CHEMISTRY

STANDARD LEVEL
HIGHER LEVEL
 With English to Spanish
translations!!!

1. Stoichiometric relationships
Stoichiometry describes the relationship between the amounts of reactants and products
during chemical reactions. It enables chemists to determine what amounts of substances they
should react together and enables them to predict how much product will be obtained.

1.1. – Introduction to the particulate nature of

matter and chemical change
 Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, which have
different properties from their component elements.
 Mixtures1 contain more than one element and/or compound that are not chemically
bonded together and so retain their individual properties.
 Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Chemical elements are the fundamental building block of chemistry

 A chemical element is a single pure substance, made of only one type of atom.
The atoms of an element are all the same as each other (with the exception of isotopes), and
are different from those of other elements. It is the distinct nature of its atoms that gives each
element its individual properties. An atom is, therefore, the smallest particle of an element to
show the characteristic properties of that element.

Each element is designed by a chemical symbol, such as C, F, K, Ca, Hg, W…

Chemical compounds are formed from more than one element

Some elements are found in native form, that is uncombined with other elements in nature.
Other times they are chemical combinations with other elements, chemical compounds. The
bonding between the atoms in compounds changes their properties, so compounds have
completely different properties from those of their component elements.

 A compound is a chemical combination of different elements, containing a fixed

ratio of atoms. The physical and chemical properties of a compound are different
from those of its component elements.

Chemical equations summarize chemical change

The formation of compounds is an example of chemical change and can be represented by a
chemical equation, where the left-hand side shows the reactants2 and the right-side the
products. As the number of atoms of each element is kept in both, the reactants and the
products, we need to balance the equation using numbers called stoichiometric coefficients.

1
Mezcla
2
Reactivos
Atom economy
The atom economy is the concept used to assess the efficiency of a reaction in making a
particular product. Atom economy is an indication of how much of the reactants ends up in the
required products, rather than in waste products. A higher atom economy indicates a more
efficient and less wasteful process
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
% 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑦 = ∗ 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

Mixtures form when substances combine without chemical interaction

 A mixture is composed of two or more substances in which no chemical
combination has occurred.
A great example is air: individual gases, such as nitrogen and oxygen, keep their properties, as
they do not combine with chemical interaction. In addition, mixtures do not have a fixed
composition.

Air is an example, too, of a homogeneous mixture, meaning that it has uniform composition and
properties throughout3. By contrast, a heterogeneous mixture such as water and oil has non-
uniform composition, so its properties are not the same throughout.

Because the components retain their individual properties in a mixture, they can be easily
separated, through several techniques depending on the differences in physical properties of
the elements forming the mixture.

 Oil spills produce a heterogeneous mixture. They damage wildlife, and efforts to
reduce the impact of the spill include the use of dispersants4, which act somewhat
like soap, in helping to break up the oil into smaller droplets5 so it can mix better
with water. Concern is expressed, however, that these chemicals may increase
toxicity of the oil and might persist in the environment.

Matter exists in different states determined by the temperature and the

pressure
The states of matter are characterized by the different energies of the particles.

The kinetic theory of matter recognized that the average kinetic energy of the particles is
directly related to the temperature of the system. The state of matter at a given temperature
and pressure is determined by the strength of the forces that may exist between the particles,
known as inter-particle forces.

Temperature is, therefore, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a
substance.

3
A lo largo [de toda la mezcla]
4
Dispersante
5
Gotita
 ↑ temperature of the system = ↑ average kinetic energy of the particles

Liquids and gases are referred to as fluids, which refers to their ability to flow. Fluid properties
are why diffusion occurs predominantly in two states. Diffusion is the process by which the
particles of a substance become evenly distributed, as a result of their random movements.
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
As the K.E. of two substances at the same temperature is equal, this means there is an inverse
relationship between mass and velocity. Substances with lower mass diffuse more quickly than
those with greater mass, when measured at the same temperature.

State symbols are used to show the states of the reactants and products taking part in a
reaction: solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g) and aqueous (aq).

Matter changes state reversibly

When the kinetic energy of the particles increase with temperature, they overcome the inter-
particle forces and change state.
Iodine, CO2

Snow, frost
Boiling depends on the external pressure of the air. If the pressure is higher, for example, in a
pressure cooker, the particles of the substance need more kinetic energy to escape of the liquid
part, as they emerge in the form of bubbles when the pressure out of the substance is achieved.

 Freeze-drying is an effective process for the preservation of food and some

pharmaceuticals. It depends on the sublimation of ice. The substance to be
preserved is first frozen, and then warmed gently6 at very low pressure which
causes the ice to change directly to water vapor. Despite the slow process, the
composition of the material is conserved; therefore, its flavor, too. It can be
reconstituted later by adding water.
 Dew point7 is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated
with water vapor. It depends on the atmospheric pressure and the water contents
of the air – the relative humidity. If the relative humidity is 100%, the dew point is
equal to the current temperature. Most people find this uncomfortable, as the
condensation, which increases during night, inhibits the evaporation of sweat, one
of the body’s main cooling mechanisms.
When heating a substance, the kinetic energy increases during most of the time. However, when
a state change is happening, the energy used to heat the substance is spent in breaking the inter-
particle forces, not to raise the kinetic energy, so the temperature remains constant. The

6
Gradualmente
7
Punto de rocío
breaking of inter-particle forces allows the substance to undergo the melting and boiling
processes; in addition, the boiling phase transition needs more energy, as all the inter-particle
forces have to be broken.

 The process of refrigeration is usually based on energy changes during the

evaporation and condensation cycle under changing pressure of a volatile liquid
known as the refrigerant. At low pressure the liquid vaporizes and absorbs heat,
causing cooling of the surroundings.
1.2. – The mole concept
The weight of the elements is different. It depends on the number of particle it contains, mostly
nucleons8 in their nucleus.

6,022*1023 is known as the Avogadro number, and it is the basis of the unit of amount used in
chemistry knows as the mole. A mole of a substance contains 6,022*1023 particles.

 The Avogadro constant, 6,022*1023, is the number of particles in one mole of a

substance and has the units mol-1.

Relative atomic mass is used to compare the masses of atoms

 Relative atomic mass, Ar, is the weighted average of one atom of an element
relative to one-twelfth of an atom of carbon-12.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝐴𝑟 =
1
12 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛– 12

Relative formula mass is used to compare masses of compounds

Relative formula mass = Mr. It simply involves adding the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
or ions present in the formula of the compound or the element occurring as a molecule.

Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance

 The molar mass of a substance, M, is its relative atomic mass, Ar, or its relative
formula mass, Mr, expressed in grams. It has the units g-mol-1.
 One mole is the mass of substance that contains as many particles as there are
atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.

Some formulas…
𝑚 (𝑔)
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) =
𝑀 (𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )

The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of its atoms
 The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the elements in a
compound.
We can analyse hydrated salts too. They contain a fixed ratio of molecules of water, known as
water of cristallyzation, within the crystalline structure of the compound. The water of
cristallyzation can be driven off by heating, and the change in mass used to calculate the ratio
of water molecules to the anhydrous salt.

8
Nucleones
The molecular formula of a compound gives the actual number of atoms
in a molecule
 The molecular formula shows all the atoms present in a molecule. It is a multiple
of the empirical formula.
1.3. – Reacting masses and volumes
Chemical equations show reactants combining in a fixed molar ratio

Carbon footprint9
 The term carbon footprint refers to the mass of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases (such as methane) that and individual emits in a 1-year period.
It represents the total climate change impact of all the greenhouse gases caused
by an item or activity.
 It includes emissions from fuels used in transport, services such as heating,
production and consumption of food, and the direct and indirect emissions from
manufactured goods and constructions.

The theoretical yield10 is determined by the limiting reactant

The reactant that determines the quantity of product is known as the limiting reactant, while
the others are said to be in excess. The theoretical yield, usually expressed in grams or moles,
refers to the maximum amount of product obtainable, assuming 100% of the limiting reactant
is converted to product. The limiting reactant has to be identified using mole ratios.

If we want to measure the excess product of a reaction, we can use, for example, a technique
called back-titration, which analyses excess acid or alkali after a reaction is complete, and so
indirectly measures the amount of a limiting reactant.

The percentage yield can be calculated from the experimental and

theoretical yields.
Calculating the percentage yield is important to determine the efficiency of a process, for
example, in processes such as the synthesis of a drug in the pharmaceutical industry. This is an
important part of green chemistry, as it focuses on ways to increase the yield of product by
reducing wastage.
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = ∗ 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑞𝑢í𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜 = ∗ 100%
𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒ó𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑜

9
Huella de carbono
10
Rendimiento teórico
Avogadro’s law directly relates gas volumes to moles
Gas volumen is determined only by the number of particles and by the temperature and
pressure. This is known as the Avogadro’s law:

 Equal volumes of all gases, when measured at the same temperature and
pressure, contain an equal number of particles.
 Airbags work on the principle of a chemical reaction triggered by the impact
producing a gaseous product that causes a sudden volume change.

All gases under the same conditions have the same molar volume
Following the Avogadro’s law, at standard temperature and pressure (STP), one mole of gas has
a volume of 2,27 * 10-2 m3 mol-1 (=22,7 dm3 mol-1). The conditions at STP are:

 Temperature of 0ºC (273K)

 Pressure of 100kPa
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑛) =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

The gas laws describe pressure, volume, and temperature relationships

for all gases
An ideal gas is one that obeys11 the ideal gas laws; it would have largely empty space containing
free moving particles of negligible12 volume having no inter-particle forces.

All gases respond in the same way to changes in volume, pressure, and temperature when the
mass of the gas is fixed. These relationships do not depend on the chemical nature of the gas,
and are summarized as the gas laws.

Pressure and temperature

 Pressure is always measured, in the SI, in Pascals (Pa), (N m-2); 105 Pa = 1 bar
 Temperature is always measured, in the SI, in Kelvin (K)

1. Relationship between volume and pressure

The volumen of a gas is always the volume of its container as the particles spread out fully. Its
pressure is the result of the particles colliding with the walls of the container, and will increase
when the frequency or energy of these collisions increases. If the temperature is held constant,
it is found that increasing the pressure on a fixed mass of gas decreases its volume. This
relationship is known as Boyle’s law.

 As the pressure on a gas is increased, its volume decreases proportionately.

2. Relationship between volume and temperature

An increase in temperature represents an increase in the average kinetic energy of the particles.
The volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, and volume divided by
absolute temperature is a constant. This is known as Charle’s law.

3. Relationship between pressure and temperature

11
obedece
12
insignificantes
An increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the particles, and the
pressure of the gas increases, as its particles collide with the walls of the container with more
energy and more frequency.

The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, and pressure divided
by temperature is a constant.

4. In summary…

The ideal gas equation is derived from the combined gas equation and
Avogadro’s law.
𝑃𝑉
As the value of the constant 𝑇
is directly proportional to the fixed mass of the gas, or the
number of moles, n, introducing the a constant, R, known as the universal gas constant, we can
𝑃𝑉
make this equation: 𝑇
= 𝑛𝑅 ↔ 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇. This equation is known as the ideal gas equation,
where:

 Pressure is measured in Pa (N m-2).

 Volume is measured in m3
 n is the number of moles
 Temperature is measured in Kelvin

Real gases show a deviation from ideal behavior

For one mole of an ideal gas, the relationship PV/RT is a constant at all pressures. But in real
gases, this ideal behavior is not present. The real data deviates from the predicted with the ideal
gas equation when either or both of these assumptions are not valid:

 The volume of the gas particles is negligible – when the pressure is high, the space
between particles is reduced, and the percentage of volume of the gas increases rapidly.
 There are no attractive forces between particles – when the pressure is high, the
particles are closer, and the attractive forces strengthen between them; this reduces
the pressure of the gas. Low temperatures increase this deviation, because the lower
kinetic energy of the particles increase the strength of inter-particle forces and reduces
𝑃𝑉
gas pressure: (𝑛𝑅𝑇 < 1)

These conditions happen often at high pressure and low temperature, when the gas is more
close to changing into liquid state.

In order to solve these differences, the van der Waals’ equation has correction terms for both
the volume of the particles and the inter-particle interactions, and these are different for specific
gases.
The concentration of a solution depends of solute and volume of
solution
Liquids, like gases, can be quantified by measuring their volume, instead of their mass.
Sometimes, we found solutions rather than pure substances, that contain two or more
substances.

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, which may be solids, liquids,
or gases, or a combination of these. The solvent is the component present in the greatest
quantity, in which the solute is dissolved.

 The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute per volume of

solution. It has the units mol dm-3 or g dm-3.
 Square brackets are often used to represent ‘concentration of’ a particular
substance; such as [HCl] = 1.0 mol dm-3.
 Note that concentration is specified per volume of final solution, not per volume
of solvent added. This is because volume changes occur on dissolving the solute.
 Standard solutions are solutions of known concentration, that chemists prepare
routinely; a standard solution is one of accurately known concentration.
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙) 𝒏
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚−3 ) = 3
↔𝒄=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑚 ) 𝑽
A different unit concentration is known as ppm, parts per million. It means that, for each
kilogram of solution, there is 1 mg of solute. The advantage of this values, based on mass, is that
they are not temperature dependent.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝𝑝𝑚) = ∗ 106
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Dilutions of solutions reduce the concentration

As a solution (the starting solution is called stock solution) is diluted, the number of moles
remains the same, but the concentration is decreased; therefore, n=constant

𝑐1 𝑉1 = 𝑐2 𝑉2
The concentration of a solution can be determined by volumetric
analysis
We can measure it with volumetric analysis, for example, with a technique called titration13. A
pipette is used to measure a known volume of one the solution into a conical flask; a burette is
also used. The point at which both solutions have reacted completely is the equivalence point14,
usually determined by an indicator added to the solution in the conical flask that changes the
color of the solution at its end-point15.

The volume needed to reach the end-point of the titration is known as the titre16.

Back titration
Is done in reverse by returning to the end-point after it is passed. It is used when the end-point
is hard to identify or when one of the reactants is impure. A known excess of one of the reagents
is added to the reaction mixture, and the unreacted excess is then determined by titration
against a standard solution. By subtracting the amount of unreacted reactant from the original
amount used, the reacting amount can be determined.

13
Titulación
14
Punto de equivalencia o punto estequiométrico
15
Punto final
16
Reactivo llamado valorante o titulador
 2. Atomic structure
Different atoms are made from different combinations of the same sub-atomic particles. To
understand the block structure of the Periodic Table, we need to use quantum theory17 and
adopt a wave description of matter.

2.1. – The nuclear atom

Dalton’s model of atom
 An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
a chemical reaction
There are only 92 elements which occur naturally on earth and they are made up from only 92
different types of atoms.

