CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

Were filled with our own rightness, our own autobiography. We want to be understood. Our
conversations become collective monologues and we never really understand whats going on
inside another human being (Covey, 1989, p. 240).

Introduction
In order to develop practices and policies that drive desirable behavior, it is necessary to
understand the common experiences of those that have experienced a phenomenon and the
assumptions that they hold (Cresswell, 2007, p. 60). This qualitative phenomenological study
was performed to describe how telecommuters connections to their employers organizational
culture as manifested by their organizational citizenship behaviors. Results from this study could
aid in enhancing the interaction practices between telecommuter employees and their
organization as well as deepening telecommuter awareness and association to organizational
culture.
Websters Dictionary defined methodology as a branch of philosophy dealing with the
science of method or procedure (p. 628). A phenomenological approach was used to vitalize the
lived experience of telecommuter employees. The study employed a social constructivist
perspective in guiding the inquiry. Among this chapter, these frameworks are explored in further
detail. This chapter also described the detailed procedures related to how the investigation would
be performed and who would participate. Further, research method standards and ethical
considerations are discussed to make sure that the planned research study conforms to acceptable
quality standards and does not endanger the well-being of study participants.

Philosophical Framework or Paradigm

Groenewald (2004) defined the philosophical framework or paradigm as the patterning
of the thinking of a person; it is a principal example among example, an exemplar or model to
follow according to which design actions are taken (p. 6). The philosophical framework
provided the researcher with the basic methods and rules that were proven to be relevant to the
studies of other researchers but the primary purpose of the framework is to make sense of the
data, to provide some coherent explanation for why people are doing or saying what they are
doing or saying (Anfara & Mertz, 2006, p. 68). Flood (2010) summarized these affirmations
and stated that a theoretical perspective supports the philosophical stance underpinning a
methodology and provides a context for the process involved and a basis for its logic and
criteria (p. 8).
Understanding the basic assumptions and perspectives taken by the researcher is central
to evaluating the planned research methodology as well as the subsequent findings and
recommendations resulting from the study (Cresswell, 2007, p. 16). Cresswell (2007) presented
an adaptation of Guba and Lincolns (1988) axiomatic issues that define the basic philosophical
assumptions (i.e., ontological, epistemological, axiological, rhetorical, and methodological)
found in qualitative research as well as how these assumptions translate into practice (p. 17).
Cresswell observed that these assumptions reflect the direction that researchers would take in
performing a qualitative research project (p. 19).
Ontological assumptions are those that frame human understanding of the nature of
reality (Crsswell, 2007, p. 17). Among qualitative research, reality is explored from the
perspectives of these involved in the study and is subject to their individual experiences

(Cresswell, p. 17). Laverty (2003) cited Denzin & Lincoln (2000) and observed that realities are
not more or less true; rather they are simply more or less informed (p. 13).
Epistemological assumptions pertain to the nature of the relationship between the topic of
study and the researcher (Cresswell, 2007, p. 17). Flood (2010) observed that epistemology for
phenomenological research is directed toward the search for meaning instead of advocating a
certain point of view or developing theory (p. 7). Cresswell (2007) observed that epistemological
assumptions ask of the researcher, How do we know when we know? (p. 18). Epistemology is,
therefore, the study of how we, as human beings, acquire and process knowledge.
Axiological assumptions are an acknowledgement that personal values play a role in the
research and recognize that biases might exist. Laverty (2003) once again cited Denzin &
Lincoln when she concurred with their viewpoint that the investigator and the investigated as
interactively linked in the creation of findings, with the investigator as a passionate participant
(p. 13). In acknowledgment of this connection, the participants are considered co-researchers
(De Castro, 2003, p. 47) among a phenomenological study. The participants role as coresearcher does not obligate them to anything other than to faithfully describe their experience.
The following by Giorgi (2010) developed these themes to clarify the roles of the researcher and
co-researcher:
There is no challenge to the experience with respect to the articulation of his experience.
One simply accepts what has been reported unless there is some internal evidence
emerging from the data that suggests otherwise. The determination of the disciplinary
meaning of the experience is best left to the researcher. (p. 14)
Rhetorical assumptions concern the language used in performing a qualitative research
study (Cresswell, 2007, p. 17). Cresswell stated that the language of the qualitative researcher

