Politecnico di Torino

Sedimentary Basins
Formation and evolution of sedimentary basins
& their geo-energy potential

Formation of sedimentary basins

Hanneke VERWEIJ
Email: jmverweij@gmail.com
7-11 January 2013

Sedimentary Basins
Formation and evolution of sedimentary basins
& their geo-energy potential

Formation of sedimentary basins

Mechanisms of basin formation
Classification of sedimentary basins
Characterization sedimentary basins

Evolution of sedimentary basins

Evolution plate-tectonic setting

Fluids, porosity, permeability
Compaction
Burial history
Temperature and heat flow

Geo-energy potential of sedimentary basins

Introduction
Geothermal energy potential
Introduction to petroleum systems

Evolution of petroleum systems

Geo-energy potential
Subsurface Natural
Energy Resources

Non-renewable
Conventional

Coal
Oil
Gas

Non renewable
Unconventional

Unconventional gas
Tight gas
Shale gas
Basin gas
Coalbed methane

Renewable

Unconventional oil
Oil shales
Heavy oil
Tar sands

Geothermal

Renewability
The energy extracted from a renewable
energy source is replaced in a natural way
by an additional amount of energy and the
replacement takes place on a similar
timescale as that of the extraction
(Axelsson et al. 2001)

Course focus
Subsurface Natural
Energy Resources

Non-renewable
Conventional

Non renewable
Unconventional

Renewable

Unconventional gas
Coal
Oil
Gas

Tight gas
Shale gas
Basin gas
Coalbed methane
(Gas hydrates)

Unconventional oil
Oil shales
Heavy oil
Tar sands

Geothermal

Why Sedimentary Basins?

Almost all of the world's petroleum occurs in sedimentary basins

The major petroleum basins of the world (Halbouty 1986 in: Gluyas and Swarbrick 2006)

Sedimentary Basins
All those areas in which sediments can
accumulate to considerable thickness and be
preserved for long geological time periods
(Einsele 2000)

Sediments and sedimentary rocks

Sediment source

Transport of sediments

Sediment sink
(Sedimentary Basin)

Sediments and sedimentary rocks

Plate tectonics create relief to provide both the source and the sink

Schematic example of relation source-sink and coupled mountain building and basin
evolution related to collision of continental plates (Cloetingh et al. 2007)

Sedimentary Basins
All those areas in which sediments can
accumulate to considerable thickness and be
preserved for long geological time periods
(Einsele 2000)

Genetic classification based on mechanisms of

basin formation

Mechanisms of Basin Formation

Sedimentary basins are related to prolonged
subsidence
Mechanisms for subsidence are related to
processes in lithosphere
Lithosphere is composed of plates that are in
relative motion to each other
Basin formation is related to plate tectonics

Plate tectonics and basin formation

Deformation

(Allen and Allen 2005)

Lithospheric plates are constantly moving. The motion of plates set up

plate boundary forces. These forces induce deformation of rocks
concentrated along the plate boundaries, where the plates are
colliding and moving away from each other.

Plate tectonics and basin formation

Deformation
Example of local plate movement

(Cloetingh et al. 2007)

Deformation
Different types of deformation

Three materials of different mechanical properties: a rubber band, chewing gum and a
piece of paper (from top to bottom).
What will happen to the different materials when they are stretched out?

(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation
Different types of deformation

The rubber band and the chewing gum are stretched

The piece of paper is ripped in two pieces
What happens if the materials are no longer stretched?

(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation
Different types of deformation

The materials are no longer stretched:

Rubber band: retains its original form; it was only temporarily
deformed by the stretching: elastic deformation
Chewing gum: permanently deformed: ductile deformation
Paper: permanently deformed: brittle deformation

(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation
Three stages of deformation

Stress: when external forces are acting on a body, the body is subjected to
stress (stress: force per unit area)
Strain: the deformation of the body (change in shape)
Rocks (like the green rectangle) may undergo deformation through 3 stages:
initially elastic, then plastic and finally brittle
(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation
Elastic deformation

First part of deformation is elastic

If the stress is released, the

body retains its original shape
and size

(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation
Plastic deformation

More stress is applied, the elastic

limit is exceeded

If the stress is released, the body will

not return to its original shape
and size: it has undergone
permanent deformation

In geology: ductile deformation = permanent change of shape without loss of

continuity (bending)
(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation
Brittle deformation

By further increasing the stress, the body will eventually fracture: it has
undergone brittle deformation

(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation
Forces related to motion of plates

Compressive forces (push on planes): squeezing and shortening

Tensional forces (pull on planes): stretching
Shearing forces (acting parallel on planes): pushing two parts in
opposite directions

(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Deformation

Type of deformation (ductile or brittle) depends upon temperature,

pressure, strain rate and composition material
(Kre Kullerud 2003)

Brittle deformation in response to

tensional forces

Normal Fault

Brittle deformation in response to

compressive forces

Reverse Fault
Thrust fault (Sognefjorden, Norway)

Brittle deformation
Footwall and hanging wall of a fault

Brittle deformation in response to

shearing forces

Strike-slip faults (= transform faults)

Ductile deformation in response to

compressive forces

Ductile deformation in reponse to

compressive forces

After erosion

Folds

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Deformation

Lithosphere is rigid and

mechanically strong
outer part of earth

Asthenosphere is
mechanically much
weaker than lithosphere

Upper part mantle has

same mechanical
strength as crustal rocks.

Lithosphere consists of a number of large plates that move relative to each other (plate tectonics)

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

Lithosphere:
Rigid; behaves as coherent plate
= Crust and Upper Mantle:
Crust
Oceanic: 3-15 km thick and is
composed of basalt (igneous); density ~
2,800 kg/m3;Young age (<180 million
years old).
Continental: up to 70 km thick and
composed of a wide variety of rock
types; density ~2,700 kg/m3; Age: from
young to old (>3.8 billion years old).
Upper Mantle
Density ~ 3,300 kg/m3

Asthenosphere
Ductile
Weaker than lithosphere

Where is Moho deepest and why?

Depth (km) to the Mohorovicic

discontinuity obtained from
geophysical data (After Dezes et al.
2004; in:Cloetingh et al 2007)
(Moho = Mohorovicic discontinuity
= seismic discontinuity between
the base of the Earth's crust and
the top of the mantle. P waves
passing through the Moho change
their velocity by approximately one
kilometer per second, with the
higher velocity occurring in the
mantle and the lower in the crust.)

Mechanisms of Basin formation

Vertical balancing of forces: Isostasy

Airys iceberg model of isostasy

Simple isostasy model: the lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker

asthenosphere which, over geologic time flows laterally such that the load
(change in load) of the lithosphere is accommodated.

Mechanisms of Basin formation

Vertical balancing of forces: Isostasy
Pressures at B and D are equal:
(gz)seawater + (gz)sediment +
(gz)oceanic crust + (gz)mantle =
(gz)continent crust + (gz)mantle

Vertical balancing of forces to a depth of compensation

(pressures at B and D are equal)

Local vertical balancing of forces

Isostasy
Seawater (= 1.02
g/cc; z = 1 km)

Thickness?

Gravitational equilibrium between the lithosphere and asthenosphere

Mechanisms of Basin formation

Isostasy & vertical loading