In the 19th century, John Dalton noticed that the elements hydrogen and oxygen always
combined in the same proportion, and proposed that:

 Atoms, tiny indivisible particles that form matter, cannot be created or destroyed
 Atoms of the same element are alike in every way
 Atoms of different elements are different
 Atoms can combine together in small numbers to form molecules.

Elements react together to make new substances called compounds.

 A compound is a substance made by chemically combining two or more elements.

It has different properties from its constituent elements.
 Paradigm shifts are revolutions in understanding, characteristic of the evolutions
of scientific thinking; they happen, for example, when scientist do not accept a
theory initially, but later it gets there is a general shift and gets widespread
acceptance.

Atoms contain electrons

Electrons were first discovered when J. J. Thomson noticed that different metals produce a
stream of negatively charged particles when a high voltage is applied across two electrodes. As
these particles, now known as electrons, were the same regardless of the metal, he suggested
that they are part of the make-up of all atoms.

As it was known that the atom had no net charge, Thomson pictured the atom as a ‘plum
pudding’, with the negatively charged electrons scattered in a positively charged sponge-like
substance

17
Mecánica cuántica
Rutherford’s model of atom
Rutherford fired alpha particles at a piece of gold foil. All
the particles were supposed to pass straight through it or
get stuck in the positive ‘sponge’, though some of them
bounced back. The high number of undeflected18 particles
suggested that the atom is mainly empty space. Large
deflections occur when positively charged alpha particles
collide with and are repelled by a dense, positively
charged center called the nucleus. The fact that only a small number of alpha particles bounce
back suggests that the nucleus is very small.

Sub-atomic particles
The nucleus of an atom is made up of sub-atomic particles, the protons and neutrons,
collectively called nucleons. Both the protons and neutrons have almost the same mass as a
hydrogen nucleus and account for the most of the mass of the atom. Electrons, which have a
charge equal and opposite to that of the proton, occupy the space in the atom outside of the
nucleus. These particles are described by their relative masses and charges which have no units.

 PET (positron-emission tomography) scanners give three-dimensional images of

tracer concentration in the body, and can be used to detect cancers. The patient
is injected with a tracer compound, labelled with a positron emitting isotope, into
the bloodstream, which is then absorbed by active tissues of the brain. The
positrons collide with electrons after travelling a short distance (≈1 mm) within
the body. Both particles are destroyed with the production of two photons, which
can be collected by the detectors surrounding the patient, and used to generate
an image.


Bohr model of the hydrogen atom

In an atom, an electron moves in an orbit or energy level around the
positively charged nucleus of one proton. The electrostatic force of
attraction between the oppositely charged sub-atomic particles
prevents the electron from leaving the atom.

Neutrons are crucial for elements with more than one proton. Without them, the positively
charged protons would mutually repel each other and the nucleus would fall apart.

Atomic number and mass number

All the atoms are made of up the same sub-atomic particles. They differ, though, in the number
of them that they contain. The atomic number (Z), is the defining property of an element, and
tells us something about the structure of the atoms of the element. It is defined as the number
of protons in the nucleus. As an atom has no overall charge, the positive charge of the protons
must be balanced by the negative charge of the electrons. The atomic number is also equal to
the number of electrons.

18
No desviadas
The mass number (A) is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom. As it
gives the total number of nucleons in the nucleus, it is sometimes called the nucleon number.

𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝒑) = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝒁

𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 (𝒏) = 𝑨 − 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝑨 − 𝒁

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element (same number of protons) with different number of neutrons or
different mass numbers are called isotopes. The isotopes show the same chemical properties,
as a difference in the number of neutrons makes no difference to how they react.

The difference in mass of the isotopes does lead to different physical properties such as boiling
and melting points. Heavier isotopes move more slowly at a given temperature and these
differences can be used to separate isotopes.

 Radioisotopes are used in nuclear medicine for diagnostics, treatment, and

research, as tracers in biochemical and pharmaceutical research, and as ‘chemical
clocks’ in geological and archaeological dating.

Ions
When an atom loses electrons, a positive ion is formed and when it gains electrons, a negative
ion is formed. Positive ions are called cations and negative ions are called anions. The loss or
gain of electrons makes a very big difference to the chemical properties.

Relative atomic masses of some elements

An instrument known as a mass spectrometer can be used to measure the mass of individual
atoms. As the masses of the elements are beyond our direct experience, it makes more sense to
use relative values. Carbon isotope 12C was chosen as a standard, and it was given a relative mass
of exactly 12.

 The relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) is the average mass of an atom of the
element, taking into account all its isotopes and their relative abundance,
compared to one atom of carbon-12.

Mass spectra
The results of the analysis by the mass spectrometer are presented in the form of a mass
spectrum. The horizontal axis shows the mass/charge ratio of the different ions on the carbon-
12 scale, which in most cases can be considered equivalent to their mass. The percentage
abundance of the ions is shown on the vertical scale.
 2.2. – Electron configuration
Atoms of different elements give out light of a distinctive colour when an electric discharge is
passed through a vapour of the element. Similarly, metals can be identified by the colour of the
same produced when their compounds are heated in a Bunsen burner. Analysis of the light
emitted by different atoms has given us insights into the electron configurations within the
atom.

The electromagnetic spectrum

All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed (c)
but can be distinguished by their different wavelengths
(λ). The number of waves which pass a particular point
in 1 s is called the frequency (v); the shorter the
wavelength, the higher the frequency.

𝑐 =𝑣∗𝜆
The distance between two successive crests (or troughs) is called the wavelength (λ). The
frequency (v) of the wave is the number of waves which pass a point in one second. In the
equation 𝑐 = 𝑣 ∗ 𝜆, c equals the speed of light.

White light is a mixture of light waves of differing wavelengths or colours. We see this, for
example, when sunlight passes through a prism to produce a continuous spectrum.

As well as visible light, atoms emit infrared radiation, which has a longer wavelength than red
light, and ultraviolet radiation, with a shorter wavelength than violet light.

Atomic absorption and emission line spectra

The spectrometer analyses the transmitted radiation relative to the incident radiation and an
absorption spectrum is produced.

 An absorption spectrum shows the radiation absorbed as atoms move from a

lower to a higher energy level. An emission spectrum is produced when an atom
moves from a higher to a lower level.
When white light is passed through hydrogen gas, an absorption line spectrum is produced with
some colours of the continuous spectrum missing. If a high voltage is applied to the gas, a
corresponding emission line spectrum is produced.

The colours present in the emission spectrum are the same as those that are missing from the
absorption spectra. They give us valuable information about the electron configurations of
different atoms.
  The elemental composition of stars can be determined by analysing their
absorption spectra.

Evidence for the Bohr model

Niels Bohr proposed that an electron moves into an orbit or higher energy level further from the
nucleus when an atom absorbs energy. The excited state produced is, however, unstable and
the electron soon falls back to the lowest level or ground state. The energy the electron gives
out when it falls into lower levels is in the form of electromagnetic radiation. One packet of
energy (quantum) or photon is released for each electron transition.

Δ𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ ∗ 𝑣 Δ𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = ℎ ∗ 𝑣

The atoms emit photons of certain energies which give lines of certain frequencies, because the
electron can only occupy certain orbits. The electron cannot change its energy in a continuous
way; it can only change its energy by discrete amounts. This energy of the atom is quantized.
The line spectrum is crucial evidence for quantization: if the energy were not quantized, the
emission spectrum would be continuous.

 A continuous spectrum shows an unbroken sequence of frequencies, such as the

spectrum of visible light.
 A line emission spectrum has only certain frequencies of light as it is produced by
excited atoms and ions as they fall back to a lower energy level.
 A line absorption spectrum is a continuous spectrum except for certain colours
which are absorbed as the atoms are excited to higher energy levels.
 The amount of light absorbed at particular frequency depends on the identity and
concentration of atoms present. Atomic absorption spectroscopy is used to
measure the concentration of metallic elements.

The hydrogen spectrum

Hydrogen produces visible light when the electron falls to the second energy level (n = 2). The
transitions to the first energy level (n = 1) correspond to a higher energy change and are in the
ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Infrared radiation is produced when an electron falls to the
third or higher energy levels.

The energy levels inside the atoms are closer together at higher energy and they converge.
When an electron is at the highest energy n = ∞, it is no longer in the atom and the atom has
been ionized. The energy needed to remove an electron from the ground state of an atom in a
mole of gaseous atoms, ions, or molecules is called the ionization energy.

 The first ionization energy of an element is the minimum energy needed to remove
one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms in their ground state.

Wave and particle models

Although the Bohr model of the atom was able to explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen
with great success, it failed to predict the spectral lines of atoms with more than one electron.

Light can be described either by its frequency, v, which is a wave property, or by the energy of
individual particles, E.
  The diffraction, or spreading out, of light that occurs when light passes through a
small slit19 can only be explained by a wave model.
 The scattering20 of electrons that occurs when light is incident on a metal surface
is best explained using a particle model of light.
In a similar way, quantum theory suggests that it is sometimes preferable to think of an electron
(or indeed any particle) as having wave properties. The diffraction pattern produced when a
beam of electrons is passed through a thin sheet of graphite demonstrates the wave properties
of electrons. To understand the electron configurations of atoms it is useful to consider a wave
description of the electron.

 Bohr model had some limitations: it could only explain successfully the hydrogen
spectrum, it couldn’t accurately calculate the spectral lines of larger atoms, and
couldn’t explain why the intensity of the spectra lines were not all equal.

The Uncertainty Principle

Another fundamental problem with the Bohr model is that it assumes the electron’s trajectory
can be precisely described. This is now known to be impossible, as any attempt to measure an
electron’s position will disturb its motion. The best we can hope for is a probability picture of
where the electron is likely to be, according to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.

Schrödinger model of the hydrogen atom

Erwin Schrödinger proposed that a wave equation could be used to describe the behaviour of
an electron in the same way that a wave equation could be used to described the behaviour of
light. The equation can be applied to multi-electron systems and its solutions are known as
atomic orbitals. An atomic orbital is a region around an atomic nucleus in which there is a 90%
probability of finding the electron. The shape of the orbitals will depend on the energy of the
electron. When an electron is in an orbital of higher energy it will have a higher probability of
being found further from the nucleus.

Atomic orbitals
 The first energy level has one 1s orbital
It can hold a maximum of two electrons. The first energy level consists of a 1s atomic orbital
which is spherical in shape.

 The electrons in the Bohr model occupy orbits, which are circular paths. An orbital,
which is a wave description of the electron, shows the volume of space in which
the electron is likely to be found.
 The second energy level has a 2s and 2p level

The second energy level of the Bohr model is split into two sub-levels in the Schrödinger model.

The 2s sublevel is made up from one 2s orbital and can hold a maximum of two electrons, and
the 2p sub-level is made up from three 2p orbitals and can hold six electrons. The 2p sub-level
contains three 2p atomic orbitals of equal energy which are said to be degenerate. They all have

19
Hendidura
20
Dispersión
the same dumbbell shape21; the only difference is their orientation in space. They are arranged
at right angles to each other with the nucleus at the centre.

 d and f orbitals

The third energy level is made up from three sub-levels: the 3s, 3p, and 3d. The d sub-level is
made up from five d atomic orbitals.

The letters s, p, d, and f are used to identify different sub-levels and the atomic orbitals which
comprise them. The 4f sub-levels are made up from seven f atomic orbitals, but you are not
required to know the shapes of these orbitals.

Electron spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle

The relative energies of the 4s and 3d atomic orbitals is chemically significant.

 The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no more than two electrons can occupy
any one orbital, and if two electrons are in the same orbital they must spin in
opposite directions.
 An electron is uniquely characterized by its atomic orbital and spin. If two
electrons occupied the same orbital spinning in the same direction, they would be
the same electron.


21
Forma de mancuerna
Sub-levels of electrons
 Each main level can hold a maximum of 2n2 electrons.
 s sub-levels can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
 p sub-levels can hold a maximum of 6 electrons.
 d sub-levels can hold a maximum of 10 electrons.
 f sub-levels can hold a maximum of 14 electrons.

Aufbau Principle: orbital diagrams

The Aufbau Principle states that electrons are placed into orbitals of lowest energy first. Boxes
can be used to represent the atomic orbitals, with single-headed arrows to represent the
spinning electrons.

Following Hund’s third rule, we can place the two electrons in separate orbitals because this
configuration minimizes the mutual repulsion between them.

Hund’s rule: If more than one orbital in a sub-level is available, electrons occupy different
orbitals with parallel spins.

The relative energy of the orbitals depends on the atomic number

The energy of an orbital depends on the attractions between the electrons and the nucleus and
inter-electron repulsions. The 3d and 4s levels are very close in energy and their relative
separation is very sensitive to inter-electron repulsion. For the elements potassium and calcium,
the 4s orbitals are filled before the 3d sub-level. Electrons are, however, first lost from the 4s
sub-level when transitional metals form their ions, as once the 3d sub-level is occupied the 3d
electrons push the 4s electrons to higher energy.

 When the transition metal atoms form ions they lose electrons from the 4s sub-
level before the 3d sub-level.
The electrons in the outer energy level are mainly responsible for compound formation and are
called valence electrons.

 For the d block elements three points should be noted:

• the 3d sub-level is written with the other n = 3 sub-levels as it falls below the 4s
orbital once the 4s orbital is occupied (i.e. for Ca, 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2);
• chromium has the electron configuration [Ar] 3d54s1;
• copper has the electron configuration [Ar] 3d104s1.

As the 4s and 3d orbitals are close in energy, the electron configuration for chromium with a
half-full d sub-level is relatively stable as it minimizes electrostatic repulsion, with six singly
occupied atomic orbitals. This would be the expected configuration using Hund’s rule if the 4s
and 3d orbitals had exactly the same energy. Half-filled and filled sub-levels seem to be
particularly stable: the configuration for copper is similarly due to the stability of the full d sub-
level.

Electron configuration of ions

Ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons. These electrons are gained or lost in/from the
outer sub-levels.

When positive ions are formed for transition metals, the outer 4s electrons are removed before
the 3d electrons. For example, Cr is [Ar] 3d54s1 and Cr3+ is [Ar] 3d3.

Electronic configuration and

the Periodic Table.

12.1.– Electrons in atoms

Ionization energy
 The first ionization energy is the energy needed to remove one mole of electrons
from the ground state of one mole of the gaseous atom.
 𝑯(𝒈) → 𝑯+ (𝒈) + 𝒆−
 Once removed from the atom, the electron is an infinite distance away from the
nucleus and can considered to be in the n=∞ energy level.
 Ionization energies can also be used to support Bohr model of atom.