becomes personal, literary, and based on definitions that evolve during a study rather than being
defined by the researcher (p. 19). Because the researcher is inextricably part of the research
methodology, the rhetoric of the study might contain first-person pronouns as well as narrative
stories to illustrate how study participants were impacted by the phenomenon (Cresswell, p.
18).
Methodological assumptions are explored in relation to the process of the research
(Cresswell, p. 17). Giorgi observed that McLeods (1947) work toward determining a systematic
approach to phenomenological studies was important because it prescribed use of a scientific
approach (p. 5). Giorgi (2010) also observed that some sense of the theoretical justification of
how the method is to be utilized is required, not a mere description of how it is done (p. 5) in
discussing methodology assumptions. Following this guideline, the theoretical justifications for
using phenomenology and the assumptions specific to the social constructivism paradigm for this
study are discussed among this chapter.
Walsh & Downe (2006) underscored the requirement to clearly identify the theoretical
constructs at the outset of the research study because various theories entail a certain set of data
collection methods and analytic approaches (p. 113). Cresswell specifically identified the
following four worldviews that often shape the direction of qualitative studies: post positivism,
constructivism, and advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism (Cresswell, p. 19).
Post positivist research is characterized by research that employs a rigorous scientific
approach to the collection, analysis and presentation of data. Post positivist research utilizes
many of the tools, such as computer programs and the rhetoric, in the form of reporting in
scientific report format and use of validity approaches of quantitative research. Post positivist
research is ontologically based on the assumption that there is no single reality and draws from

multiple perspectives from research participants. It is linked to research topics with well
developed theoretical underpinnings (Cresswell, p. 20).
The advocacy/participatory research model is employed by researchers who seek to give
voice to and affect change for individuals who do not have a voice in the organizations and
communities where they live and work (Cresswell, p. 21). Among this model, the researcher
generally enters the study with an axiological assumption that change is needed and this
assumption focuses the study toward a particular point of view.
The pragmatist model does not focus on the philosophical nature of things, rather it relies
on the actual nature of a things based on their historical and present contexts. Research from a
pragmatist viewpoint might employ both qualitative and quantitative research methods. A
pragmatist is focused on the solutions to problems but does not focus on the philosophical tenets
that ground these problems (Cresswell, p 22).
While each of the previously cited worldviews were considered as philosophical model to
use in presenting this study, the final worldview observed by Cresswell, constructivism,
specifically social constructivism, is the worldview that best fits the planned methodology and
aligns with assumptions used by the study. Kim (2001) stated that social constructivism
emphasizes the importance of culture and context in what occurs in society (p. 2) thereby
linking Blaus Social Exchange Theory and Scheins Organizational Culture Theory to the social
constructivist philosophical stance. Social constructivism is detailed below along with
exploration of the assumptions that guided the research among this worldview.

Social Constructivist Theory

This research project reflected a social constructivist viewpoint. Social constructivism is
generally attributed to the work of Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1990) who believed that
individual constructs are derived from and preceded by social relationships (Young & Collin,
2004). Social constructivism provided the philosophical framework for understanding how
meaning is created and understood among a community (Flood, 2010, p. 8). Kukla (2000)
observed that constructivism is an idea (really three ideas) that arises in the course of
conducting and thinking about sociological investigations of science (Kindle Location 458463).
Ontologically in social constructivism, reality does not exist outside of the social context
(Kim, 2001, p. 2). Kukla (2000) quoted Woolgar (1988) to demonstrate this point,
There is no sense in which we could claim that the phenomenon has an existence
independent of its means of expression There is no object beyond discourse the
organization of discourse is the object. Facts and objects in the world are inescapably
textual constructions. (Kindle Location 454-458)
The case made by Kukla and those he cited (Trout, 1994; Knorr-Cetina, 1993, Latour &
Woolgar, 1986) does not reject that the world and the things in it existed before there were
human minds to comprehend them, indeed the author points out that these things would still exist
even if there were suddenly no humans in the world (Kindle Location 520-525). The social
constructivist stance, however, reflects that the reality of these things comes from the humanly
created understanding of their creation, function and impact.
The epistemological basis of social constructivism accepts that knowledge is a socially
produced construct (Walsh & Downe, 2006, p. 109). Flood (2010) stated that meanings are

constructed by people as they engage with the world they are interpreting (p. 8). Kukla
observed that the knowledge of a thing in not discovered it is decided and used the simplistic
example of the length a meter prior to the establishment of metric standards to illustrate his point
(Kukla, 2000, Kindle Location 771-776). The length of the meter is not determined by nature, it
is determined by a set of standards constructed by a society of individuals.
The rhetorical assumptions found with social constructivism are formed among the inter
subjectivity of social meanings (Kim, 2001, p. 3) that acknowledged that communications are
based on social interactions among individuals who have a common understanding and share
similar views of the world (Kim, 2001). Kukla (2000) provided an example of a black and white
photograph to demonstrate how society creates meaning based on their understanding of the
world:
Physical objects like black-and-white photographs dont produce worlds. By themselves,
photographs are just pieces of paper. What does the constructing is human activity in
which the physical objects are implicated, and what get constructed are facts. (Kindle
Location 2185-2190)
A central tenet of the philosophy of constructivism is that knowledge is constructed based
on previous learning on the part of the knower (Young & Collin, 2004, p, 375). Social
constructivism expands this concept to position knowledge acquisition as constructed among a
set of societal beliefs (Young & Collin, 2004, p, 376). This research project reflected the
assumptions related to social constructivism to understand how knowledge is distributed among
groups to ground the research and frame participant responses among the context of the
phenomenon.

