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1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change

States of matter
 Everything is made up of matter. The characteristics of matter are:
 Made up of particles – atoms, molecules or ions
 Particles are in constant motion
 Occupies a volume in space
 Has a mass

Properties of three states of matter

Temperature
 The vibration and movement of particles depend on temperature
 As temperature increases, KEavg increases
 The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin (K)
 Absolute zero is 0 on the kelvin scale (-273° on Celsius scale), and is the
temperature at which all movement of particles stops
 Temperature (K) = Temperature (°C) + 273.15

Changes of State

 Take water for example:

 As temperature increases, kinetic energy in particles increase, causing change
of state
 Melting and boiling are endothermic reactions – energy is transferred
from environment
 As temperature decreases, kinetic energy decreases, causing reversal of state
 Condensation and freezing are exothermic reactions – energy is
transferred to environment
 There is no change in temperature while melting, boiling, condensing or
freezing,
 energy is used to break/create attractive forces so change of state can occur
 Changes of state can be described using the following terms:
 

Classification of Matter
 

 Ion: A charged species

 Anion: Negatively charged ion
 Cation: Positively charged ion

How to balance equations

 Watch this video

4 types of chemical reactions

1. Synthesis
2. Decomposition
3. Single Displacement
4. Double Displacement
A. Complete Combustion
B. Incomplete Combustion

State symbols
1. (s) – solid
2. (l) – liquid
3. (g) – gas
4. (aq) – aqueous

The Atom Economy

 Is a measure of the amount of starting materials that become useful products.
 High atom economy means that less waste is created and reaction has a high
efficiency
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1.2 The mole concept
 Particles are classified as either: Atoms, ions, molecules or formula units
 To perform chemistry, moles of substance are used, and this allows us to make
comparisons between chemical species.

The Mole
 Avogadro’s constant NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1
 Mole: a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance
 Molar mass: mass of 1 mole of a substance (g mol-1)
 Number prefixes which are important to know:

Mole Calculations

Relative atomic mass & molar mass

 Isotopes: Atoms of the same element which have same number of protons
 Isotopes of an element have different mass numbers
 Relative abundance: Measure of percentage of isotopes present in element
 Relative atomic mass (Ar): weighted average of the atomic masses of its
isotopes and their relative abundances
 Relative because compared to 1 atom of carbon-12 (12C) which is 12 units
 Relative molecular mass (Mr): Combining individuals Ar values of atoms in
molecule or formula unit
 Empirical and molecular formula determination
 Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of atoms or amount (in mol)
of each element present in a compound
 Molecular Formula: the actual number of atoms or amount (in mol) of
elements in one structural unit or one mole of the compound

1.3 Reacting masses and volumes

Stoichiometry
 Stoichiometry is the quantitative method of examining the relative amounts of
reactants and products

The limiting reagent

 Limiting reagent is completely consumed during a reaction, the remaining
reactants are in excess
 The limiting reagent is what is used to determine the amount of products
formed

Percentage Yield
 Percentage yield is used to determine the efficiency of a reaction
 Some factors for where yield is lost include:
 Loss of products from reaction vessels
 Impurity of reactants
 Changes in reaction conditions, such as temperature and pressure
 Reverse reactions consuming products in equilibrium systems
 Existence of side reactions due to impurities

Molar volume of a gas

 Ideal gas is a gas which follows the kinetic theory of gases. They are found in
systems with high temperature and low pressure.
 Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): The conditions where
temperature is 273K and pressure is 100 kPa.
 At STP, the Molar Volume of an ideal gas is 22.7 dm3 mol-1
 Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of any gas measured at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules
 This can be applies to stoichiometric relationships in which the
coefficients correspond to the ratio of volumes of gases

The Gas Laws

 1. Boyle’s Law

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2. Charles’s Law

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3. Gay-Lussac’s Law

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4. Combined Gas Law

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5. Ideal gas equation

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Molar Concentration

Titrations
 Titration involves a standard solution of known concentration which is added
to a solution of unknown concentration until the chemical reaction is complete