Patterns in successive ionization energies give evidence for the energy

levels in the atom
The ionization energies for aluminium are shown below and follow a similar pattern to the
electron configuration.
 1. There is an increase in
successive ionization energies. The
first ionization energy involves the
separation of an electron from a
singly charged ion and the second
the separation of an electron from a
doubly charged ion. The process
becomes more difficult as there is
increasing attraction between the
higher charged positive ions and the
oppositely charged electron.

2. There are jumps when electrons

are removed from levels closer to the nucleus. The first three ionization energies involve the
removal of electrons from the third level. The 3p electron is removed first, followed by the
electrons from the 3s orbital. An electron is removed from the second level for the fourth
ionization energy. This electron is closer to the nucleus and is more exposed to the positive
charge of the nucleus and so needs significantly more energy to be removed. There is similarly
a large jump for the 12th ionization energy as it corresponds to an electron being removed from
the 1s orbital.

A closer look at successive ionization energies gives evidence for the sub-
levels
The jump between the ninth and tenth ionization energies shows
that the eleventh electron is more difficult to remove than we would
expect from the pattern of the six previous electrons. This suggests
that the second energy level is divided into two sub-levels.

This evidence confirms that the 2s sub-level can hold a maximum of

two electrons, and the 2p sub-level can hold six electrons.
Trends in first ionization energy across periods accounts for the existence
of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms
Ionization energy generally increases from left to
right across a period, as the nuclear charge
increases. As the electrons are removed from the
same main energy level, there is an increase in the
force of electrostatic attraction between the
nucleus and outer electrons.

1. Ionization energy decreases down a group as a

new energy level, which is further from the nucleus,
is occupied. Less energy is required to remove outer electrons that are further from the
attractive pull of the nucleus.
2. There are regular discontinuities in the trend across a period, which are explored below.

The scanning tunneling microscope (STM)

The STM does not ‘see’ the atoms, but ‘feels’ them. An ultra-fine tip scans a surface and records
a signal as the tip moves up and down depending on the atoms present. The STM also provides
a physical technique for manipulating individual atoms. They can be positioned accurately in just
the same way as using a pair of tweezers22.

Waves can be thought of as a carrier of information. The precision of the information they
provide is based on their wavelength or the momentum of the associated particles. Electrons
can be accelerated to high momenta which allows electron microscopy to be used to show
more precise detail than that provided by light microscopy. This has led to many advances
in biology, such as the ultrastructure of cells and viruses.

22
Pequeñas pinzas
 3. Periodicity
3.1. – The Periodic Table
The elements are placed in order of increasing atomic number (Z), which we now know is a
fundamental property of the element – the number of protons in the nucleus of its atoms.

The columns of the table are called groups and the rows periods. The position of an element is
related to the electron configuration of its atoms.

Periods are numbered according to the number of energy levels (shells) in the atoms in that
period that have electrons, groups are numbered according to the number of electrons in the
outer energy level of the atoms in that group.

For example, bromine is in Period 4 and in Group 17 of the p block as it has seven electrons in
the fifth principal energy level, and seventeen more electrons than the previous noble gas,
argon: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5

Metals and non-metals

The halogens
are a
reactive
group, the
noble glases
are a very
unreactive
family of
non-metals.
Alkali metals
(G2) are a
reactive
group. The
lanthanoides
and actinoides are metals. The metalloid elements have the characteristics of both metals and
non-metals. Their physical properties and appearance most resemble the metals, although
chemically they have more in common with the non-metals.

 The lanthanoides and actinoides both make up the f block of the Periodic Table.
 3.2. – Periodic trends
Physical properties
The periodicity of the elements is reflected in their physical properties. The atomic and ionic
radii, electronegativity, and ionization energy are of particular interest as they explain the
periodicity of the chemical properties. The concept of effective nuclear charge is helpful in
explaining trends in both physical and chemical properties. The concept of effective nuclear
charge is helpful in explaining trends in both physical and chemical properties.

1. Effective nuclear charge

The nuclear charge of the atom is given by the atomic
number. The outer electrons which determine many
of the physical and chemical properties of the atom
do not, however, experience the full attraction of this
charge as they are shielded23 from the nucleus and
repelled by the inner electrons. The presence of the
inner electrons reduces the attraction of the nucleus
for the outer electrons. The effective charge
‘experienced’ by the outer electrons is less than the
full nuclear charge.

 The effective nuclear charge experienced by an atom’s outer electrons increases

with the group number of the element. It increases across a period but remains
approximately the same down a group.

2. Atomic radius
The atomic radius r is measured as half the distance between neighbouring nuclei. For many
purposes, however, it can be considered as the distance from the nucleus to the outermost
electrons of the Bohr atom.

The atomic radii increase down a group, as the number of occupied electron shells (given by the
period number) increases, and decrease across a period (IB data booklet).

The decrease in radii across a period is quite significant, and is because the attraction between
the nucleus and the outer electrons increases as the nuclear charge increases so there is a
general decrease in atomic radii across the period.

3. Ionic radius
 Positive ions are smaller than their parent atoms. The formation of positive ions
involves the loss of the outer shell.
 Negative ions are larger than their parent atoms. The formation of negative ions
involves the addition of electrons into the outer shell. The increased electron

23
Protegidos, resguardados
 repulsion between the electrons in the outer principal energy level causes the
electrons to move further apart and so increases the radius of the outer shell.
 The ionic radii decrease from Groups 1 to 14 for the positive ions. The decrease in
ionic radius is due to the increase in nuclear charge with atomic number across
the period. The increased attraction between the nucleus and the electrons pulls
the outer shell closer to the nucleus.
 The ionic radii decrease from Groups 14 to 17 for the negative ions. The decrease
in ionic radius is due to the increase in nuclear charge across the period.
 The ionic radii increase down a group as the number of electron energy levels
increases.

4. Ionization energies
 The first ionization energy of an element is the energy
required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of gaseous atoms in their ground state.
Ionization energies increase across a period. The increase in
effective nuclear charge causes an increase in the attraction between the outer electrons and
the nucleus and makes the electrons more difficult to remove.

Ionization energies decrease down a group. The electron removed is from the energy level
furthest from the nucleus. Although the nuclear charges increase, the effective nuclear charge
is about the same, owing to shielding of the inner electrons, and so the increased distance
between the electron and the nucleus reduces the attraction between them.

The drop between Groups 15 and 16 occurs as the electron removed from a Group 16 element,
unlike a Group 15 element, is taken from a doubly occupied p orbital.

As p orbitals have higher energy than s orbitals, ns2 have higher ionization energies than ns2np1.
 5. Electron affinity
The first electron affinity of an element is the energy change when one mole of electrons is
added to one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous ions.

In the first electron affinity, as the added electron is attracted to the positively charged nucleus
the process is generally exothermic. In the second and third electron affinities, the process is
endothermic as the added electron is repelled by the negatively charged oxide (O–) ion, and
energy needs to be available for this to occur.

The pattern in electron affinities is related to that observed with first ionization energy but
generally displaced to the right by one and inverted.

 The Group 17 elements have incomplete outer energy levels and a high effective
nuclear charge of approximately +7 and so attract electrons the most.
 The Group 1 metals have the lowest effective nuclear charge of approximately +1
and so attract the extra electron the least.

The electron affinities reach a maximum for Group 2 and Group 5 elements. Group 2 elements
have an electron configuration ns2, so the added electron must be placed into a 2p orbital which
is further from the nucleus and so experiences reduced electrostatic attraction due to shielding
from electrons in the ns orbital.

Group 15 elements have the configuration ns2npx1py1pz1 so the added electron must occupy a p
orbital that is already singly occupied: the attraction between the electron and atom is less than
expected as there is increased inter-electron repulsion.

6. Electronegativity
The electronegativity of an element is a measure of the ability of its atoms to attract electrons
in a covalent bond. It is also a measure of the attraction between the nucleus and its outer
electrons – in this case bonding electrons.

An element with a high electronegativity has strong electron pulling power and an element with
a low electronegativity has weak pulling power.

 Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period owing to the increase
in nuclear charge, resulting in an increased attraction between the nucleus and
the bond electrons.
 Electronegativity decreases down a group. The bonding electrons are furthest
from the nucleus and so there is reduced attraction.
Elements with high electronegativities have the most exothermic electron. Electronegativity is
a property of an atom in a molecule. Electronegativity values are derived indirectly from
experimental bond energy data.
Metals have lower ionization energies and electronegativities than non-
metals
The ability of metals to conduct electricity is due to the availability of their valence electrons to
move away from the atomic nucleus. This can be related to their low ionization energies and
electronegativities.

Melting points
Comparisons between melting points of different elements are more complex as they depend
on both the type of bonding and the structure.

Melting points decrease down Group 1. The elements have metallic structures which are held
together by attractive forces between delocalized outer electrons and the positively charged
ions. This attraction decreases with distance.

Melting points increase down Group 17. The elements have molecular structures which are held
together by London (dispersion) forces. These increase with the number of electrons in the
molecule.

Melting points generally rise across a period and reach a maximum at Group 14. They then fall
to reach a minimum at Group 18.

Chemical properties
The chemical properties of an element are determined by the electron configuration of its
atoms. Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties as they have the same
number of valence electrons in their outer energy level.

a) Group 18: the noble gases

• They are colourless gases.
• They are monatomic: they exist as single atoms.
• They are very unreactive.

They are very unreactive due to the inability of their atoms to lose or gain electrons. They do
not generally form positive ions as they have the highest ionization energies. They do not form
negative ions. With the exception of helium, they have complete valence energy levels with
eight electrons; a stable octet.

The reactivity of elements in other groups can be explained by their unstable incomplete
electron energy levels. The most reactive element in a group has the lowest ionization energy
as reactions involve the withdrawal of electrons from the parent atom.

b) Group 1: the alkali metals

They are usually stored in oil to prevent
contact with air and water.

They form single charged ions, M+, with the stable octet of the noble gases when they react.
Their low ionization energies give an indication of the ease with which the outer electron is lost.
Reactivity increases down the group as the elements with higher atomic number have the lowest
ionization energies. Their ability to conduct electricity and heat is also due to the mobility of
their outer electron.
The alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen and the metal hydroxide. Lithium reacts
slowly, releasing hydrogen, while sodium reacts faster releasing a vigorous24 quantity of
hydrogen and producing great heat. Potassium reacts producing sufficient heat to ignite the
hydrogen produced. The most reactive element, caesium, has the lowest ionization energy and
so forms positive ions most readily.

The metals are called alkali metals because the resulting solution is alkaline owing to the
presence of the hydroxide ion formed.

2K(s) + 2H2 O(l) → 2K + (aq) + 2OH − (aq) + H2 (g)

Group 17: the halogens

The Group 17 elements exist as
diatomic molecules, X2.

The trend in reactivity can be

explained by their readiness to accept electrons, as illustrated by their very exothermic electron
affinities discussed earlier. The nuclei have a high effective charge, of approximately +7, and so
exert a strong pull on any electron from other atoms. The stable octet is then formed. Reactivity
decreases down the group as the atomic radius increases and the attraction for outer electrons
decreases.

G17-1: Reaction with Group 1 metals

The halogens react with the Group 1 metals to form ionic halides25. The halogen atom gains one
electron from the Group 1 element to form a halide ion X–. Once the transfer of electrons is
complete, the ions are pulled together by the mutual attraction of their opposite charges
(electrostatic force of attraction).

The most vigorous reaction occurs between the elements which are furthest apart in the
Periodic Table.

G17-2: Displacement reactions (page 114)

 The more reactive halogen displaces the ions of the less reactive halogen from its
compounds.

G17-3: The halides

The halogens form insoluble salts with
silver. Adding a solution containing
the halide to a solution containing
silver ions produces a precipitate that
is useful in identifying the halide ion.
Ag + (aq) + X − (aq) → AgX(s)

24
Enérgica, fuerte
25
Halogenuro
Bonding of the Period 3 oxides
Ionic compounds are
generally formed
between metal and
nonmetal elements and
so the oxides of
elements Na to Al have
giant ionic structures.
Covalent compounds are
formed between non-
metals, so the oxides of phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine are molecular covalent. The oxide of
silicon, which is a metalloid, has a giant covalent structure. The ionic character of a compound
depends on the difference in electronegativity between its elements.

The conductivity of the molten oxides gives an experimental measure of their ionic character, as
is shown in the table above. They only conduct electricity in the liquid state, when the ions are
free to move.

Acid-base character of the Period 3 oxides

The acid–base properties of the oxides are closely linked to their bonding and structure.

 Oxides of metals are ionic and basic. Oxides of the non-metals are covalent and
acidic. Aluminium oxide is amphoteric (because is considered an ionic oxide with
some covalent character).
 Amphoteric oxides show both acidic and basic properties.

 Non-metal oxides are responsible for acid rain.

 High melting points are associated with ionic or covalent giant structures, low
melting points with molecular covalent structures.

Basic oxides
Sodium oxide and magnesium oxide dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions owing to the
presence of hydroxide ions:

Na2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) MgO(s) + H2 O(l) → Mg(OH)2

A basic oxide reacts with an acid to form a salt and water. The oxide ion combines with two H+
ions to form water:
O2− (s) + 2H + (aq) → H2 O(l)
Li2 O(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2LiCl (aq) + H2 O(l)
MgO(s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 O(l)

Acidic oxides
The non-metallic oxides react readily with water to produce acidic solutions. Phosphorus(V)
oxide reacts with water to produce phosphoric(V) acid, dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7) reacts with
water to produce chloric(VII) acid (HClO4), sulfur dioxide reacts with water to produce
sulfuric(IV) acid…

P4 O10 (s) + 6H2 O(l) → 4H3 PO4 (aq)

Cl2 O7 (l) + H2 O(l) → 2HClO4 (aq)
SO2 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO3 (aq)
Silicon dioxide does not react with water, but reacts with concentrated alkalis to form silicates:

SiO2 (s) + 2OH − (aq) → SiO2−

3 (aq) + H2 O(l)

 Alkalis are bases which are soluble in water. They form hydroxide ions in aqueous
solution.

Ampotheric oxides
Aluminium oxide does not affect the pH when it is added to water as it is essentially insoluble.
It has amphoteric properties, however, as it shows both acid and base behaviour. For example,
it behaves as a base as it reacts with sulfuric acid and behaves as an acid when it reacts with
alkalis such as sodium hydroxide:

𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 6𝐻 + → 2𝐴𝑙 +3 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 3𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 (𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (𝑠) + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 2𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻)− 4 (𝑎𝑞)

13.1. – First-row d-block elements

 The 10 d-block elements have similar physical and chemical properties.

Transition elements have characteristic properties

1. Electron configuration
To understand the trend in atomic radii it is
instructive to consider the electron con-
figuration of the elements. The unusual
electron configurations of chromium (Cr) and
copper (Cu) are due to the stability of the half-
filled and filled 3d sub-level respectively.