Phenomenology
The formal philosophical framework of descriptive phenomenology is generally credited
to Edmund Husserl (Giorgi, 2010, p. 3). Husserls initial training was among the disciplines of
mathematics and science, but his interest turned toward philosophy when these disciplines could
not satisfy his search for understanding related to human and social matters (Laverty, p. 3). He
believed that applying the methods used to study the natural sciences were inadequate when
studying human interactions (Laverty, 2003, p. 4). Husserl proposed phenomenology as a means
of bringing a scientific approach to bring out the essential components of the lived experiences
specific to a group of people (Flood, p. 9).
Husserl was of the opinion that psychology deals with living subjects who are not
simply reacting automatically to external stimuli, but rather are responding to their own
perception of what these stimuli mean (Laverty, p. 4). This was later reiterated by Moustakas
(1994) who observed that perception is regarded as the primary source of knowledge, the source
that cannot be doubted (p. 52) and it is through the perceptions of those that have directly
experienced a phenomenon that we derive the essence of the phenomenon (Cresswell, 2007, p.
79). Essence in this context used the Webster dictionary definition of the most significant part of
a things nature (p. 322). Wertz (2005) stated that Husserl identified three different types of
essences: exact, formal essences; material essences; and essences that compose the life sciences
(p. 5). Exact, formal essences are represented by numbers and shapes that are formally defined
by mathematical principles (Wertz, p. 5). Material essences are represented by common and
everyday things that are understood based on familiarity of their usage (Wertz, p. 5). Essences of
the life sciences are the focus of phenomenological research and are represented by vital
phenomena that have their own kind of essential being (Wertz, p. 5).

Husserl proposed phenomenology as a methodological process to explore the essence of

the lived experience and stressed the requirement for the researcher to bring a fresh and unbiased
perspective to the research methodology (Wertz, p. 3). To bring the researcher to this state,
Husserl proposed two procedures called epoches, which are abstentions from influences that
could short-circuit or bias description (Wertz, p. 3).
Wertz quoted Husserl in identifying the first epoche as the epoche of the natural
sciences (p. 3). The first epoche requires the researcher to set aside knowledge of existing
theories to get an untainted view of the phenomenon (Wertz, p. 4). This is summarized by Wertz
who said that this epoche, suspends received science, puts it out of play, and makes no use of it
for the sake of fresh research access to the maters to be investigated (Wertz, p. 4). This first
epoche is also referred to as bracketing (Wertz, p. 4) among the literature (Flood, 2010, p. 12).
Wertz again quoted Husserl in identifying the second epoche as the epoche of the natural
attitude (p. 4). This method is in place to allow the researcher to set aside what they know to be
true and to discover the truth as it is presented from the perspective of those who have
experienced the phenomenon (Wertz, p. 4). Wertz stated that this epoche allows us to recollect
our own experiences and to empathically enter and reflect on the lived world of other persons in
order to apprehend the meanings of the world as they are given to the first-person point of view
(p. 4).
Husserl recommended another procedure that allows the researcher to identify the nature
of an essence through a process he called eidetic reduction (Wertz, p. 5). Using this procedure
the researcher descriptively characterizes the essences of those that have experienced the
phenomenon to clarify the meaning and structure/organization of the subject matter (Wertz, p.
5). These essences are then subjected to a validation process that Husserl called free imaginative

variation (Wertz, p. 5). Under free imaginative variation, the researcher uses her imagination to
insert these essences into different scenarios to find out if the essence was derived from an event
that was accidental or incidental (p. 5).

Rationale for a Qualitative Study

We would be in a nasty position indeed if empirical science were the only kind of science
possible. Edmund Husserl (Brainyquote)
Both quantitative and qualitative philosophical frameworks were considered when
embarking upon this project. Quantitative research allows the researcher to empirically test
hypothesis using statistical methods and provides results that are grounded by mathematically
certainty (Laverty, 2003, p. 2). The studies found in the literature review were found to be
primarily quantitative in nature. Schein (1993) observed, however, that traditional quantitative
methods of inquiry produced very reliable results about very unimportant things (p. 703).
Schein (1993) further observed that qualitative research methodology provides the means to
deeply explore a phenomenon and provide more than just superficial data (p. 704).
Given that the nature of the inquiry relates to how behavior is manifested in
telecommuting employees, however, qualitative research methods that emphasize discovery,
description and meaning rather than prediction, control and measurement (Laverty, p. 2)
provided the best fit for the study. This was underscored by Golden (2006) who found that
further study was needed in the areas of trust and organizational relationships relative to
telecommuting and stated that his own study was limited by its quantitative design (p. 336).

