Specifying power conditioning equipment.

Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Waggoner, Ray

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There are critical questions that must be asked before a specification can be put together for
conditioning equipment purchase.
How does power conditioning fit into our power quality picture? Well, in order for these devices
to work well, we certainly need to know how they "fit in" with our facility's condition. In other
words, we need to know the way in which our load devices draw current, what signal system
protection is needed for proper operation, and what the conditioning equipment will do to the rest
of our electrical distribution. This understanding will help us prepare specs for any required
power conditioning apparatus.
Armed with this knowledge and capability, we can be certain that our proposed solution will
actually do the job intended. And, we should be able to perform an acceptance test verifying this.
Remembering past lessons
Before we look at the critical parts of specifying and selecting equipment, let's remind ourselves
of some of the lessons we've learned about the behavior of sensitive electrical/electronic loads
and expected interactions from different combinations.
Any power apparatus placed into a circuit between the utility' source and the load device
becomes a "soft" or small source. In other words, it takes the place of the larger, stiffer utility
source. This means that we have decreased the stiffness and lowered the capacity of the original
system while, at the same time, increased the impedance in the direction of the new "source."
This doesn't depend on the type of power product used.
This leads to interaction as the currents of the load device now flow into the higher impedance
source, possibly creating problems with the very device intended to "solve" the problems.
One way to avoid this impedance interaction is to use the low impedance, two winding, isolation
transformer (approximately 4 % to 4.5 % impedance). Now, the source looks toward the load and
doesn't "see" a high impedance; the same is true for the load looking upstream toward the smaller
source. This application works well with line conditioners, regulators, motor-generators, and
UPSs.
This type of transformer, having an electrostatic shield and used with secondary dedicated
wiring, helps turn electrical noise back into the building, keeping it from interfering with the
load's sensitive digital logic signal circuit. To do so, we place the power device in the primary
and the sensitive load circuits in the secondary.

Before we specify this transformer, we first should be certain of what disturbances we are trying
to prevent. By using a shielded transformer, we should be able to mitigate the "mystery"
disturbances, or those that come and go at random times and circulate in the ground system.
Remaining should be line-to-line problems. Here, a voltage stabilizing, or "buffering" product,
such as a motor-generator or even a stored energy device such as a UPS, may do the job.
In the Federal Information Processing Standards Publication (FIPS Pub 94), a section on
electrical disturbances warns us of stability problems in series-connected voltage regulators.
Looking at Fig. 1, we have an external voltage regulator's output (that of Regulator No. 1)
connected to an internal voltage regulator's input (that of Regulator No. 2). This is not
uncommon as many automatic data processing (ADP) units have their own internal voltage
regulators fed from external regulators. But, there may be a stability problem.
If both regulators have similar time constants and high gain and phase shift characteristics, the
resulting interaction can create a phenomenon called "oscillatory response." This phenomenon
can range from damped oscillation, at a minimum, to a disastrous "flip-flop" of the wave-shape,
at the most severe case.
Other spec points
Certainly voltage, current, and kVA/kW ratings are important parameters in selecting the proper
device. But, there are other questions that must be answered.
* What is the voltage range required on the input of the device? Are we dealing with a modest
12% to 15% adjustment or are there much wider swings of voltage?
* Can we count on the voltage regulation in the load device to handle the narrow band of voltage
while we supply the wider swings with external voltage stabilization? (Sometimes, an adjustment
of the power transformer primary voltage taps can help keep incoming power closer to the center
of the required range, thus eliminating the need and expense of an additional device.)
* Does the device work only on linear or inductive loads, or can we count on handling nonlinear
currents?
* Will we need to oversize the product so that it can adequately serve our load? (Not too large for
high energy losses; not too small such that the device goes into "current limit" if a step load or
inrush is seen.)
These same questions also can be asked (and expanded upon) in specifying any power
conditioning device.
There are other valuable spec characteristics we should consider.