The relatively small decrease in atomic radii across the d block is due to the correspondingly
small increase in effective nuclear charge experienced by the outer 4s electrons. The increase in
nuclear charge due to the added proton is largely offset by the addition of an electron in an inner
3d sub-level. This similarity in atomic radii explains the ability of the transition metals to form
alloys: the atoms of one d-block metal can be replaced by atoms of another without too much
disruption of the solid structure. The small increase in effective nuclear charge also accounts for
the small range in first ionization energies across the first transition series (it is the 4s electrons
which are removed first when the atom is ionized).

2. Physical properties
 high electrical and thermal conductivity
 high melting point
 malleable – they are easily beaten into shape
  high tensile strength – they can hold large loads without breaking
 ductile – they can be easily drawn into wires
 iron, cobalt, and nickel are ferromagnetic.
These properties depend on the strong metallic bonding found in the elements. As the 3d
electrons and 4s electrons are close in energy, they are all involved in bonding, and form part of
the delocalized sea of electrons which holds the metal lattice together. This large number of
delocalized electrons accounts for the strength of the metallic bond and the high electrical
conductivity.

 The properties and uses of the transition metals make them important
commodities26 on the international stock exchange. The mining and extraction of
these elements is an important industrial process in the economic development
of some countries.
3. Chemical properties
 form compounds with more than one oxidation number
 form a variety of complex ions
 form coloured compounds (for example: Ni2+(aq) is light blue, Cu2+(aq) is dark blue)
 act as catalysts when either elements or compounds.
4. Zinc is not a transition metal
Zinc is a d-block element but not a transition metal as it does not display the characteristic
properties listed earlier; it shows only the +2 oxidation state in its compounds. The reason for
its exceptional behaviour can be traced to the electronic configuration of its atom and the Zn2+
ion – the d sub-level is complete in both species.

Sc3+(aq) is also colourless in aqueous solution as it has no d electrons, but it is a transition metal
as its atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, and the Sc2+ ion, although not common, does exist
with a single d electron.

 Transition metals are element whose atoms have an incomplete d sub-shell, or

which can give rise27 to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell.
5. Explanation of variable oxidation number of transition elements

The Ca3+ ion is energetically unstable because there is a large jump in ionization energy as the
third electron is removed from the inner 3p orbital. The increase in successive energies for

26
Materias primas
27
Dar lugar a
titanium is more gradual as the 3d and 4s orbitals are close in energy. Titanium shows the +2,
+3, and +4 oxidation states. A large jump occurs between the fourth and fifth ionization energies,
as the inner 3p electron is removed, so titanium does not form the +5 state.

The following points are important and should be noted:

 All the transition metals show both the +2 and +3 oxidation states. The M3+ ion is
the stable state for the elements from scandium to chromium. The increased
nuclear charge of the later elements makes it more dif cult to remove a third
electron.
 The maximum oxidation state of the elements increases in steps of +1 and reaches
a maximum at manganese. These states correspond to the use of both the 4s and
3d electrons in bonding.
 Oxidation states above +3 generally show covalent character. Ions of higher charge
have such a large charge density that they polarize negative ions and increase the
covalent character of the compound (see Figure 3.13, p. 123).
 Compounds with higher oxidation states tend to be oxidizing agents. (for example,
potassium dichromate (VI) (K2Cr2O7).
 Scandium is sometimes classed as a transition element due to the rarity of the +2
oxidation state, but this is now considered to be incorrect.

Complex ions
Transition metal ions in solution have a high charge density
and attract water molecules which form coordinate bonds
with the positive ions to form a complex ion.

More generally a complex is formed when a central ion is

surrounded by molecules or ions which possess a lone pair
of electrons. These surrounding species (ligands28), are Ion: [Fe(H2O)6]3+
29
attached via a coordinate bond . All ligands have at least
one atom with a lone pair of electrons which is used to form a coordinate bond with the central
metal ion. The number of coordinate bonds from the ligands to the central ion is called the
coordination number. (SEE EXAMPLES P.125)

 A coordinate bond uses a lone pair of

electrons to form a covalent bond.
 A ligand is a species that uses a lone
pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond
with a metal ion.
In aqueous solution, water molecules generally
act as ligands but these can be replaced in a
process known as ligand exchange30. As
complexes often have distinctive colours they
can be used in qualitative analysis.

28
Ligandos
29
Enlace de coordinación
30
Sustitución/intercambio de ligandos
Polydendate ligands31 act as chelating agents32
Some species have more than one lone pair available to
form a coordinate bond with the central transition ion.
EDTA4– (old name ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) is an
example of a polydentate ligand as it has six atoms (two
nitrogen atoms and four oxygen atoms) with lone pairs
available to form coordinate bonds.

EDTA4– is thus equivalent to six monodentate ligands and

is described as a hexadentate (six-toothed) ligand. It can
occupy all the octahedral sites and grip33 the central ion in
a six-pronged claw called34 a chelate.

Chelates are very important in foods and all biological systems. EDTA4– forms chelates with many
metal ions and is widely used as a food additive as it removes transition ions from solution and
so inhibits enzyme-catalysed oxidation reactions.

 A chelate is a complex containing at least one polydentate ligand.

Transition metals and their ions are important catalysts

A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of reaction, by providing an alternative reaction
pathway with a lower activation energy. They play an essential role in the chemical industry as
they allow chemical processes to proceed at an economical rate.

Transition metals and their ions as heterogeneous catalysts

In heterogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is in a different state from the reactants. The ability of
transition metals to use their 3d and 4s electrons to form weak bonds to reactant molecules
makes them effective heterogeneous catalysts as they provide a surface for the reactant
molecules to come together with the correct orientation.

 Nickel (Ni) in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes:

31
Ligandos polidentados
32
Agentes quelantes
33
Agarrar
34
Garra de 6 dientes
 This reaction allows unsaturated vegetable oils with a carbon–carbon double bond to
be converted to margarine.
 Palladium (Pd) and platinum (Pt) in catalytic converters:
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → 2CO2 (g) + N2 (g)
This reaction removes harmful primary pollutants from a car’s exhaust gases.

Heterogeneous catalysis is generally preferred in industrial processes as the catalyst can be

easily removed by filtration from the reaction mixture after use.

Ions of transition metals as homogeneous catalysts

Homogeneous catalysts are in the same state of matter as the reactants. The ability of transition
metals to show variable oxidation states allows them to be particularly effective homogeneous
catalysts in redox reactions. As many of the enzyme-catalysed cell reactions in the body involve
transition metals as homogeneous catalysis, they are of fundamental biological importance.

 Fe2+ in heme: oxygen is transported through the bloodstream by forming a weak bond
with the heme group of hemoglobin. This group contains a central Fe2+ ion surrounded
by four nitrogen atoms. The O2–Fe2+ bond is easily broken when the oxygen needs to be
released.

As homogeneous catalysts mix effectively with the reactants, they work under the mild
conditions of the human body.

The magnetic properties of the transition metals and their compounds

Every spinning electron in an atom or molecule can behave as a tiny magnet. Electrons with
opposite spins behave like minute bar magnets with opposing orientation and so have no net
magnetic effect. Most substances have paired electrons that pair up and so are non-magnetic.
Some transition metals and their compounds are unusual in having some electrons that remain
unpaired, which when aligned lead to magnetic properties.

Substances can be distinguished by their response to externally applied

magnetic fields
 Diamagnetism: is a property of all materials and produces a very weak opposition
to an applied magnetic field.
 Paramagnetism: only occurs with substances which have unpaired electrons, is
stronger than diamagnetism. It produces magnetization proportional to the
applied field and in the same direction.
 Ferromagnetism: is the largest effect, producing magnetizations sometimes
orders of magnitude greater than the applied field.
Most materials are diamagnetic as the orbital motion of their electrons produces magnetic fields
which oppose any external field. Paramagnetism is a property of single atoms or ions with
unpaired spinning electrons, whereas ferromagnetism only occurs if there is long range ordering
of the unpaired electrons.
Iron, cobalt, and nickel are ferromagnetic
The unpaired d electrons in large numbers of atoms line up with parallel spins in regions called
domains. Although these domains are generally randomly oriented with respect to each
another, they can become more ordered if exposed to an external magnetic field. The
magnetism remains after the external magnetic field is removed, as the domains remain aligned
due to the long range interaction between the unpaired electrons in the different atoms.

Transition metals and their complexes show paramagnetic properties

Paramagnetic and diamagnetic complexes can be
distinguished using the experimental arrangement in the
figure next. When the field is turned on paramagnetic
materials are attracted into the magnetic field of the
electromagnet and so will move downwards causing the blue
counterweight to move up; the sample appears to have
increased in mass. Diamagnetic materials will move out of the
field in the opposite direction and so will appear to have reduced in mass.

Paramagnetism increases with the number of unpaired electrons so generally increases from
left to right across the Periodic Table, reaches a maximum at chromium, and decreases. Zinc has
no unpaired electrons and so is diamagnetic.

13.2. – Coloured complexes

The colour of transition metal ions can be related to the presence of partially filled d orbitals.

Sc3+: colourless Ti3+: violet

V3+: green Cr3+: violet
Mn2+: pink Fe3+: yellow

The visible spectrum

The colour of a substance is determined
by which colour(s) of light it absorbs and
which colour(s) it transmits or reflects
(the complementary colour(s)). Copper
sulfate, for example, appears turquoise
because it absorbs orange light; orange
and turquoise are complementary
colours.
Transition metals appear coloured because they absorb visible light
Transition metal compounds appear coloured because their ions absorb some of these colours.
Transition metals absorb light because the d orbitals split into two sub-
levels
The d orbitals in an isolated transition metal atom are said to be degenerate as they all have the
same energy. However, in the electric field produced by the ligand’s lone pair of electrons, they
split into two sub-levels.

When light passes through a solution of

[Ti(H2O)6]3+, one 3d electron is excited from the
lower to the higher energy sub-level. A photon
of green light is absorbed and light of the
complementary colour (purple) is transmitted,
which accounts for the purple colour of a
solution of [Ti(H2O)6]3+. The energy
separation between the orbitals is ∆E.

Green light of energy hv excites an electron from a d orbital of lower energy to a d orbital of
higher energy. The transmitted light is purple.

 Cobalt chloride paper is used to indicate the presence of water.

The colour changes from blue to pink as the ligands change from Cl– ions
to H2O molecules.

The colour depends on the nuclear charge and identity of the central
metal ion
The strength of the coordinate bond between the ligand and the central metal ion depends on
the electrostatic attraction between the lone pair of electrons and the nuclear charge of the
central ion. Ligands interact more effectively with the d orbitals of ions with a higher nuclear
charge.

 The higher the nuclear charge is, the ions absorb the colours in the visible
spectrum with higher energy and reflect their complementary ones.

Charge density of the ligand

The greater charge density of ligands produces a larger split in the d orbitals, what means
absorbing less energy in the visible spectrum (?). For example, ammonia ligands have more
density charge than H2O ligands, therefore the energy absorbed by the ion in the visible
spectrum is less than if the ligands were all H2O.

For example, [Cu(H2O)6]2+ absorbs light in the orange region of the spectrum, while
[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ absorbs light in the yellow region of the spectrum.
The spectrochemical series arranges the ligands according to the energy separation, ∆E,
between the two sets of d orbitals. The wavelength at which maximum absorbance occurs, λmax,
decreases with the charge density of the ligand. For example, the large iodide ion, which has the
lowest charge density, repels the d electrons the least and so produces a small splitting. The
large splitting of the CN– ion and carbon monoxide is more complex and is partly due to the
presence of π bonding in the ligand; electrons in the p orbitals on the carbon atoms can interact
with the d orbitals of the transition metal.

Geometry of the complex

The change of the colour is also in part due to the change in coordination number and geometry
of the complex ion. The splitting in energy of the d orbitals depends on the relative orientation
of the ligand and the d orbitals.

Number of d electrons and oxidation state of the central metal ion

The strength of the interaction between the ligand and the central metal ion and the amount of
electron repulsion between the ligand and the d electrons depends on the number of d electrons
and hence the oxidation state of the metal.
 4.– Chemical bonding and structure
 A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms that enables the formation
of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of
attraction between atoms with opposite charges, or through the sharing of
electrons as in the covalent bonds.
4.1. – Ionic bonding and structure
Ions form when electrons are transferred
All atoms are electrically neutral, even though they contain charged particles known as protons
and electrons. An ion, however, has an electric charge determined by how many electrons are
lost or gained.

Group 1,2 and 13 elements will form cations (losing electrons); they are metals.
Group 15, 16 and 17 elements will form anions (gaining electrons); they are non-metals.

 When an atom loses electrons it forms a positive ion, called a cation. When an
atom gains electrons it forms a negative ion, called an anion. The number of
charges on the ion formed is equal to the number of electrons lost or gained.
 Metals form cations by losing valence electrons. Non-metals form anions by
gaining electrons.
Note that elements in Group 14, having four electrons in their outer shell, do not have a
tendency to gain or to lose electrons, and so they generally do not form ions. This is because the
energy involved in transferring four electrons would simply be too large to be favourable.

 Compounds containing different ions of iron can be distinguished by colour: the

first beaker (yellow) contains Fe2+(aq) and the second beaker (brown) Fe3+(aq).
 Similar colour changes occur when iron rusts as it reacts with oxygen to form these
different ions.
 Fehling’s reagent uses the different colours of the copper ions to test for simple
sugars. The left tube containing the blue Cu2+ ion changes to the red Cu+ ion seen
on the right when warmed with glucose or other ‘reducing sugars’.
 Some other examples of not obvious ions are Sn4+/Sn2+, and H-/H+

Polyatomic ions

Ionic compounds form when oppositely charged ions attract

Typically, electrons are transferred from a metal element to a non-metal element. For example,
sodium (metal) passes an electron to chlorine (non-metal) when they react together.

Now the oppositely charged ions resulting from this electron transfer are attracted to each other
and are held together by electrostatic forces. These forces are known as an ionic bond, and ions
held together in this way are known as ionic compounds.

 The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic compounds have a lattice structure35

The three-dimensional structure crystalline formed when ions surround themselves with ions of
opposite charge is known as an ionic lattice. The details of the lattice’s geometry vary in different
compounds, depending mainly on the sizes of the ions, but it always involves this fixed
arrangement of ions based on a repeating unit. The term coordination number is used to
express the number of ions that surround a given ion in the lattice.

As ionic compounds do not therefore exist as units with a fixed number of ions, their formulas
are simply an expression of the ratio of ions present. The simplest ratio is known as the formula
unit, which is an empirical formula.

 Lattice energy is a measure of the strength of attraction between the ions within
the lattice. This is greater for ions that are small and highly charged, as they have
a larger charge density.