Rationale for a Phenomenological Study

Employing phenomenological research methods to the study of the assimilation of
organizational culture and impact of technology mediated social interactions by telecommuters
allows the efforts of both and insider who makes the unconscious assumptions and an outsider
who helps to uncover the assumptions by asking the right kinds of questions (Schein, 1984, p.
4). The philosophical framework used to structure the proposed qualitative research study is a
Husserlian influenced phenomenology. In his book, Creswell (2007) compared the defining
characteristics for five major qualitative approaches (p. 79). The first two characteristics
observed by Creswell (2007) are the focus of the inquiry and the type of design best suited to the
inquiry. For a phenomenological study, these characteristics are closely aligned and are targeted
toward understanding and describing the essence (p. 79) of the phenomenon being studied.
The third characteristic aligns the discipline or background of the study to the type of
study employed. Creswell observed that the disciplines of philosophy, psychology and education
are well suited to a phenomenological study. The field of HRD is an old realm of practice and a
relatively young academic field (Swanson & Holton, 2001, p. 69). For this reason, HRD
theoretical underpinnings are borrowed from other more well-established disciplines such as
psychology, education, philosophy, anthropology and system theory (Swanson & Holton, p. 70).
Given the genealogical linkage to these disciplines, HRD as a discipline has the pedigree that
invites the use of a phenomenological inquiry.
The fourth characteristic that Creswell (2007) identifies is the unit of analysis. In a
phenomenological research study the unit of analysis is to study several individuals that have
shared the experience (p. 79). The telecommuter community as a whole constitutes a very large
population of individuals who are temporally and geographically dispersed (Lautsch, et. al.,

2009). The size and dispersion of the telecommuter community makes it impossible for the
researcher to become immersed into the culture as is common when conducting an ethnographic
study (Creswell, p. 79). As found in the literature review, the advantages and disadvantages to an
individual are well documented, so providing narrative accounts of the telecommuting
experience as in narrative research would be unlikely to reveal sufficient insights to justify a
research project. A case study was considered, however, the researcher believed that this would
tend to skew the results toward the idiosyncrasies of a single organization and did not align with
the researchers intent to relate to a broader perspective. Based on the characteristics as defined
by the unit of analysis and considering the alternatives, a phenomenology was selected by the
researcher as an appropriate choice for the proposed study.
The last three characteristics related to the collection, analysis and reporting processes
that are common in phenomenological research studies. Creswell (2007) observed that data
collection in phenomenological research primarily uses interviews with individuals, although
documents, observations, and art might also be considered (p. 79). Data analysis is performed
by reviewing the results of the interviews for significant statements and identifying common
themes observed by study participants (Creswell, p. 79). The reporting of the study results
includes a description of the essence of the experience (Creswell, p. 79). These align with the
plan for conducting the study and further support the researchers selection of a
phenomenological framework.

Research Question
The central research question of a study tells the reader what the researcher is trying to
learn from the study (Cresswell, 2007, p. 107). In qualitative research, interrogatories such as

what and how are generally used in posing the central question because they tend to generate
responses that are unique to the individual experiences of the respondent (Cresswell, p. 107).
Cresswell observed that research questions foreshadow an approach to inquiry (p. 107) and
promoted the use of Marshall and Rossmans categorization of qualitative questions (i.e.,
exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, or emancipator) to use as a schema to understand the nature
of the inquiry.
This study was intended to explain how social interactions that are mediated via
technology manifest in the organizational citizenship behaviors of telecommuting employees.
Cresswell observed that because qualitative research is built from the ground up (p. 19) and is
not handed down entirely from a theory (p. 19) that the research questions might requirement
to change during the course of the study to understand the research problem (p. 19). The
overarching question for this study was: How do telecommuters describe organization culture
when social interactions are inherently mediated via technology? To fully explore this
overarching question, the following sub-questions were derived:
1.

How are communications conveyed between your manager and/or colleagues and
yourself?

2.

Describe your level/s of satisfaction with the current types of communication.

3.

What are some difficulties, obstacles, or barriers that might, or have, influenced
the communication process?

4.

What efforts have been made to overcome these problematic areas and to offer
support for communication?

5.

Describe variations among telecommuters in terms of their communication with

your manager and/or colleagues?

6.

Please share your thoughts as to whether or not variations in communications

might have affected your career.

7.

How do you see your role in supporting communication with your management
and colleagues?

8.

Is there anything else that has not been addressed you would like to add?

