MP2303/AE2006: THERMODYNAMICS

REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS
A. PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
(a) Water/Steam or Refrigerants
Use Property Tables for the appropriate substance
To determine in which region the state is:
Given T and P, using the saturation pressure table
For the given P, if T < Tsat
subcooled liquid
For the given P, if T > Tsat
superheated vapour
If other properties are given, e.g, v and T,
using the saturation temperature table, for given T
vvf
subcooled liquid
v f v vg saturated liquid-vapour mixture
v vg
superheated vapour
Can use u, h or s in similar manner
(i) Subcooled Liquid
- approximate using sat. liquid properties at
given T
v vf(T), u uf(T), s sf(T)
h hf(T) + vf(P-Psat) (second term can be
neglected for low values of P)

(ii) Sat. Liquid-Vapour Mixture

- given P, from sat. pressure table, T = Tsat
- given T, from sat. temperature table, P = Psat
Using sat. pressure or sat. temperature table
(depending on whether P or T is given)
- obtain v f , v g
- given v, obtain dryness fraction,

x=

v vf
vg v f

- given x, obtain v = (1 x )v f + xv g
- other properties may be similarly obtained,
e.g. h = (1 x)h f + xhg = h f + xh fg
(iii) Superheated Vapour
- use Superheated Vapour Tables
given P, T
determine v, u, h, s by interpolation
(b) Ideal Gas (e.g. Air)
Pv = RT
u = u(T )
h = h( T )

du = Cv dT
dh = C p dT

Assuming constant Cv , C P
u2 u1 = Cv ( T2 T1 )
h2 h1 = C P ( T2 T1 )
s2 s1 = C P ln(T2 / T1 ) R ln( P2 / P1 )
s 2 s1 = C v ln(T2 / T1 ) + R ln(v 2 / v1 )

or

(c) Incompressible Substance (Liquids/Solids)

v = constant ;
C p = Cv = C

Assuming constant C
u2 u1 = C (T2 T1 )
h2 h1 = C (T2 T1 ) + v f ( P2 P1 )

s 2 s1 = C ln(T2 / T1 )

B. CLOSED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

-

Fixed Mass or Non-Flow System

(a) First Law (Energy Balance):

Q W = E = U + KE + PE
-

For stationary systems: KE , PE = 0

Q W = U = m(u 2 u1 )

Q = +ve (in); Q = ve (out);

W = +ve (out); W = ve (in);

Moving boundary work, Wb = PdV

Need the process equation linking P and V,
n
n
e.g. for polytropic process, [ P1v1 = P2 v2 = constant ]
2
Wb
P v Pv
= Pdv = 2 2 1 1
1
m
1 n

for work done against a spring

2
Wb
P +P
= Pdv = 1 2 (v2 v1 )
1
m
2
Other types of work, Wshaft , Welec may be present.

(b) Second Law (Entropy Balance):

Q

+ S gen = S = m( s2 s1 )

is entropy transfer by heat transfer; +ve

for heat in and ve for heat out.

-

Tb is the absolute temperature at which the

heat is transferred
-

S gen is the entropy generation due to

irreversibilities; and is always +ve

For isolated systems (e.g. system and
surroundings), a special type of closed system:
Q = 0, W = 0
U = 0

S (= S sys + S surr ) = S gen 0

C. STEADY STATE CONTROL VOLUME (SSCV)

- a region in space, with mass flow across
boundary; also called Open or Flow System
- deals mostly with rate processes
- no changes inside the CV (steady state)
- changes is between inlet state and exit state
Typical SSCVs: Turbine, Compressors, Pumps,
Nozzles, Valves, Heat Exchangers (includes
Boilers, Condensors and Evaporators)

SSCV with single inlet, single exit

(a) Mass flow rate:
m& i = m& e = m& =

(AV)
v

(b) First Law (Energy Rate Balance):

2
2

V
V
e
i
&
&
+ g ( z e zi )
Q W = m& (he hi ) +

2
2

W& here is usually shaft work or electrical

-

work, NOT moving boundary work ( PdV )

because volume of SSCV does not change
(c) Second Law (Entropy Rate Balance):
Q&

+ S& gen = m& ( se si )

Reversible steady flow work (with negligible KE,

PE changes between inlet and outlet)
W& = m& vdP
n
n
e.g. for a polytropic flow process, Pe ve = Pi vi
e
W&
n
= vdP =
( Pe v e Pi v i )
i
m&
n 1

for an incompressible liquid flow (pump)

e
W&
= vdP = v ( Pe Pi )
i
m&

D. SPECIAL PROCESSES
(a) Isentropic Process
When a process is adiabatic ( Q or Q& = 0 ) and
reversible ( S gen or S& gen = 0 ), then
s 2 = s1

or

se = si

(constant entropy)

For an Ideal Gas, the isentropic relation is

(i) assuming constant Cv , C P , k = C P / C v
k

P2 v1 T2
= =
P1 v2 T1

k
k 1

This is equivalent to a polytropic process

with n = k.
(b) Isothermal Process
T2 = T1

or Te = Ti

(constant temperature)

For an Ideal Gas

P1v1 = P2 v2 = RT = constant
u 2 = u1

h2 = h1

2
v
W
= Pdv = RT ln 2
m 1
v1

e
P
W&
= vdP = RT ln e
i
Pi
m&

E. ANALYSIS OF CYCLES
(a) 1st Law for cycles:
U cy = 0

Qin Qout = Wnet ,out

(b) 2nd Law for cycles:

S cy = 0

0 (Clausius Ineq.)

(c) Performance of Cycles:

(i) Heat engines:
Wnet , out Qin Qout
Q
=
= 1 out
Qin
Qin
Qin
T
rev = 1 L
TH

(ii) Refrigerators:
COPref =

QL
QL
=
Wnet ,in Q H Q L

COPref COPrev ,ref =

TL
TH TL

(iii) Heat Pumps:

QH
QH
=
Wnet ,in QH QL
TH
COPhp COPrev ,hp =
TH TL
COPhp =