The physical properties of ionic compounds reflect their lattice structure

 Physical properties are those that can be examined without chemically altering the
substance.

1. Melting points and boiling points

Ionic compounds tend to have high melting and boiling points
as the forces of electrostatic attraction between the ions in
the lattice are strong and so require large amounts of heat energy to break. The melting and
boiling points are generally higher when the charge on the ions is greater, due to the increased
attraction between the ions.

Volatility is a term used to describe the tendency of a substance to vaporize. In summary, ionic
compounds can be described as having a low volatility or being non-volatile.

 Ionic liquids are efficient solvents with low volatility and are being used
increasingly as solvents in Green Chemistry for energy applications and industrial
processes. They are usually made of organic salts.

2. Solubility

35
Estructura cristalina
Solubility is determined by the degree to which the separated particles of solute are able to
form bonds or attractive forces with the solvent.

Consider an ionic compound

being placed in water. At the
contact surface, the partial
charges in the water molecules
are attracted to ions of opposite charge in the lattice, which
may cause the ions to dislodge from their position. As these
ions separate from the lattice, they become surrounded by
water molecules and are said to be hydrated.

If a liquid other than water is able to dissolve the solid, the

ions are said to be solvated.

In the case of solvents like oil or hexane, C6H14, which are non-
polar and so have no charge separation, there is no attraction between the liquid and the ions.
The solid, here, is insoluble

This suggests that solubility trends are based on the similar chemical nature of the solute and
solvent, as this is most likely to lead to successful interactions between them. Though there are
important exceptions.

3. Electrical conductivity
 The ability of a compound to conduct electricity depends on whether it contains
ions that are able to move and carry a charge.
When the ionic compound is either present in the liquid state (molten), or dissolved in water
(aqueous solution), the ions will be able to move. Therefore, ionic compounds as liquids or
aqueous solutions do show electrical conductivity, but not in solid state.

 Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state, but conduct when
molten or in aqueous solution.

4. Brittleness36
Ionic compounds are usually brittle, which means the crystal tends to shatter when force is
applied. This is because movement of the ions within the lattice places ions of the same charge
alongside each other, so the repulsive forces cause it to split.

36
Fragilidad
Different ionic compounds have a different extent of ionic character
 The pairs of elements that react
most easily to form ionic compounds are
metals on the bottom left of the Periodic
Table and non-metals on the top right,
indicated here by asterisks.
 Electronegativity is a measure of the
ability of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent bond, and is described using
the Pauling scale of values.
 The determining
factor in ionic bond
formation is the
difference in
electronegativity values.
It is generally recognized
that a difference of 1.8
units or more on the
Pauling scale will give a compound that is predominantly ionic.
 Periodic trends in electronegativity values show an increase along a period and up
a group.
 The distinction between ionic and
covalent bonds is not black and
white, but is best described as a
bonding continuum with all
intermediate types possible.

4.2.– Covalent bonding

A covalent bond forms by atoms sharing electrons
When atoms of two non-metals
react together, each is seeking to
gain electrons in order to achieve
the stable electron structure of a
noble gas. By sharing an electron
pair, they are effectively each able
to achieve this. The shared pair of
electrons is concentrated in the region between the two
nuclei and is attracted to them both. It therefore holds
the atoms together by electrostatic attraction and is
known as a covalent bond. A group of atoms held together by covalent bonds forms a molecule.

The formation of the covalent bond stabilizes the atoms so energy is released as the bond
forms. The forces of attraction between the nuclei and shared electrons are balanced by the
forces of repulsion between the two nuclei, and this holds the atoms at a fixed distance apart.
  A covalent bond is the electrostatic attraction between a pair of electrons and
positively charged nuclei. A molecule is a group of atoms held together by covalent
bonds.
 The octet rule states that when atoms react, they tend to achieve an outer shell
with eight electrons.

Atoms cam share more than one pair of electrons to form multiple bonds
A double bond forms when two electron pairs, a total of four electrons, are shared; a triple bond
forms when three electron pairs, a total of six electrons, are shared.

Short bonds are stronger

Bond length: a measure of the distance between the two bonded nuclei.

Bond strength: usually described in terms of bond enthalpy, and is effectively a measure of the
energy required to break the bond.

As atomic radius increases as we go down a group, we would expect the atoms to form
molecules with longer bonds. As a result, the shared electron pair is further from the pull of the
nuclei in the larger molecules, and so the bond would be expected to be weaker.

Multiple bonds have a greater number of shared electrons and so have a stronger force of
electrostatic attraction between the bonded nuclei. This means there is a greater pulling power
on the nuclei, bringing them closer together, resulting in bonds that are shorter and stronger
than single bonds.

Polar bonds result from unequal sharing of electrons

When there is a difference in the electronegativities of the bonded atoms, the more
electronegative atom exerts a greater pulling power on the shared electrons and so gains more
‘possession’ of the electron pair. The bond is now unsymmetrical with respect to electron
distribution and is said to be polar.
  In a covalent bond, the greater the difference in the
electronegativity values of the atoms, the more polar the bond.
The term dipole is often used to indicate the fact
that this type of bond has two separated opposite
electric charges. The more electronegative atom with the greater share
of the electrons, has become partially negative or δ–, and the less
electronegative atom has become partially positive or δ+.

A microwave oven generates microwaves that have lower frequencies and longer wavelengths
than visible light. Microwaves are used for cooking because certain wavelengths are absorbed
by polar molecules, notably water, and also by sugar and fat.

The only bonds that are truly non-polar are bonds between the same atoms such the bonds in
F2, H2, and O2, because clearly here the difference in electronegativity is zero. These are
sometimes referred to as pure covalent to express this.

The presence of polar bonds in a molecule has a significant effect on its properties. Effectively,
the partial separation of charges introduces some ionic nature into covalent bonds, so the more
polar the bond, the more like an ionic compound the molecule behaves. Polar bonds are
therefore considered to be intermediates in relation to pure covalent bonds and ionic bonds,
part of the bonding continuum that was mentioned before.

Summary of the idea of the bonding continuum.

4.3. – Covalent structures

Lewis diagrams are used to show the arrangement of electrons in
covalent molecules
When describing the structure of covalent molecules, the most convenient method is known as
a Lewis structure.

OH-

SO42-

In coordinate bonds both shared electrons come from one atom

Sometimes the bond forms by both the electrons in the pair originating from the same atom.
This means that the other atom accepts and gains a share in a donated electron pair. Such bonds
are called coordinate bonds, also known as dative bonds.

A coordinate bond is a covalent bond

in which both the shared electrons are
provided by one of the atoms.

An important point about coordinate

bonds: once they are formed, they are
no different from other covalent
bonds. No matter where the electrons
of the coordinate bond come from,
such as in CO, the coordinate bonds
are identical to other covalent bonds.

The octet rule is not always followed

There are a few molecules that are exceptions to the octet rule. Small atoms such as beryllium
(Be) and boron (B) form stable molecules in which the central atom has fewer than eight
electrons in its valence shell. This is known as an incomplete octet.

Molecules with incomplete octets are said to be electron deficient, and have a tendency to
accept an electron pair from a molecule with a lone pair, such as NH3 or H2O. This leads to the
formation of a coordinate compound in which the central atom has now gained an octet.
VSEPR theory: The shape of a molecule is determined by repulsion
between electron domains
The three-dimensional shape of a molecule often determines its reactivity. For example,
biochemical reactions depend on a precise ‘fit’ between the enzyme, which controls the rate of
the reaction, and the reacting molecule, known as the substrate. Anything that changes the
shape of either of these may therefore alter the reaction dramatically; many drugs work in this
way.

Predictions of molecular shape are based on the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
theory: because electron pairs in the same valence shell carry the same charge, they repel each
other and so spread themselves as far apart as possible.

A better, more inclusive, term than electron pair is electron domain. This includes all electron
locations in the valence shell, be they occupied by lone pairs, single, double, or triple bonded
pairs. What matters in determining shape is the total number of electron domains, and this can
be determined from the Lewis structure.

 The repulsion applies to electron domains, which can be single, double, or triple
bonding electron pairs, or non-bonding pairs of electrons.
 The total number of electron domains around the central atom determines the
geometrical arrangement of the electron domains.
 The shape of the molecule is determined by the angles between the bonded
atoms.
 Non-bonding pairs (lone pairs) have a higher concentration of charge than a
bonding pair because they are not shared between two atoms, and so cause
slightly more repulsion than bonding pairs. The repulsion decreases in the
following order:
 lone pair–lone pair > lone pair–bonding pair> bonding pair–bonding pair
As a result, molecules with lone pairs on the central atom have some distortions in their
structure that reduce the angle between the bonded atoms.

Species with two electron domains

180º – linear shape

Species with three electron domains

120º – triangular planar shape to the electron domain geometry
120º – triangular planar shape of the molecule if the three electron domains are bonding

 The electron domain geometry is determined

by the positions of all the electron domains,
but the molecular geometry depends only on
the positions of the bonded atoms.
However, if one of the electron domains is a lone pair, this will not be ‘seen’
in the overall shape of the molecule, as it is part of the central atom, but it
will change slightly its shape. For example, in O3, as only two of the three
electron domains are bonding electrons, the molecular geometry will not
be triangular planar. The molecule is described as bent or V-shaped. The lone pair of electrons
distorts the shape slightly, so the angle is slightly less than 120°; it is approximately 117°.

Species with four electron domains

109.5º – tetrahedral shape to the electron domain geometry
109.5º – tetrahedral shape of the molecule if the four electron domains are bonding.

 With 4 electron domains on the central atom: 0 lone pairs  tetrahedral, 1 lone
pair  trigonal pyramid, 2 lone pairs  V-shaped.
1. Draw the Lewis structure
2. Count the total number of electron domains on
the central atom.
3. Determine the electron domain geometry as
follows:
2 electron domains: linear
3 electron domains: triangular planar
4 electron domains: tetrahedral

4. Determine the molecular geometry from the number of bonding electron domains.
5. Consider the extra repulsion caused by the lone pairs and adjust the bond angles
accordingly.

Molecules with polar bonds are not always polar

The polarity of a molecule, depends on:
 the polar bonds that it contains;
 the way in which such polar bonds are orientated with respect to each other, in other
words, on the shape of the molecule.

If the bonds are of equal polarity (i.e. involving the

same elements) and are arranged symmetrically
with respect to each other, their charge separations
will oppose each other and so will effectively cancel
each other out. In these cases, the molecule will be
non-polar, despite the fact that it contains polar
bonds.

However, if either the molecule contains

bonds of different polarity, or its bonds are
not symmetrically arranged, then the
dipoles will not cancel out, and the molecule
will be polar. Another way of describing this
is to say that it has a net dipole moment, which refers to its turning force in an electric field.
Electrons in multiple bonds can sometimes spread themselves between
more than one bonding position
Instead of being confined to one location, some electrons show a tendency to be shared
between more than one bonding position, and are said to be delocalized. Free from the
constraints37 of a single bonding position, delocalized electrons spread themselves out, giving
greater stability to the molecule or ion.

Delocalization38 is a characteristic of electrons in multiple bonds

when there is more than one possible position for a double bond
within a molecule, such as in O3.
Experimental data reveal that ozone
actually contains two equal oxygen–
oxygen bonds, intermediate in length
and strength between single and double bonds.

We can explain this by considering that the electrons from the double bond have delocalized
and spread themselves equally between both possible bonding positions.

A concept known as resonance is introduced. The Lewis

structures that can be drawn are known as resonance
structures (below). However, the true structure is an
intermediate form, known as the resonance hybrid.
Resonance structures

Benzene

The circle inside the hexagon represents delocalized pi electrons, which are spread equally
through the ring, rather than being in confined double bonds. As we would expect, this results
in carbon–carbon bonds that are equal in length and strength, and intermediate between those
of single and double bonds.

 Bond order is a measure of the number of electrons involved in bonds between

two atoms. Resonance hybrids, such as benzene, have fractional values of bond
order; carbon-carbon bonds in benzene have a bond order of 1.5.
Resonance gives great stability to the
benzene molecule, making it chemically
quite unreactive. Resonance, in all types of
molecules, can influence in reactivity, due to its influence on bond lengths and strengths.

37
Limitaciones
38
La deslocalización
Some covalent substances form giant molecular crystalline solids
Some structures, crystalline lattices in which the atoms are linked together by covalent bonds,
are a single molecule with a regular repeating pattern of covalent bonds, so has no finite size. It
is referred to as a giant molecular or network covalent structure or macromolecular structure.

1. Allotropes of carbon (more in p.169 – esp. fullerenes)

Allotropes are different forms of an element in the same physical state, such as oxygen (O2) and
ozone (O3) which both exist as gases. Different bonding = different properties.

GRAPHITE DIAMOND
Each C atom is sp2 Each C atom is sp3
hybridized and hybridized and
covalently bonded to 3 covalently bonded to 4
others, forming others tetrahedrally
Structure

hexagons in parallel arranged in a regular

layers with bond angles of 120°. The repetitive pattern with
layers are held only by weak London bond angles of 109.5°.
dispersion forces so they can slide over
each other.
Good electrical conductor; contains Non-conductor of electricity; all
conductivity
Electrical

one non-bonded, delocalized electron electrons are bonded and so non-

per atom that gives electron mobility. mobile.

Not a good conductor, unless the heat Very efficient thermal conductor,
conductivity
Thermal

can be forced to conduct in a direction better than metals.

parallel to the crystal layers.

Non-lustrous, grey crystalline solid. Highly transparent, lustrous crystal.

Appearance

Soft and slippery39 due to slippage of The hardest known natural substance;
properties

layers over each other; brittle; very it cannot be scratched by anything;

Special

high melting point; the most stable brittle; very high melting point.
allotrope of carbon.
A dry lubricant; in pencils; electrode Polished for jewellery and
rods in electrolysis. ornamentation; tools and machinery
Uses

for grinding40 and cutting glass.

Graphene is a relatively new form of carbon. Given its hardness, strength, lightness, flexibility,
conductivity, and chemical inertness, it has enormous potential applications, such as:

 supercapacitors for storing charge could replace batteries and more efficiently power
mobile devices and electric cars;

39
Resbaladizo
40
Moler
  transistors of graphene are predicted to be faster and smaller than silicon transistors in
electronics;
 touch screens of graphene printed on thin plastic instead of coatings layered onto glass
would be light, flexible, and almost unbreakable;

An interesting development is a new material called graphone41, which is made by adding

hydrogen to graphene. Controlling the amount of hydrogen coverage gives variable magnetic
properties, which may in turn lead to wider graphene applications. A further development is
fluorographene, which has one fluorine atom attached to each carbon atom giving a rippled42
rather than a flat structure. As all the electrons are held in bonds, it is an insulator.