Methodology
Role of the Researcher
Platos character Socrates from the play Theaetetus observed that the exploration of
others experience and inner truth is similar to childbirth; the midwife is just helping the baby to
be delivered, she does not deliver her own baby (Standing, 2009, p. 90). This metaphor
illustrates the idea that among phenomenological research, the researcher does not attempt to
deliver her own ideas rather she facilitates bringing the ideas of others into the world (Standing,
2009, p. 90).
As previously observed, the researcher is the primary instrument that is used to collect
and report the experiences of those who have encountered a phenomenon. Walsh & Downe
observed that the role of the researcher is where the divide between qualitative and quantitative
research is most obvious (p. 115). Researchers must include a discussion of their bias so the
reader could sense how the researcher shaped the entire project, and, in particular, the
interpretation of findings (Walsh & Downe, p. 116). Biases could alter the direction of a
research project and might focus the inquiry toward a researchers pre-existing viewpoint
(Cresswell, p. 18). Cresswell observed that in practice the researcher must disclose known biases
and discuss the values that would shape the narrative and includes his or her own interpretation

in conjunction with the interpretations of participants (p. 17). The role of the researcher and
reflexive disclosure of researcher bias is presented below.

Researcher Bias
The researcher acknowledges that she has bias toward believing that telecommuting
employees do not have the similar awareness of organizational culture as their physically present
counterparts. This belief on the part of the researcher was one of the factors that drew the
researcher to this topic and subsequent reviews of the available literature did not reveal insights
that would change the researchers view. The researcher has first-hand experience of
telecommuter peers and subordinates that perform their tasks more than competently and who
have outstanding work ethics but have revealed frustration when issues around communication
and office politics are discussed.

Sample
The most challenging aspect of it is not interviewing the people, but getting the right people at
the right time to be interviewed. Bob Schieffer (Nut Quote)
Steward (2000) observed the following about selecting appropriate participants for her
study, Tele-workers are an elusive and ill-defined group, and so participants formed an
opportunistic and inclusive sample gained through advertising and snowballing (p. 59).
A subject pool of ten study participants would be recruited to participate in the study
using purposive sampling. Research participants would be identified using social networking
among professional organizations known to the researcher and social contacts outside the
environs of the researchers employer. The use of snowballing where informants or participants

are asked to recommend others (Groenwald, p. 9) would be employed to expand the pool of
participants as needed to make sure that the data collected from the interviews were sufficiently
saturated with the essence of the phenomenon to provide a thickly descriptive narrative (Walsh &
Downe, p. 114).
Study participants would be pre-screened to find out that they meet the criteria found in
the literature that defines them as telecommuters. According to Scott & Timmerman (1999) the
minimum threshold to establish of [telecommuter] participation is 20 percent of a standard fiveday workweek (p. 245). This screening is needed based on Goldens (2006) findings that
infrequent telecommuting is likely to result in only minimal decrements in TMX quality (p.
323). Study participants would not be paid for their participation, although a restaurant gift card
of nominal value was be sent to participants as a thank you for participating in the study.

Data Collection and Processing Procedures

Subject interviews are the source of data for the research project. Interviews would be
recorded using a Sony ICD-BX700 digital recorder. During the course of the interview, the
recorder might be turned off to allow the interview participant to make off-the-record
statements or to collect their thoughts before answering a question. Any off-the-record statements
or clarifying communications would be disregarded for purposes of the study. If the participant
voluntarily indicated a willingness to include statements made while recording was suspended,
these would be explored when recording resumed. Participants would be reminded of this both in
writing and verbally before commencement of the interview.
The initial phase of the interview would begin with a series of questions to make sure that
the protocols surrounding the interview are fully understood by the participant. During this stage,

the interviewer would make sure that the participant had made informed consent and that the
participant is comfortable with providing data during the interview process.
An interview script would be created by the researcher in advance of the interview to
make sure a thorough exploration of the participants experience with the phenomenon. The
interview script is located in Appendix B. During the course of the interview, the nature and
order of interview questions might be changed in order to make sure that the flow of information
from the interviewee to the researcher is not interrupted. Some demographic information such as
age-range, gender, years of service in their organization would be included in the interview script
for use during coding to find out if common themes emerged along demographic lines. The
literature review identified three test instruments that are used in quantitative research that were
used to structure the interview questions. These are: Pincus (1986) Modified Communication
Satisfaction Questionnaire (CSQ), the LMX-7 questionnaire and the TMX-10 questionnaire.
Subject interviews would not exceed two hours.
Akkirman & Harris (2005) used the CSQ in their study of organizational commitment
among virtual employees. The five areas explored by this instrument include: communication
climate, organizational integration, horizontal communication, personal feedback, and
relationship with supervisor.
Under the category of communication climate, the effectiveness of organizational
communications to motivate workers to meet organizational objectives is explored.
Communication climate is also used to explore how individuals identify with the organization
(Akkirman & Harris, 2005, p. 400). The questions focused on the delivery method of
communications to virtual workers as well as the content of communications in hopes of

