BaSO4  (s)   +  2NaNO3  (aq)

For this chemical system, the precipitate formed is barium sulfate and the
spectator ions are sodium and nitrate. The net ionic equation for this reaction is:

Ba2+  (aq)   +  SO42−  (aq)   →  BaSO4  (s)

📖 derive equilibrium expressions for saturated solutions in terms of Ksp and

calculate the solubility of an ionic substance from its Ksp value ✅
Saturated Solutions
Saturated solutions is a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute
that can be dissolved at a particular temperature.
Dissociated, hydrated ions are constantly precipitating into the solid substance at
the same rate as the solid if going into solutions and becoming dissociated ions.

Unsaturated Solutions
Unsaturates solutions is a solutions that contains less the maximum amount of
solute that can be dissolved at a particular temperature.

Insoluble Ionic Compounds

Insoluble ionic compounds are compounds that do not dissolve in water.
However, it is more accurate to call these insoluble compounds sparingly soluble
because only very small amounts of sparingly soluble salts dissolve and readily
form saturated solutions.

The Solubility Product

The solubility product, Ksp, is the product of the concentration of ions in a
saturated solution of a sparingly soluble salt. The solubility product is equal to

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 30

 the equilibrium expression for a sparingly soluble salt, except only the aqueous
ions are included.
For the system:

Ab Ba  (s)   ⇌  aA+  (aq)   +  bB−  (aq)

Its solubility product if given by:

Ksp = [A+ ]aeq [B− ]beq

Molar Solubility
The molar solubility of a salt is the number of moles that will dissolve in water to
form 1L of saturated solution.
The molar solubility of a sparingly soluble salt can also be reffered to as the
number of moles that will dissolve per litre of water to form a saturated solution.
Since the salt is sparingly soluble, there is negligible effect on the volume of
water, so the volume of solution is essentially the same.

📖 predict the formation of a precipitate given the standard reference values

for Ksp ✅
The Ionic Product
The ionic product, Qsp , the product of the concentrations of the individual ions of
a sparingly soluble salt present in a particular solution, whether it is saturated or
not.
For the system:

Ab Ba  (s)   ⇌  aAa+  (aq)   +  bBb−  (aq)

Its ionic product if given by:

Qsp = [Aa+ ]a [Bb− ]b

If Qsp < Ksp , then the forward reaction is favoured to reach equilibrium so
the solution remains unsaturated and a precipitate will not form.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 31

 If Qsp > Ksp , then the reverse reaction is favoured to reach equilibrium so
the solution becomes saturated and a precipitate will form.

If Qsp = Ksp , then the solution is at equilibrium so the solution becomes

saturated and a precipitate will form.

The Common Ion Effect

When a salt is dissolved into a solution containing already dissolved ions where
the salt added and the existing solution have a ion in common, it named a
common ion. The common ion effect greatly decreases the solubility of ionic
compounds - far less soluble in solutions with a common ion than they are in
pure water.
If a sparingly soluble salt is added to a solution with a common ion, then it is
assumed that concentration of the common ion comes entriely from the ions that
are already present in the solution and not from the sparingly soluble salt.

Module 5: Equilibrium & Acid Reactions 32