2. Silicon and silicon dioxide

In the elemental state, each silicon atom (with four valence shell
electrons) is covalently bonded to four others in a
tetrahedral arrangement. This results in a giant
lattice structure much like diamond.

Silicon dioxide, SiO2 (quartz), also forms a giant covalent structure based on a
tetrahedral arrangement. But here the bonds are between silicon and oxygen
atoms, where each Si atom is covalently bonded to four O atoms, and each O
to two Si atoms.

As the atoms are strongly held in tetrahedral positions that involve all four silicon valence
electrons, the structure has the following properties (we associate them with glass and glass):
 strong;
 insoluble in water;
 high melting point;
 non-conductor of electricity.
4.4.– Intermolecular forces
 London (dispersion) forces
 Dipole–dipole forces
 Hydrogen bonding.

Different molecules of a substance are held together by intermolecular forces. The type of
intermolecular force used depends on the polarity and size of the molecules. The strength of
intermolecular forces determines the physical properties of a substance (volatility, solubility,
conductivity).

London (dispersion) forces

Non-polar molecules such as chlorine, Cl2 do not have a permanent dipole. Likewise, atoms of a
noble gas such as argon exist as non-polar particles.

However, because electrons behave somewhat like mobile clouds of negative charge, the
density of this cloud may at any one moment be greater over one region of a molecule or atom

41
Grafeno magnético
42
Ondeada
than over another region. When this occurs, a weak dipole
known as a temporary or instantaneous dipole is formed.
Despite just lasting an instant, it may influence the electron
distribution in a neighbouring atom or molecule, causing an
induced dipole.

As a result, weak forces of attraction, known as London (dispersion) forces, will occur between
opposite ends of these two temporary dipoles in the molecules. These are the weakest form of
intermolecular force. Their strength increases with increasing molecular size; this is because the
greater number of electrons within a molecule increases the probability of temporary dipoles
developing.

London (dispersion)
forces are the only
forces that exist
between non-polar
molecules. Such
molecules generally
have low melting
and boiling points, because relatively little energy is required to break the weak London
(dispersion) forces and separate the molecules from each other. Boiling point data also indicate
how the strength of London (dispersion) forces increases with increasing molecular size.

London (dispersion) forces are

also components of the forces
between polar molecules, but
often get somewhat
overlooked because of the
presence of stronger forces.

Dipole–dipole attraction
Due to the difference of electronegativity of the atoms of a
molecule, one end of the molecule is electron deficient with a
partial positive charge (δ+), while the other end is electron rich
with a partial negative charge (δ-). This is known as a
permanent dipole. It results in opposite charges on neighbouring molecules attracting each
other, generating a force known as a dipole–dipole attraction.

The strength of this intermolecular force43 will vary depending on the distance and relative
orientation of the dipoles. These forces cause the melting and boiling points of polar
compounds to be higher than those of non-polar substances of comparable molecular mass.

43
Dipole-dipole forces are generally stronger than London dispersion forces, as we might expect from
their origin in permanent rather than instantaneous dipoles.
  For two substances of similar molecular mass, the more polar substance will have
the higher boiling point.
The umbrella term van der Waals’ forces is used to include London dispersion forces, dipole–
dipole attraction and dipole–induced dipole; van der Waals’ forces refers to all forces between
molecules that do not involve electrostatic attractions between ions or bond formation.

In some cases, van der Waals’ forces

may occur within a molecule
(intramolecularly) if the different
groups can position themselves appropriately (for example, in proteins).

Hydrogen bonding
When a molecule contains hydrogen covalently bonded to a very
electronegative atom (fluorine, nitrogen, or oxygen), the large
electronegativity difference between hydrogen and the bonded
atom results in the electron pair being pulled away from the
hydrogen. Given its small size and the fact that it has no other
electrons to shield the nucleus, the hydrogen now exerts a strong attractive force on a lone
pair in the electronegative atom of a neighbouring molecule. The hydrogen bond is in essence
a particular case of dipole–dipole attraction. Hydrogen bonds are the strongest form of
intermolecular attraction.

 Hydrogen bonding only occurs between

molecules in which hydrogen is bonded directly
to fluorine, nitrogen, or oxygen.
 If it wasn’t for the fact that it is hydrogen
bonded, H2O would be a gas not a liquid at room
temperature.
In H2O, because of the two hydrogen atoms in
each molecule and the two lone pairs on the
oxygen atom, each H2O can form up to four
hydrogen bonds with neighbouring molecules.
Liquid water contains fewer than this number,
but in the solid form, ice, each H2O is maximally hydrogen bonded in this way. The result is a
tetrahedral arrangement that holds the molecules a fixed distance apart, forming a fairly open
structure, which is actually less dense than the liquid.

This density change produces problems such as burst pipes and cracked machinery44, as well as
changes in the Earth’s crust, fragmenting and splitting rocks, ultimately forming sand and soil
particles.

In these examples we have looked at hydrogen bonds as an intermolecular force, that is,
between molecules, but like van der Waals’ forces, they can occur within large molecules where
they play a key role in determining properties, such as in proteins. Another fascinating example
is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which, as the chemical responsible for storing the genetic
information in cells, is able to replicate itself exactly, a feat only possible because of its use of
hydrogen bonding.

44
Tuberías reventadas/rotas y maquinaria rota.
  DNA is composed of two strands, held together by hydrogen bonds and twisted
into a double helix. Before replication the strands separate from each other by
breaking the hydrogen bonds and each strand then acts as a template for the
synthesis of a new molecule of DNA.
 The relationship between the
intermolecular forces that exist in a
substance and its physical properties is
a good example of the predictive
power of science. This is applied in the
development of new materials, such
as in the petrochemicals and
pharmaceuticals industries. For
example, being able to predict
properties such as solubility and melting point from theoretical structures is crucial
in drug design.

The physical properties of covalent compounds are largely a result of

their intermolecular forces
Melting and boiling points
Changing state by melting or boiling both involve separating particles by overcoming the forces
between them. So the stronger the intermolecular forces, the more energy will be required to
do this, and the higher will be the substance’s melting and boiling points.

Covalent substances generally have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. The
forces to be overcome to separate the molecules are the relatively weak intermolecular forces,
which are significantly easier to break than the electrostatic attractions in the ionic lattice; the
strength of the intermolecular forces increases with increasing molecular size and with an
increase in the extent of polarity within the molecule.

By contrast, macromolecular or giant covalent structures have high melting and boiling points,
often at least as high as those of ionic compounds – covalent bonds must be broken.

Solubility
Non-polar substances are generally able to dissolve in non-polar solvents by the formation of
London dispersion forces between solute and solvent. For example, the halogens, all of which
are non-polar molecules (e.g. Br2), are readily soluble in the non-polar solvent paraffin oil.

Polar covalent compounds are generally soluble in water, a highly polar solvent. Here the solute
and solvent interact through dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding. Aqueous HCl, glucose
(C6H12O6), and ethanol (C2H5OH) are some examples. Biological systems are mostly based on
polar covalent molecules in aqueous solution.

The solubility of polar compounds is, however, reduced in larger molecules where the polar
bond is only a small part of the total structure. The non-polar parts of the molecule, unable to
associate with water, reduce its solubility, such as in heptanol.
It follows from this that non-polar covalent substances do not dissolve well in water. Some
examples are N2, candle wax, or large insoluble non-polar molecules such as grease or red wine
in clothes.

Likewise, polar substances have low solubility in non-polar solvents as they will remain held to
each other by their dipole–dipole attractions and cannot interact well with the solvent – sugar
and cooking oil is a great example, it does not dissolve.

 Non-polar covalent substances dissolve best in non-polar solvents; polar

substances dissolve best in polar solvents.
Giant molecular substances are generally insoluble in all solvents, as too much energy would be
required to break the strong covalent bonds in their structure – SiO2 beaches and diamond rings.

Electrical conductivity
Covalent compounds do not contain ions, and so are not able to conduct electricity in the solid
or liquid state. Some polar covalent molecules, however, in conditions where they can ionize
will conduct electricity – HCl. Fullerene and silicon have semiconductivity properties.

4.5.– Metallic bonding

 A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions
and delocalized electrons.
 The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius
of the metal ion.
Metal electrons become delocalized; delocalized electrons are not fixed in one position. This
means that in metals they are no longer associated closely with any one metal nucleus but
instead can spread themselves through the metal structure. The
metal atoms without these electrons have become positively
charged ions and form a regular lattice structure through which
these electrons can move freely.

In metals there is a force of electrostatic attraction between the

lattice of cations and the delocalized electrons, and this is known
as metallic bonding.

 Metallic bonds are the strong forces of attraction

between delocalized electrons and positive ions.
The strength of the metallic bond is determined by:

 the number of delocalized electrons;

  the charge on the cation;
 the radius of the cation.
The greater the number of delocalized electrons and the smaller the cation, the greater the
binding force between them; for example, Na and Mg. Melting points: Na (98ºC) < Mg (650ºC).

The strength of metallic bonding tends to decrease down a group as the size of the cation
increases, reducing the attraction between the delocalized electrons and the positive charges;
for example, Na, K and Rb. Melting points: Na (98ºC) > K (63ºC) > Rb (39ºC).

The transition elements tend to have very strong metallic bonds due to the large number of
electrons that can become delocalized, from both 3d and 4s sub-shells. Metals share
characteristic physical properties, which can be explained through this model of metallic
bonding:

 Problems of extracting metals: destruction of landscapes (strip mining) 45,

tailings46 or release of toxic materials that pollute the environment
 Possible solutions: maximize the reuse and recycling of all metal objects, and
avoid metal dumping.

Alloys are solutions of metals with enhanced properties

45
Minería a cielo abierto
46
Escombros
Alloys are produced by adding one metal element to another metal
(or carbon) in the molten state, so that the different atoms can mix.
As the mixture solidifies, ions of the different metals are scattered
through the lattice and bound by the delocalized electrons, so they
contain metallic bonds. The production of alloys is possible because
of the non-directional nature of the delocalized electrons, and the
fact that the lattice can accommodate ions of different size.

 Alloys are solid solutions usually containing more than one metal, and held
together by metallic bonding.
 Alloys are often more chemically stable, stronger and more resistant to corrosion

 Steel manufacture is one of the world’s largest industries and is sometimes used
as a measure of a country’s development and economic progress. Steel is the most
recycled material in the world and, in developed countries, recycling accounts for
almost half of the steel produced.
 Suggest two ways in which some of the properties of aluminium can be enhanced.
 Anodizing: increasing the thickness of the surface oxide layer helps resist
corrosion, also adds colour and enables designs to be added to the surface.
 Alloying: mixing Al with other metals such as Mg and Cu increases hardness and
strength while retaining lightness.
14.2.– Further aspects of covalent bonding
and structure
 Covalent bonds result from the overlap of atomic orbitals. A sigma bond (σ) is
formed by the direct head-on/end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in
electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. A pi bond
(π) is formed by the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron
density above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms.
 Formal charge (FC) can be used to decide which Lewis (electron dot) structure is
preferred from several. The FC is the charge an atom would have if all atoms in the
molecule had the same electronegativity. FC = (number of valence electrons) –
½(number of bonding electrons) – (number of non-bonding electrons). The Lewis
(electron dot) structure with the atoms having FC values closest to zero is
preferred.

Some molecules contain a central atom with an expanded octet

When the central atom is an element from the Period 3 or below, we sometimes find
compounds in which there are more than eight electrons around the central atom. This is known
as an expanded octet. This arrangement is possible because the d orbitals available in the
valence shell of these atoms have energy values relatively close to those of the p orbitals. So
promotion of electrons, for example from 3p to empty 3d orbitals, will allow additional electron
pairs to form.

 Exceptions to the octet rule

 small atoms like Be and B form stable molecules with fewer than an octet of
electrons.
 atoms of elements in Period 3 and below may expand their octet by using d
orbitals in their valence shell.

Species with five electron domains

Molecules with five electron domains will position them in a triangular
bipyramidal shape, which has angles of 90°, 120°, and 180°. If all five
electron domains are bonding electrons, the shape of the molecule is
also triangular bipyramidal.

In determining the position of the non-bonding pairs of electrons, remember that they cause
greater repulsion than bonding pairs so will arrange themselves in the position offering the
greatest distance from a neighbouring pair. In the triangular bipyramidal structure this will mean
in the equatorial plane, as shown in the examples below.

 One non-bonding pair: unsymmetrical  Two non-bonding pairs: T-shaped

tetrahedron or see-saw shape (90º, 117º, structure (90º, 180º).
180º).

 Three non-bonding  With 5 electron domains on the

pairs: linear shape central atom:
(180º).  0 lone pairs: triangular bipyramidal.
 For example, I3-  1 lone pair: see-saw.
 2 lone pairs: T-shaped.
 3 lone pairs: linear.

 The iodine starch test: the I3- species present in this solution turns from orange to
blue-black when mixed with starch – confirming the presence of starch in the
potato.

Species with six electron domains

Molecules with six electron domains will position them in an octahedral shape with angles of
90°. So a molecule having all six of its electron domains as bonding pairs of electrons will have
this symmetrical octahedral shape.

 All bonding pairs: octahedral shape,  One non-bonding pair: square

angles of 90º. pyramidal shape.
  Two non-bonding  With 6 electron domains on the
pairs: square central atom:
planar shape. The  0 lone pairs: octahedral.
pairs of non-  1 lone pair: square pyramidal.
bonding electrons  2 lone pairs: square planar.
position each other in a 180º angle.

Molecular geometry determines molecular polarity

If there are no lone pairs and all the atoms attached to the central atom are the same, the
molecules are non-polar as there is no net dipole. For example, PCl5 and SF6 are both nonpolar.

If the atoms attached to the central atom are not all the same,
there may or may not be a net dipole depending on the
symmetry. For example, SBrF5 has a net dipole and is polar;
PCl3F2 has no net dipole due to cancellation, so it is non-polar.

The presence of lone pairs often, but not always, results in a

polar molecule. It again depends on symmetry and whether
dipoles cancel. For example, ClF3 is polar, whereas XeF4 is not.

 MOLECULAR IONS ARE CHARGED SPECIES. BECAUSE THEY ARE CHARGED THEY
CANNOT BE DESIGNATED AS POLAR OR NON-POLAR AS THESE TERMS ONLY APPLY
TO NEUTRAL MOLECULES. (IO4-, PCl4+, FCl2+…)

Formal charge is a useful tool to compare Lewis (electron dot) structures

In order to represent the most stable structure among some resonance structures, we must
make use of the concept of formal charge.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐹𝐶)

= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 (𝑽)
− 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑒𝑤𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
 The number of valence electrons (V) is determined from the element’s group in the
Periodic Table.
 The number of electrons assigned to an atom in the Lewis (electron dot) structure is
calculated by assuming that:
o each atom has an equal share of a bonding electron pair (one electron per
atom), even if it is a coordinate bond (½B);
o an atom owns its lone pairs completely (L).
 number of electrons assigned = ½ number of electrons in bonded pairs
(½B) + number of electrons in lone pairs (L)
1
𝐹𝐶 = 𝑉 − ( 𝐵 + 𝐿)
2
Low formal charges mean that less charge transfer has taken place in forming a structure from
its atoms, and in general this represents the most stable or preferred structure.