determining the roles that media richness and completeness of content play in telecommuter
citizenship behaviors.
Organizational integration measures how well information about their work environment
is dispersed to group members (Akkirman & Harris, 2005, p. 400). Examples of this type of
information are: organizational or departmental plans, job requirements, future projects, and
personal news. This part of the interview identified the level of connectedness that the virtual
employee feels toward the organization and to find out if this plays a role in trust formation and
how connectedness impacts on-going trust relationships.
Horizontal communication measured the extent to which informal notifications (ex. the
grapevine) are communicated to the telecommuter (Akkirman & Harris, p. 400). Questions under
this category were designed to assess participant perceptions of lateral trust (i.e., trust between
peers). The ten question team-member exchange quality scale (TMX-10) was used to formulate
questions related to organizational and horizontal integration (Seers et al., p. 37).
Personal feedback related to how virtual workers receive information regarding the
quality of their job performance and how well they understand how they are being judged and
evaluated (Akkirman & Harris, p. 400). Among this section, the candor and frequency of
personal feedback received by the telecommuter was explored. Gaps between the feedback
provided to virtual employees and the employees own evaluation of performance and the degree
to which they believe that judgments are fair would be examined to find out how this impacts
citizenship behaviors.
Relationship with supervisor measured the quality of communication between employees
and their supervisor (Akkirman & Harris, p. 400). It includes the supervisors willingness to
collaborate with employees to solve problems as well as the supervisors ability to actively listen.

The seven question leader-member exchange quality scale (LMX-7) was used to formulate
questions related to personal feedback and relationship with supervisor (Graen & Uhl-Bien,
1995, p. 237).
A debriefing session would be performed at the end of the interview where topics
discussed during the interview were summarized. This is intended to provide the participant with
the ability to reflect on their answers and clarify any items that they believe might have been
misrepresented.
After the interview is concluded and transcribed, in some cases a short follow-up
interview would be performed to clarify or develop themes identified during coding. The similar
protocols identified above would be used to conduct the follow-up interview. Follow-up
interviews would not exceed 30 minutes.

Data Analysis Procedures

This study utilized Giorgis (1975) model for analyzing the interview data (Flood, 2010,
p. 12). This model is defined by four stages of analytical review. In the first stage of the model,
the researcher reviews the protocol in its entirety to get a general sense of the research project. It
is during this stage where the researcher attempts to bracket out preconceptions that could
influence the research (Flood, p. 12).
In the second stage of the model, thorough examination of the transcripts is performed to
identify central themes termed meaning units (Flood, p. 13). By compiling these meaning
units, the stories of each participants experience with the phenomenon unfolds. The qualitative
interview data would be coded by the researcher to identify recurring themes related to
participant experience of organizational citizenship behaviors.

In the third stage of the model, the researcher critically evaluates each of the meaning
units to organize the data so that the nature of the phenomenon is revealed. This stage of the
process results in a set of final themes called revelatory themes by Whiting (2001) as cited by
Flood (p. 13).
In the fourth and final stage of the model, the researcher compiles and prepares detailed
reports expounding upon the revelatory themes (Flood, p. 13). These include contextual content
from the research process (Flood, p. 13).
Giorgis 1975 model that formalized the scientific methods of phenomenology is widely
recognized as an accepted methodology (Wertz, 2005, p. 8). Interestingly, though, Giorgi (2010)
observed that there is no single, generally accepted method to employ in performing
phenomenological research and stated that scientific practices and procedures of a science based
upon phenomenology are not yet systematized or securely established (p. 4) suggesting the
requirement for further development of research methodology.

Quality and Verification

Quality is never an accident; it is always the result of intelligent effort. John Ruskin
(Thinkexist)
In all research, standards for assessing the quality of the work must be set (Cresswell, p.
45). Additionally, the researcher must have acknowledged their commitment to a research design
that ensures the reliability and validity of the study (Cresswell, p. 45). Long & Johnson (2000)
observed that failure to assess the worth of a study the soundness of its method, the accuracy
of its findings, and the integrity of assumptions made or conclusions reached could have dire
consequences (p. 30).

All research studies, whether they are qualitative of quantitative requirement to be able to
withstand evaluation and critique (Long & Johnson, p. 30). Where qualitative research departs
from quantitative research is in the forms that evidence takes, the rhetoric used in the
presentation of the data, and the recognition of the inability to exactly replicate the study by
other researchers that because the conditions under which the study are conducted are unique to
the researcher and their co-researchers (Walsh & Downe, p. 109). Additionally, qualitative
research is a relatively new form of research with its infancy circa 1930 (Wertz, 2005, p. 3).
When compared to the history and traditions of empirically based quantitative studies, the
standards for evaluation have not been definitively standardized (Giorgi 2010, p. 4). These
factors force qualitative research to assess the rigor of qualitative research from a different
perspective than that of quantitative research with its long and widely accepted history.