Dynamic parameters. We should know the amounts of inrush currents or periodic step changes in
the load current. One such group of devices that come to mind here are X-ray and imaging
equipment.
We should also consider what levels or changes in system impedance occur when this special
equipment is served.
Power factor. We must consider the total power factor (PF) of our system. After all, we should be
energy conscious and a PF in the low to middle 90's is our best assurance that we're properly
utilizing our transformer and wiring capacity. While adding the required capacitance, however,
we must consider those loads demanding a high content of frequencies other than the
fundamental (60 Hz).
The following questions should be asked here.
* What's the displacement PF?
* What's the contribution to total PF made by the distortion content and crest factor (CF) of the
load current? (Available now are conditioning devices designed for a CF of 3.0, instead of the
1.414 associated with a pure, undistorted sine wave.)
* Does our conditioning device produce distortion at its input side, causing problems for our
distribution system? As shown in Fig. 2, an engine generator is being asked by a UPS for a
distorted wave-shape; when the power source is small, as is this case here, it can't supply the
demands of the rectifier, in this case, a phase-angle fired circuit. The end result is a refusal to
accept the UPS, and failed backup protection.
Conclusions
Remember to seek out high efficiency products. Don't get trapped by standard load levels of 75
% and 100% load efficiencies; remember, we don't normally operate in those ranges. You'll find
that most of our applications end up running at only 40% to 65% of the nameplate rating of the
conditioning device. Thus, you should ask suppliers to maximize the efficiencies in the 40%-to65% range, and that they make the high efficiency stable across the load range.
One final word to those who must use battery-supported power conditioning services: whatever
your choice, solid-state or rotary, be sure to specify at least two strings of batteries. In this way,
you'll be able to avoid loss of your "lifeline" in a UPS system. In a single string, you won't be
able to easily exam inc each cell periodically to take action before a single cell failure. Many
UPS users report that this oversight causes a "surprise" shutdown at a time when the system is
most needed.
SUGGESTED READING
EC&M Books:

Practical Guide to Quality Power for Sensitive Equipment. Practical Guide to Power Distribution
Systems for Computers. For ordering information, call 800-654-6776.
Standards:
Federal Information Processing Standards Publication (FIPS) 94.
To order, write to the National Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Springfield, VA
22161.
RELATED ARTICLE: TERMS TO KNOW
Crest factor. The ratio of the peak value of a waveform to its rms value. The crest factor of a
pure, undistorted, sinusoidal waveform will always be 1.414 (1 divided by .707). The crest factor
of a complex waveform, however, maybe 1.414, or it may be some other value. For triplen
waveforms, this value will vary from 2.0 to 3.0, and has been recorded as high as 4.0.
Harmonics. The distortion of the main 60 Hz current (or voltage) sine wave whereby additional
currents or voltages (harmonics) that are multiplies of the fundamental 60 Hz current (or voltage)
are introduced into an electrical system.
Nonlinear load. Also referred to as nonlinear impedance. Any type of electrical equipment that
changes or modifies the voltage or current waveform to one that is not sinusoidal. The result is a
complex waveform, consisting of a fundamental (60 Hz) component plus any harmonic
components.
This type of load consist of a solid-state device that switches the 60 Hz fundamental current
instantaneously at various points on the sine wave to obtain the required modified current. The
portion of the current in given sine wave that is not passed through the device to the equipment is
reflected back into the AC system, creating harmonics. Examples include solid-state devices such
as inverters, rectifiers, electronic ballasts, PCs, UPS systems, variable speed drives, etc.
Power factor (PF). The degree to which current is out of phase with the voltage. There are
various ways to determine PF, one being the ratio of the circuit or active power (watts) to the
total apparent power (volt-amperes).

Applying (HID) lamps to emergency lighting

Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Pharaoh-Murphy, Karen; Territo, Reynold
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Improvements in lamp design and the development of new accessory components for HID
sources must be understood to be applied properly in emergency lighting systems.