 Formal charge (FC) is determined for each atom in a structure from:

FC = V – (½B + L)
where V = valence electrons, B = number of bonding electrons, L = number of one
pair electrons.

We can conclude that structure (ii) where

all atoms have a formal charge of zero is the
most stable structure for SO2.

In fact, all resonance structures contribute

to the electronic structure of the molecule,
and the real or observed structure is a
combination of them. The more stable structure, the one with the lowest formal charge,
contributes more than the less stable structures.

 The most stable of several Lewis (electron dot) structures is the structure that has:
 the lowest formal charges
 negative values for formal charge on the
more electronegative atoms.
 Formal charge can help explain the allocation of charges on transition states in
reaction mechanisms.

Ozone: a case study in resonance, molecular polarity, and formal charge

The double bond is composed of a
sigma (σ) bond from the overlap of
hybrid orbitals, and a pi (π) bond from the overlap of unhybridized p
orbitals. The electrons in the pi bond are less tightly held so become
delocalized through the structure, giving rise to the resonance forms.
The bonds are between oxygen. Therefore, the bonds in the molecule are
non-polar. Then, why is ozone a polar molecule? It can be explained by
checking the formal charges on each atom, which show the uneven
distributions of electrons through the structure.

This gives a net dipole across the

molecule, making it polar. This
can be shown as follows.
Ozone is an essential component of the stratosphere
The atmosphere traps heat, creating a temperature
appropriate for life, while at the same time blocks
some of the dangerous radiation from the Sun and
prevents it from reaching Earth. It also contains
oxygen, essential to life. The stratosphere is a region
of it.

The lower part of the stratosphere, known as the

ozone layer, contains 90% of the atmospheric
ozone, although the concentration is less than 10 parts per million.

Two key steps in the ozone cycle are shown below. The symbol O· represents a species known
as a free radical that has an unpaired electron and so is highly reactive.

 A free radical is a reactive species that contains an unpaired electron.

Oxygen dissociation Ozone dissociation

We can see that the breakdown of O2 involves shorter

wavelength light (λ <242 nm) than the breakdown of O3 (λ <
330 nm). The difference is due to the relative strengths of the
O–O bonds in the two molecules (P. 164). The stronger bonds
in O2 require the higher energy radiation of the shorter wavelength to break.

 Oxygen contains stronger bonds than ozone, and so is dissociated by light of

shorter wavelength.
The ozone layer plays a vital role in protecting life on Earth
from this radiation (UV-B and UV-C – higher range of
ultraviolet light, 200nm to 315nm). This is a direct
consequence of the specific nature of the bonding in ozone
molecules.

The absorption of UV radiation by ozone is also a major

source of heat in the stratosphere, and is the reason why the
temperature in the stratosphere rises with height.

Catalytic destruction of ozone

 While ozone in the stratosphere plays a vital role in protecting life on Earth from
harmful UV radiation, ozone in the troposphere is unwanted and harmful to
health. It is produced from motor vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, and is
a major component of photochemical smog47.

47
Ozone’s ability to absorb UV radiation also means that it is unstable, and it reacts easily with
compounds found in the stratosphere that have been released through human activities. Chief
amongst these are nitrogen oxides, known as NOx, and chlorofluorocarbons, known as CFCs.
These compounds produce highly reactive free radicals that catalyse the decomposition of
ozone to oxygen.

Nitrogen monoxide, NO, is produced in vehicle engines by direct combination of nitrogen and
oxygen from the air at high temperatures. It is a free radical as it has an odd number of electrons.

Chlorofluorocarbons were widely used in aerosols, refrigerants, solvents, and plastics due to
their low reactivity and low toxicity in the troposphere. But when they get into the stratosphere,
the higher energy UV radiation breaks them down, releasing free chlorine atoms, which are also
reactive free radicals.

These reactions have led to thinning of the ozone layer, which was first noted in the 1970s. The
increased UV radiation reaching the Earth has been most pronounced in the polar regions, and
has been a source of global concern ever since.

 Chemicals that have the effect of breaking down ozone in the stratosphere are
collectively known as ozone-depleting chemicals (ODCs). Following the Montreal
Protocol, a major problem is the persistence of ODCs in the stratosphere, despite
the fact that they are no longer released in large quantities.

Atomic orbitals overlap to form two types of covalent bond: sigma and
pi
We can think of a bond as forming when two atomic orbitals, each containing one electron,
overlap to form a new molecular orbital that is at a lower energy. The shape of this molecular
orbital can be predicted from the shapes of the two atomic orbitals

The sigma (σ) bond

When two atomic orbitals overlap along the bond axis – an imaginary line between the two
nuclei – the bond is described as a sigma bond. This type of bond forms by the overlap of s
orbitals, p orbitals, and hybrid orbitals in different combinations. It is always the bond that forms
in a single covalent bond. In a sigma bond the electron density is concentrated between the
nuclei of the bonded atoms.

 All single covalent bonds are sigma bonds. Sigma bonds form by overlap of orbitals
along the bond axis.
 a) H2 – s orbitals

b) F2 – p orbitals

c) HF – s + p orbitals

The pi (π) bond

When two p orbitals overlap sideways48, the
electron density of the molecular orbital is
concentrated in two regions, above and below
the plane of the bond axis. This is known as a pi
bond. This type of bond only forms by the overlap
of p orbitals alongside the formation of a sigma
bond. In other words, pi bonds only form within a double bond or a triple bond.

Pi bonds are weaker than sigma bonds as

their electron density is further from the
positive charge of the nucleus, and so they
break more easily during chemical
reactions – the molecules with this type of
bonds are more reactive.

 Double covalent bonds contain

one sigma bond and one pi bond.
 Triple covalent bonds contain one sigma bond and two pi bonds.

14.2.– Hybridization
The formation of covalent bonds often starts with the excitation of the
atoms
C atomic number = 6 electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1

The fact that carbon can – and does – form four

covalent bonds indicates that this lowest energy
or ground-state electron configuration changes
during bonding. A process known as excitation
occurs in which an electron is promoted within
the atom from the 2s orbital to the vacant 2p
orbital. The atom now has four singly occupied
orbitals available for bonding.

Hybridization involves mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid atomic

orbitals
In essence unequal atomic orbitals within an atom mix to form new hybrid atomic orbitals which
are the same as each other, but different from the original orbitals. This mixing of orbitals is

48
Se sobreponen lateralmente
known as hybridization. Hybrid orbitals have different energies, shapes, and orientation in space
from their parent orbitals and are able to form stronger bonds by allowing for greater overlap.

For example, in a carbon atom, there is one s orbital and three p orbitals. The fact that methane,
CH4, has four identical carbon–hydrogen bonds suggests that these orbitals have been changed
and somehow made equal during the bonding process.

 Hybridization is the process where atomic orbitals within an atom mix to produce
hybrid orbitals of intermediate energy. The atom is able to form stronger covalent
bonds using these hybrid orbitals.
 Hybridization of one s orbital with three p orbitals produces four so-called sp3
hybrid orbitals that are equal to each other. Their shape and energy have
properties of both s and p, but are more like p than s.
 Hybridization of one s orbital with two p orbitals will produce three equal sp2
hybrid orbitals.
 Hybridization of one s orbital with one p orbital will produce two equal sp hybrid
orbitals.
 The overlap of a hybrid orbital with any other atomic orbital (s, p, or another
hybrid orbital) always forms a sigma bond.
sp3 hybridization
When carbon forms four single bonds, it undergoes sp3
hybridization, producing four equal orbitals.

These orbitals orientate themselves at 109.5°, forming a tetrahedron. Each

hybrid orbital overlaps with the atomic orbital of another atom forming four
sigma bonds.

sp2 hybridization – carbon + double bond

These orbitals orientate themselves at

120°, forming a triangular planar shape.
Each hybrid orbital overlaps with a neighbouring atomic orbital, forming
three sigma bonds.
As the two carbon atoms approach each other, the p
orbitals in each atom that did not take part in hybridization
and have so retained their dumb-bell shape, overlap
sideways. They form a pi bond with its characteristic lobes
of electron density above and below the bond axis. So the double bond between the carbon
atoms consists of one sigma bond and one pi bond.

sp hybridization – carbon + triple bond

These orbitals orientate themselves at 180°, giving a
linear shape. Overlap of the two hybrid orbitals with
other atomic orbitals forms two sigma bonds.
Each carbon has two unhybridized p orbitals that
are orientated at 90° to each other. As these overlap
each other sideways, two pi bonds form
representing four lobes of electron density around
the atoms. These coalesce into a cylinder of negative charge around the atom, making the
molecule susceptible to attack by electrophilic reagents.

Hybridization in molecules with expanded octets

Molecules which have electrons in d orbitals can undergo hybridization involving these too. For
example, PCl5, described earlier, has sp3d hybridization which produces five equivalent orbitals
orientated to the corners of a triangular bipyramid.

Lone pairs can be involved in hybridization too

For example, in ammonia, NH3, the non-bonding pair on the N atom resides in a sp3 hybrid
orbital.

Hybridization can also be used to predict molecular shape

The concept of hybridization can be used to explain the shape of any molecule. And conversely
the shape of a molecule can be used to determine the type of hybridization that has occurred.

 Tetrahedral arrangement <–––> sp3 hybridized

 Triangular arrangement <–––> sp2 hybridized
 Linear arrangement <–––> sp hybridized

VSEPR theory, applied to hybridized orbitals in the same way as to electron domains, explains
the geometry of the hybrid atomic orbitals.

Number of electron domains <---> shape of molecule <---> hybridization

 5.– Energetics and thermochemistry
5.1. – Measuring energy changes
Energy and heat transfer energy
Energy is a measure of the ability to do work, that is to move an object against an opposing force
(heat, light, sound…). Heat is a mode of energy transfer which occurs as a result of a temperature
difference and produces an increase in disorder in how the particles behave. Heat increases the
average kinetic energy of the molecules in a disordered fashion. This is to be contrasted with
work, which is a more ordered process of transferring energy.

System and surroundings

Most chemical reactions take place in an open system which can exchange energy
and matter with the surroundings. A closed system can exchange energy but not
matter with the surroundings. Although energy can be exchanged between a system
and the surroundings, the total energy cannot change during the process; any energy
lost by the system is gained by the surroundings and vice versa.

The heat content of a system is its enthalpy

A system acts like a reservoir of heat. When heat is
added to a system from the surroundings its enthalpy
increases. ∆H is positive when heat is added to the
system.

 Enthalpy is a measure of the amount of heat

energy contained in a substance. It is stored in the
chemical bonds and intermolecular forces as potential energy. When substances
react, the difference in the enthalpy between the reactants and products (at
constant pressure) results in a heat change which can be observed.

Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Most chemical reactions, including most combustion
and all neutralization reactions, are exothermic. They
give out heat and result in a transfer of enthalpy from
the chemicals to the surroundings. A few reactions are
endothermic as they result in an energy transfer from
the surroundings to the system. In this case the
products have more enthalpy than the reactants and ∆H is positive.

 For exothermic reactions heat is given out by the system and ∆H is negative.
 For endothermic reactions heat is absorbed by the system and ∆H is positive.

Standard enthalpy changes

As the enthalpy of a system also depends on the intermolecular forces of the reactants and
products, the enthalpy change for a reaction depends on the conditions under which the
reaction occurs. The standard enthalpy changes, ∆Ho, are measured under the following
conditions:

 a pressure of 100 kPa

  concentration of 1 mol dm–3 for all solutions
 all substances in their standard states.

Thermochemical equations
𝐶𝐻4 (𝑔) + 2𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) Δ𝐻 𝑜 = −890𝑘𝐽 ∗ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
6𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 6𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 (𝑎𝑞) + 6𝑂2 (𝑔) Δ𝐻𝑜 = +2802.5𝑘𝐽 ∗ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy

The movement or kinetic energy of the particles of a substance depends on the temperature.
Absolute zero (-273 °C) is the lowest possible temperature attainable as this is the temperature
at which all movement has stopped. The absolute temperature, measured in Kelvin, is directly
proportional to the average kinetic energy of its particles.

Heat changes can be calculated from temperature changes

The increase in temperature when an object is heated depends on:

 the mass of the object

 the heat added
 the nature of the substance
The specific heat capacity is the property of a substance which gives the heat needed to increase
the temperature of unit mass by 1 K. The specific heat capacity depends on the number of
particles present in a unit mass sample, which in turn will depend on the mass of the individual
particles.

 heat change = m × c × ∆T
 heat change (J) = m (g) × c (J g-1 K-1) × ∆T (K)
 When the heat is absorbed by water, c = 4.18 J g–1 K–1
The heat capacity (C) is defined as the heat needed to increase the temperature of an object by
1 K.
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝑞)
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐶) =
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (Δ𝑇)

 The specific heat capacity (c)49 is defined as the heat needed to increase the
temperature of unit mass of material by 1 K.
 The heat capacity (C)50 is defined as the heat needed to increase the temperature
of an object by 1 K.

Enthalpy changes and the direction of change

“The chemicals are
changing in a way which
reduces their enthalpy.”
“The direction of change
is in the direction of
lower stored energy.”

49
Specific heat capacity = capacidad calorífica específica/calor específico.
50
Heat capacity = capacidad calorífica.
  The products in an exothermic reaction are more stable than the reactants.
 The sign of ∆H is a guide for the likely direction of change but it is not completely
reliable; for example, endothermic reactions such as this one can occur:
6𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑙2 (𝑙) + 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 . 6𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠) → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 (𝑠) + 6𝑆𝑂2 (𝑔) + 12𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) Δ𝐻
= +11271𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Measuring enthalpy changes of combustion

For liquids such as ethanol, the enthalpy change of combustion
can be determined using the simple apparatus shown on the
right, as the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel is
calculated from the temperature change of the water in the
metal calorimeter.

The temperature of the water increases as it has increased its

heat content, owing to the heat released by the combustion reaction. There is a decrease of
enthalpy during the reaction.