Reliability/Dependability
Long & Johnson (2000) provided several definitions of reliability, which they observed
as being analogous to dependability, in their article regarding the requirement for rigor in
qualitative research (p. 31). They cited Polit & Hungler (1995) in defining reliability as the
ability of the instrument to measure that which it is measuring and LoBiond-Wood & Haber
(1998) whose definition was the consistency or constancy of a measuring instrument (p. 30).
As previously observed, the researcher herself is the research instrument. These definitions
reiterate the requirement for the researcher to bracket out the preconceptions and remain as
detached as possible (Long & Johnson, p. 30). Long & Johnson presented a third definition from
Hammersley (1992) that stated that reliability in qualitative research refers to the degree of
consistency with which instances are assigned in the similar category by different observers or

by the similar observer on different occasions (p. 30). This last definition recognized a more
active role for the researcher than the first two definitions, however, all relate to confidence in
data collection (Long & Johnson, p. 30).
Having established an understanding of what is meant by dependability, the next logical
question is: How to evaluate the dependability of a research project? Long & Johnson found
value and used Brinks (1991) tests for stability, consistency and equivalence to check the
reliability of qualitative research (p. 31). The stability of findings is considered to be in place
when the similar questions are asked of co-researchers at different times yields the similar
answer (Long & Johnson, p. 30). Consistency is found among each individual interview and
relates to ensuring that the questions pertain to the topic under study. Equivalence is also found
among the interview process and refers to asking questions in alternate forms in order to check
for concordant answers.
Long and Johnson presented two techniques for establishing the reliability of the study,
audit of the decision trail and triangulation (p. 33). The technique of auditing of the decision trail
is attributed to Sandelowski (1986) and requires the researcher to disclose the details concerning
all sources of data (Long & Johnson, p. 35). This allows the research to be evaluated by others
who have a baseline for evaluation. This study provided a basis for auditing the decision trail by
presentation of the data analysis and disclosure of researcher bias.
Triangulation employs the use of multiple data sources, data collection methods, or
investigators (Long & Johnson, p. 34). Triangulation might have a role in establishing the
validity of the study as well, but Long & Johnson minimized this role by referring to the work of
Bloor (1997) and stated that triangulation might illuminate different perspectives on the
problem but does not provide any test of validity (p. 35). Based on this perspective, these

authors hold that triangulation does not confirm the veracity of the facts for purpose of
validation; it is rather a tool to use in evaluating the quality of the inferences made from the data
and speaks to the reliability of findings.

Validity
While reliability referred to the constancy and repeatability of the instrument, validity
considers the ability of the instrument to accurately represent the characteristics of a
phenomenon (Long & Johnson, p. 31). Validity could be considered from three perspectives:
content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity (p. 31). Content validity is
primarily concerned with the samples and instruments used in the study and addresses the extent
to which ensures that the phenomenon is explored in sufficient detail (p. 31). Criterion-related
validity refers to comparing of the method and findings of the study against an established
standard (p. 32). Construct validity is a function of the closeness of the instrument to the
construct being studied. (p. 32).
Payne & Williams (2005) presented validity from the perspectives of internal and
external validity (p. 297). They observed that internal validity is a product of the quality of the
original research and to some degree could be assessed based on the quality of the methodology
employed (p. 297).
Payne & Williams observed that external validity might be evaluated by thick
description of the fieldwork, the richness of the data collected and full reportage of the care using
in its collection (p. 298). Payne & Williams cited LeCompte and Goetz who argued that reports
should give extensive details of who the informants were; the social setting of the data

collection; how the data were collected; the effect of the researchers status on the process; and
the researchers original theoretical orientation (p. 298).
Long & Johnson presented self-description and reflective journal-keeping; respondent
validation; prolonged involvement and persistent observation; peer debriefing; and triangulation
(p. 33) as some techniques for establishing the validity of a research study. Self-description and
reflective journal-keeping allows the researcher to examine her own belief system and find out if
the research is being led by the researchers beliefs rather than unbiased presentation of the data
as collected from the study participants (Long & Johnson, p. 33). Following each interview, the
researcher would journalize personal perceptions and observations made during the interview.
Once coding of the data is completed, the researcher would return to the journal to make sure
that study results reflect participant views rather than those of the researcher.
Respondent validation involves reviewing the results of the study with the study
participants (Long & Johnson, p. 33). Although this strategy might be employed as a validation
technique, Long & Johnson cautioned that there are problems such as a time lag between the
collection of data and the processing of results and data that that are inherent to this technique
that might make it ill-suited to gauge the validity of the study. This technique was not used in this
study.
Prolonged investment and persistent observation refers to the time spent in the field
collecting data. Long & Johnson observed that simply being in the respondents environment
enhances the likelihood of their meaning emerging and being recognized (p. 34). Long &
Johnson cited Guba & Lincoln who observed that the amount of time spent on an engagement
builds trust between the researcher and the co-researcher (p. 34). The design of the proposed
study does not lend itself to use this validation technique.