Are high-intensity-discharge (HID) lamps a viable option to other light sources in emergency
lighting applications? Based on performance improvements, lamp modifications, and new
variations, the answer seems to be YES. But be careful. Not every new device will work with
every emergency system. Understanding how each device works will allow you to design
functional emergency lighting systems using HID lamps.
HID lamp operation at power outages
All HID lamps are sensitive to power system fluctuations during normal operations because the
arc extinguishes every half cycle of the 60 Hz supply frequency (120 times a sec). As such, there
must be sufficient voltage in a pure sine wave to re-ignite the arc every half cycle. If this reignition does occur every half cycle, the lamp will not visibly extinguish.
Using HID light sources in an emergency lighting system can be done with a number of methods.
However, you must take the time to select the best method for the project at hand because many
technical and physical factors complicate the selection process. Most importantly, the lamping
system you choose must be able to operate within the transfer time from normal to emergency
power (and back to normal power). As such you must understand the method of supplying
emergency power to the lighting circuit.
Emergency power supplies
Two types of emergency power supplies are normally used for emergency lighting: the engine
generator and the battery-powered inverter.
Engine generator set. An engine generator set is reliable and capable of supplying emergency
power for an extended time period. However, power can't be transferred instantaneously from
normal to emergency because gensets generally require up to 10 sec to reach rated operating
speed and deliver a consistent voltage or current sine wave. The inability to deliver instantaneous
power usually rules out the use of standard HID lamps on a engine/generator system. However,
equipment employing new technologies are now available that allow HID lamps to operate with
generator-supplied emergency power. These equipment are discussed later, under the subhead
"Options other than a UPS."
Battery-powered inverter. A battery-powered inverter system converts DC battery power to AC
power, which is then supplied to the load through a ferroresonant transformer. An inverter system
used to serve HID lamps must have three essential properties.
* Power supplied must be a pure sine wave form.
* Transfer time from normal to emergency must fall within the operating requirements of the
lamp. (The transfer time to return to normal utility power and the method in which the transfer
occurs are also critical if the HID lamp is to remain ON once normal power is restored.)
* Inverter must be compatible with HID ballast.

Typically, a battery inverter system is available with three different transfer time ratings. The
transfer time for a standard unit is from 30 to 100 ms, which is acceptable for incandescent and
fluorescent lamps, but not for HID lamps. The transfer time of a fast transfer system is from 4 to
8 ms. In some literature, manufacturers of fast transfer systems will claim that their units are
compatible with some HID lamps. However, their guarantees usually state only that the
maximum transfer time will not be exceeded. Lamp operation is not guaranteed; this must come
from the lamp manufacturer.
While lamp manufacturers agree that standard HID lamps usually will not drop out within an 8
ms transfer time, they can not guarantee operation of their standard HID lamps with any power
system that does not supply uninterruptible power supply. That's because the lamp manufacturers
have no control over the point in the sine wave that the interruption will occur, regardless of how
brief. (As mentioned earlier, the arc must re-ignite every half cycle to keep the lamp lit. If the
interruption occurs at the peak of the sine wave, when the arc should be re-ignited, the lamp will
extinguish and will have to cool down before it is able to restrike and warm-up.)
For emergency lighting, lamp operation must be guaranteed. Therefore, the third type of battery
inverter system, a UPS meeting the three essential system properties mentioned above, is the
only assured means of supplying emergency power to standard HID lamps. A UPS (the most
expensive inverter system) uses a continuously operating inverter; thus, it has a zero transfer
time. Not all UPS systems function properly with HID ballast loading. The UPS manufacturer
should be made aware of the loading and should guarantee capability. Some complete systems
have recently been introduced; one manufacturer supplies both the battery system and the
ballasts. These systems typically limit the type and size of HID lamp that can be used.
Options other than a UPS
Today, various lamps and/or systems that don't rely on an expensive UPS system are available to
serve HID lamps in emergency lighting circuits. Eight of the most important methods with their
capabilities and limitations are shown in Table 1. These methods, which allow operation from
engine/generators and non-UPS inverters, are described in more detail below.
Instant-restrike M-H lamp. An instant re-strike M-H lamp has a lumen output and [TABULAR
DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED] rated life similar to a standard M-H lamp. It's available in
ratings from 175W to 1650W. As seen in Fig. 1, this specially constructed lamp has an external
wire lead opposite the socket that connects to a pulse generator, which must be within 12 to 15
in. of the lamp. The pulse generator, in turn, is wired to an igniter, which is installed adjacent to
the ballast. Because of the high voltage produced by the pulse generator, a fixture using an
instant restrike lamp must have a safety-interlocked door enclosing the lamp compartment. The
fixture also must be able to accommodate the added components.
Fig. 2 shows the initial lumen output level achieved by a 1000W hot-restrike M-H lamp for
power interruptions lasting from 5 to 180 sec. Basically, full light output is attained immediately
if the power interruption doesn't exceed 10 sec. For interruptions exceeding 10 sec. light output
is restored at the lower levels shown.