Calculating enthalpies of reaction from temperature changes

𝚫𝑯𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = −𝚫𝑯(𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓) = −𝒎(𝑯𝟐 𝑶) ∗ 𝒄(𝑯𝟐 𝑶) ∗ 𝚫𝑻(𝑯𝟐 𝑶)
When the heat released by an exothermic reaction is absorbed by water, the temperature of
the water increases. The heat produced by the reaction can be calculated if it is assumed that
all the heat is absorbed by the water. As the water has gained the heat produced by the reaction,
the enthalpy change of reaction is negative when the temperature of the water increases. When
an endothermic reaction is carried out in solution, the heat absorbed by the reaction is taken
from the water so the temperature of the water decreases (∆H = +)

Enthalpy changes of reaction in solution (exercises P.223,224)

𝐶𝑢2+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝑍𝑛(𝑠) → 𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 𝑍𝑛2+ (𝑎𝑞)
Let’s make the following asumptions:

1. No heat loss from the system

2. All the heat goes from the reaction to the water
3. The solution is dilute: 𝑉(𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 ) = 𝑉(𝐻2 𝑂)
4. Water has a density of 1.00 g cm-3
−𝑚(𝐻2 𝑂) ∗ 𝑐(𝐻2 𝑂) ∗ Δ𝑇(𝐻2 𝑂)
Δ𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑐(𝐻2 𝑂) ∗ Δ𝑇(𝐻2 𝑂)
Δ𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
[𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 ]
 5.2. Hess’s Law
 The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is equal
to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.
𝚫𝑯𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝚺 (𝚫𝑯𝒐𝒇 (𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔)) − 𝚺 (𝚫𝑯𝒐𝒇 (𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔))

Enthalpy cycles
Enthalpy change in a complete cycle = 0 = ∆H1 + ∆H2 − ∆H3; ∆H1 + ∆H2 = ∆H3

Using Hess’s law

Hess’s law states that the enthalpy change for any chemical reaction is independent of the route,
provided the starting conditions and final conditions, and reactants and products, are the same.

The steps in an enthalpy cycle may be hypothetical and may refer to reactions that do not
actually take place. The only requirement is that the individual chemical reactions in the
sequence must balance.

Standard enthalpy changes

 The standard enthalpy of formation of a substance is the enthalpy change that
occurs when one mole of the substance is formed from its elements in their
standard states under standard conditions of 298 K (25 °C) and 1.00 × 105 Pa.
 It is important as it:
o gives a measure of the stability of a substance relative to its
elements
o can be used to calculate the enthalpy changes of all reactions, either
hypothetical or real.
 The standard enthalpy change of formation of an element in its most stable form
is zero. There is no chemical change and so no enthalpy change when an element
is formed from itself.

Using standard enthalpy changes

𝚫𝑯𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝚺𝚫𝑯𝒐𝒇 (𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔) − 𝚺𝚫𝑯𝒐𝒇 (𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔)

5.3. – Bond enthalpies

 Bond forming releases energy and bond breaking requires energy.
 Average bond enthalpies are only valid for gases and calculations involving bond
enthalpies may be inaccurate because they do not take into account
intermolecular forces.
Breaking bonds is an endothermic process
A covalent bond is due to the electrostatic attraction between the shared pair of electrons and
the positive nuclei of the bonded atoms. Energy is needed to separate the atoms in a bond.

 The average bond enthalpy is the energy needed to break HOMOLYTICALLY one
mole of bonds in gaseous molecules under standard conditions averaged over
similar compounds.
Multiple bonds generally have higher bond enthalpies and shorter bond lengths than single
bonds.

All bond enthalpies refer to reactions in the gaseous state so that the enthalpy changes caused
by the formation and breaking of intermolecular forces can be ignored.

Making bonds is an exothermic process

The same amount of energy is absorbed when a bond is broken as is given
out when a bond is made:

 Endothermic processes involve the separation

of particles which are held together by a force
of attraction.
 Exothermic processes involve the bringing
together of particles which have an attractive
force between them.

Using bond enthalpies to calculate the

enthalpy changes of a reaction
𝚫𝑯 = 𝚺𝑬 (𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒌𝒆𝒏) − 𝚺𝑬 (𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅) = 𝒌𝑱 ∗ 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏

The values are different because the standard state of water is liquid and the bond enthalpy
calculation assumes that the reaction occurs in the gaseous state. The use of average bond
enthalpies is an additional approximation.

Ozone depletion
The bonds in oxygen
and ozone are broken
by UV of different
wavelengths
The bonds in oxygen and ozone are both broken when they absorb UV radiation of sufficient
energy. The double bond in O2 is stronger than the 1.5 bond in ozone and so is broken by
radiation of higher energy and shorter wavelengths.

As oxygen has the strongest bond, shorter wavelength radiation is needed to break its bonds. If
λ < 330nm, ozone bonds are broken.
𝒄 𝒉∗𝒄
𝑬𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝒉 ∗ 𝒗 = 𝒉 ∗ =
𝝀 𝝀
The natural formation and depletion of ozone
In the stratosphere, the strong covalent double bond in normal oxygen O2 is broken by high-
energy UV radiation with a wavelength shorter than 242 nm to form two oxygen atoms:

As bonds are formed this is another exothermic reaction which produces heat that maintains
the relatively high temperature of the stratosphere.

The level of ozone in the stratosphere – less than 10 ppm – stays at a constant level if the rate
of formation of ozone is balanced by its rate of removal. This is known as a steady state. The
whole process is described by the Chapman Cycle.

This cycle of reactions is significant because

dangerous ultraviolet light has been absorbed and
the stratosphere has become warmer. Both these
processes are essential for the survival of life on
Earth.

15.1. – Energy cycles

First ionization energies and electron affinities
 The first ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove one mole
of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms.

 The first electron affinity is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous
electrons is added to one mole of gaseous atoms. As the electron is attracted to
the positively charged nucleus of the Cl atom, the process is exothermic.

Lattice enthalpies

The electron transfer process is endothermic overall and so energetically unfavourable, despite
the fact that it leads to the formation of ions with stable noble gas electron configurations.

The oppositely charged gaseous ions come together to form an ionic lattice; this is a very
exothermic process as there is strong attraction between the oppositely charged ions:

 The lattice enthalpy51 is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a solid
ionic compound is separated into gaseous ions under standard conditions.

51
Energía reticular
Experimental lattice enthalpies and the Born-Haber cycle
𝑜
 The enthalpy change of atomization Δ𝐻𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 is the enthalpy change that occurs
when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed from the element in its standard state.

1
Δ𝐻𝑓𝑜 (𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙) = Δ𝐻𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑜 (𝑁𝑎) + Δ𝐻𝑖𝑜 (𝑁𝑎) + 𝐸(𝐶𝑙 − 𝐶𝑙) + Δ𝐻𝑒𝑜 (𝐶𝑙) − Δ𝐻𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝑜 (𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙)
2
= 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Theoretical lattice enthalpies can be calculated from the ionic model

Theoretical lattice enthalpies can be calculated by assuming the crystal is made up from
perfectly spherical ions. This ionic model assumes that the only interaction is due to electrostatic
forces between the ions.

The energy needed to separate the ions depends on the product of the ionic charges and the
sum of the ionic radii.

 An increase in the ionic radius of one of the ions decreases the attraction between
the ions.
 An increase in the ionic charge increases the ionic attraction between the ions.
To calculate the lattice energy for one mole, the overall attraction between the positive and
negative ions predominates over the repulsion of ions with the same charge as ions are generally
surrounded by neighbouring ions of opposite charge.

𝑜
𝐾𝑛𝑚
Δ𝐻𝑙𝑎𝑡 =
𝑅𝑀𝑛+ + 𝑅𝑋 𝑚−
where K is a constant that depends on geometry of the lattice and n and m are the magnitude
of charges on the ions. As the ionic radii (RMn+ + Rxm−) can be determined from X-ray diffraction
measurements of the crystal, theoretical values can be calculated once the geometry of the solid
lattice is known.

Lattice enthalpies depend on the size and charge of the ions

We can see that the lattice enthalpies decrease as the size of the cation or anion increases. LiF
contains the ions with the smallest ionic radii and has the highest lattice enthalpy, and CsI
contains the largest ions and the smallest lattice enthalpy.
  Lattice enthalpy decreases with increasing ion radius and increases with increasing
ion charge.
 The additional contribution from covalent bonding accounts for the higher than
expected lattice enthalpy. (AgI > NaI)

Enthalpy of solution
 The enthalpy change of solution is the enthalpy change when one mole of a solute
is dissolved in a solvent to infinite dilution under standard conditions of
temperature (298 K) and pressure (1.0 × 105 Pa).
 Ionic compounds generally dissolve in the polar solvent water. (a) Ionic lattice are
often broken up by polar water molecules. At the contact surface, partial charges
in the water molecules are attracted to ions of opposite charge in the lattice, which
may cause them to dislodge from their positions. (b) The partially negatively
oxygen atoms in the polar water molecules are attracted to the positive ions. (c)
The partially positively hydrogen atoms in the polar water molecules are attracted
to the negative ions.
 The partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms in the water molecules are
attracted to the negative ions and the partial negative change of the oxygen is
attracted to the positive ions.
 Ions separated from the lattice in this way become surrounded by water molecules
and are said to be hydrated. The strength of interaction between the polar water
molecules and the separated ions is given by their hydration enthalpies.
The hydration enthalpy of an ion depends on the attraction between the
ions and the polar water molecules
 The enthalpy of hydration of a compound is the enthalpy change that occurs when
one mole of its constituent gaseous ions is dissolved to form an infinitely dilute
solution.
The enthalpy of hydration of individual ions, although more useful, cannot generally be
measured directly; this problem is resolved by measuring the enthalpy of hydration of the H+ ion
separately using an indirect spectral technique:

and then combining this value with the hydration enthalpy of different compounds to obtain
values for individual ions.

 The enthalpy change of hydration of an ion is the enthalpy change that occurs
when one mole of gaseous ions is dissolved to form an infinitely dilute solution of
one mole of aqueous ions.

As there is a force of attraction between the ions and the polar water molecules, it is an
exothermic process and the enthalpy changes are negative. The values become less exothermic
as the groups are descended and the ionic radius increases. The electrostatic attraction
between the ions and the water molecule decreases with increasing distance.

 The enthalpy change of hydration of an ion is the enthalpy change that occurs
when one mole of gaseous ions is dissolved to form an infinitely dilute solution of
one mole of aqueous ions under standard conditions of temperature and pressure.

The enthalpy change of solution

is related to the lattice enthalpy
and the hydration enthalpies of
the constituent ions
The solution of a substance can be
understood by imagining that the solid is -
first sublimed into gaseous ions, which are
then plunged52 into water.

52
Desmoronados en agua; convertidos en agua.
 15.2.– Entropy and spontaneity
Entropy is a more complete direction of change
Matter and energy tend to disperse and become more disordered. This produces spontaneous
changes such as the loss of heat of a cup of coffee. Such everyday experiences can be expressed
more precisely when the degree of disorder of a system is quantified by its entropy (S).

Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of available

energy among the particles. The more ways the
energy can be distributed the higher the entropy.
Ordered states, with a small energy distribution are
said to have low entropy; disordered states, with a
high energy distribution, have high entropy. This is
an expression of the Second Law of Thermodynamics: spontaneous processes always occur with
an increase of entropy in the universe – the energy disperses so as to lead to the situation with
the widest energy distribution. This change results in an increase in entropy of the universe.

Predict entropy changes

 Entropy of gas > liquid > solid under same conditions.
 Doubling the amount of a substance doubles the entropy.

Absolute entropy
The absolute entropy of different substances can be
calculated; entropy depends on the temperature and
pressure.

 A perfectly ordered solid at absolute zero

has zero entropy. All other states, which are more
disordered, have positive entropy values.

Calculating entropy changes

Spontaneity
Enthalpy changes of the surroundings
To consider the total entropy change of a reaction, we must also consider the accompanying
entropy change in the surroundings.

The change of the entropy of the surroundings, ∆S (surroundings), can be calculated from the
enthalpy change in the system, ∆H (system), and the absolute temperature, T.

The change in entropy of the surroundings is proportional to -∆H(system)

The change in entropy is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature
To understand the relationship between the enthalpy change of reaction and the entropy
change of the surroundings, it is helpful to recognize that the impact of a transfer of heat to the
surroundings depends on the current state of disorder in the surroundings.

∆S (surroundings) and an explanation of the units of entropy

−Δ𝐻(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)
Δ𝑆(𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠) = = 𝐽 𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
𝑇

Calculating total entropy changes and understanding endothermic

reactions
Δ𝑆(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = Δ𝑆(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) + Δ𝑆(𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠) > 0
Δ𝐻 (𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚)
Δ𝑆(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = Δ𝑆(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) − >0
𝑇
Endothermic reactions occur if the change of entropy of the system can compensate for the
negative entropy change of the surroundings produced as the heat flows from the surroundings
to the system. Order may increase in local areas but only at the expense of greater disorder
elsewhere in the universe.

Gibbs free energy is a useful accounting tool

Δ𝐺(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) = Δ𝐻(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) − 𝑇Δ𝑆(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) < 0
∆G(system) gives a measure of the quality of the energy available. It is a measure of the energy
which is free to do useful work rather than just leave a system as heat. Spontaneous reactions
have negative free energy changes because they can do useful work.

Using ∆G(system) to predict the feasibility of a change

Low temp: Δ𝐺(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) ≈ Δ𝐻(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚), 𝑎𝑠 𝑇Δ𝑆(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) ≈ 0; all exothermic reactions can
occur at low temperature.

High temp: Δ𝐺(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) ≈ −𝑇Δ𝑆(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚); as the temperature is sufficiently high to make the
term ∆H(system) negligible. All reactions with a positive value of ∆S(system) can be feasible at
high temperatures, even if they are endothermic.

The effect of ∆H, ∆S, and T on the spontaneity of reaction

Calculating ∆G values
𝚫𝑮(𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎) = 𝚫𝑯(𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎) − 𝑻𝚫𝑺(𝒔𝒚𝒕𝒆𝒎)
When T=298K, ∆G can be calculated from tabulated values of ∆Gf. This is, however, very sensitive
to temperature changes.

Calculating ∆Greaction from ∆Gf.

𝚫𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝚺𝚫𝑮𝒐𝒇 (𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔) − 𝚺𝚫𝑮𝒐𝒇 (𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔)

Using ∆Sreaction and ∆Hreaction values to calculate ∆Greaction at all

temperatures (298K)
𝑜 𝑜
Δ𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Δ𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑇Δ𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 Note the use of Kelvin. The units for ∆H or ∆S must be the same, referring to energy: J
or kJ.

Gibbs free energy and equilibrium

If ∆Greaction becomes more negative, the reaction favours the products. If ∆Greaction < -30kJ mol-1,
the reaction is considered to be completed.

If -30 < ∆Greaction < 0, there will be an equilibrum mixture with products predominating.