Peer debriefing is another technique used to validate qualitative studies. Using this
technique the researcher discusses study results and conclusions with their colleagues or to
present findings to professional forums in order to find out if their peer concurs with their
findings and conclusions (Long & Johnson, p. 34). This technique, however, could take a lot of
time to orient colleagues with the research and was not used in this study.
Triangulation employs multiple forms of study data or multiple researchers and seeks the
concordance of findings with the findings of the researcher (Long & Johnson, p. 34). The
research design of this study did not support the use of triangulation.

Ethical Considerations
In addition to obtaining a signed consent form prior to conducting the interview, the
researcher would take steps to make sure that genuine informed consent (Suzuki et al., 2007)
has been granted by the interviewee. To accomplish this objective, information regarding the
nature of the study would be presented prior to conducting the interview. Additionally, the
interviewee would be informed that a debriefing session would be held at the end of the
interview to allow the participant to reflect on their answers and clarify anything that they
believe might be inaccurate or incomplete. Contact information for the interviewer would
provide to the participant to allow them to follow up on interview questions following the
interview. A copy of the formal letter provided to participants is located in Appendix A.
At any time prior to the submission of this research project, the participant has the right
to rescind permission to use their interview in the study. If this occurs, the research would not be
used for the study, digitally recorded data would be erased and consent forms would be shredded.

A replacement participant would be sought to complete the study using the sampling method
described above.
The study proposal was submitted to Barry Universitys Institutional Review Board (IRB)
for their consideration. The purpose of this review is to make sure that proposed study does no
harm to research participants. Additionally, the researcher completed the National Institute of
Healths (NIH) online course Protecting Human Research Participants that ensures that the
researcher has been schooled in the protection of the well-being of research participants. The
course was taken a couple of times with the most recent review of the material completed
January 16, 2011 as evidenced by certificate number 598043.

Data Security: Participant Anonymity and Document Retention

To protect their anonymity, participants would be assigned pseudonyms that would be
known only by the researcher and would not connect specific participants to results of the study
as statements made by participants would be attributed by pseudonym. During the course of the
interview, no names would be used and participants would be referred to as Subjects One, Two,
Three, etc. No use of company names would be included in the interview and work setting would
be identified by industry only. Evidence of voluntary participation by a subject in this study
would be the signed consent form required by Barry University.
Recordings would be fully transcribed and transcriptions checked against the recording
among six weeks of the completion of each interview. Transcription would be performed by the
researcher. Following transcription, digital recordings would be erased. To make sure the
permanent erasure of digitally recorded interviews, the digital recorder itself would be destroyed
upon conclusion and coding of all interviews.

As a final security measure and among one year following completion and acceptance of
the research study, hard copies of transcribed interviews and interview notes would be shredded.
At this time, soft-copies of transcriptions would be deleted from all electronic media storage and
portable forms of electronic media storage containing this data such as: CDs and memory sticks
would be destroyed. While retrieval of electronically deleted documents from hard drives is
possible, the cost and effort required to retrieve erased data makes this possibility unlikely.
Additionally, the fact that study participants are never identified by name minimizes the risk of
harming them.

Summary
It is important to note that one cannot separate philosophy from method, as the espoused
philosophy of the study determines the method. This chapter provided and overview of the
philosophical base of phenomenology and social constructivism along with the assumptions that
are made among these schools of thought. Additionally, the researchers rationale for choosing
these frameworks was presented.
The methodology employed to perform this study was described including the role of the
researcher and disclosure of existing researcher bias was divulged in order to make sure that
evaluation of the research study contained these data points for consideration. This was
necessary in order for the study to be evaluated to make sure that the perspectives presented
reflects the lived experience of study participants and was not impacted by the preconceptions of
the researcher.
The researchers sampling process was discussed to identify the targeted participants of
the study. Procedures for collecting data from these participants and subsequent plans for

interview transcription were detailed. The researcher observed that the CSQ, LMX-7, and TMX10 questionnaires would be used to generate a set of open-ended questions for the interview
script. This script would be used as a guideline to make sure that the interview stays on topic,
and the order and nature of the questions might change to develop themes initiated by the
participant.
The planned study enumerated and expounded upon Giorgis (1989) four step model for
performing qualitative research to structure the data analysis procedures. This model
recommends bracketing as a first step, identification of central themes as a second step, coding
into revelatory themes as a third step, and presentation of the findings as a final step.
Practices for quality and verification are also discussed among chapter. The strategies that
would be employed by this research study are identified. Finally, the ethical considerations and
practices that are in place to protect research participants are discussed.