The hot-restrike lamp is more than three times a s expensive as a standard M-H lamp of the same
wattage. However, this added cost is insignificant considering an installation in a stadium, for
example, where the loss of field lighting for even a few sec due to a power dip would be
unacceptable at a televised professional sporting event.
Double arc lube HPS lamp. A double arc tube HPS lamp has two arc tubes connected in parallel.
Only one arc tube is ignited when the lamp is first energized. If a power interruption extinguishes
this arc, the second arc tube strikes instantly when the power is reestablished. About 3 to 5% of
full light output is restored instantly, with 90% of full output occurring within 2 min, provided
the power interruption does not exceed 35 sec. A warm-up time of 3 to 4 min is needed for 80%
light output if the power interruption exceeds a 35 sec.
When a second interruption of power occurs (i.e. transfer back to normal power), the cooler of
the two arc tubes will re-strike. If the second interruption occurs within 35 to 55 sec of the first
interruption, there may be a 5- to 20-sec delay in the restrike.
When this lamp is operated under normal conditions, one arc tube may burn out, causing the
other to ignite. To maintenance personnel, the lamp would appear to be functioning properly;
however, should a power outage occur, the lamp would not be able to provide emergency
lighting. For this reason, this lamp is not a reliable source of emergency lighting.
The candlepower distribution pattern for a fixture using this lamp type may vary slightly from
the published distribution pattern, since neither arc tube is centered in the bulb. Understandably,
the ballast and the fixture must be compatible with the lamp.
Special note: these HPS lamps may implode if broken and contact with water during lamp
operation will cause breakage; thus, external protection is required.
This type of HPS lamp is available in wattage ratings from 70W to 1000W.
Hot restrike HPS starter. As shown in Fig. 3, a hot restrike starter can replace the starter module
supplied with the standard HPS ballast and provide an exceptionally high voltage pulse to the arc
tube when power is restored following a power interruption. This helps in overcoming the
standard cool down time associated with HPS lamps. The restrike time depends on the duration
of the power disruption, as shown in Table 2, and the ambient temperature of the fixture. The
time it takes to transfer to emergency power is directly proportional to the length of time required
to regain full light output.
The lumen output of a lamp served by a hot restrike starter will be less than the rated lumens
given in the lamp catalog because of insertion losses. These losses, which can be up to 20%, vary
depending on the starter manufacturer and the lamp wattage. There is no adverse effect on lamp
life.
Both the lamp and the ballast must be compatible with the restrike starter, which must be
mounted within 5 ft (or less) of the lamp for reliable operation. For medium-base lamps above

70W, an accessory device that senses the end of lamp life and takes the fixture off-line should be
used. This accessory saves energy and prolongs the ignitor's life.
Auxiliary TH lamp. A separately wired and circuited tungsten-halogen (TH) lamp can be used in
most HID fixtures, adding an incandescent lamp socket within the HID lamp compartment. The
circuit feeding the TH lamp (which is a separate circuit) is energized when normal power is lost.
This system must use a device to delay return to normal power, keeping the TH lamp operational
while the HID lamp cools down to a temperature suitable for lamp restrike and then warms up to
an acceptable lumen output level.
The TH lamp provides significantly less lumens than the HID lamp; as such, you should use the
TH lamp's candela distribution in calculating emergency light level requirements.
TH lamp with instant transfer relay. With [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 2 OMITTED] this
method, the TH lamp begins operation after power is interrupted and it extinguishes as soon as
the HID lamp is able to restrike. This procedure does not guarantee that the HID lamp has
reached a lumen output level acceptable for emergency lighting requirements. As noted above,
most HID lamps produce negligible lumen output immediately after restriking. Cautionary note:
fixture manufacturers often refer to this system as their standard optional emergency relay
system.
Any HID light source can use this system and no additional conduit, wiring, or circuits are
needed. The fixture manufacturer determines the maximum TH lamp rating. The fixture must
allow sufficient heat dissipation so that the HID lamp can cool down while the TH lamp
operates. Also, the TH lamp wattage cannot exceed the ballast's maximum auxiliary lamp size.
TH lamp with timed current sensing relay. This method works by sensing current flow on the
secondary side of the ballast, then setting a timer that keeps the TH lamp on for a preset time
after the arc has struck (2 min is standard) while the HID lamp warms up.
Any HID light source can use this system. The maximum TH lamp size must be determined by
the fixture manufacturer. Also, the fixture must be capable of allowing sufficient heat dissipation
so that the HID lamp can cool down while the TH lamp operates. In addition, the TH lamp
wattage cannot exceed the ballast's maximum auxiliary lamp size.
The branch circuit should be sized for the HID lamp, ballast and TH lamp; however, the
emergency light level requirements must be met using only the TH lamp.
Two options are available for normal start-up operation. A hot start option will not energize the
TH lamp during a normal start-up condition. A delayed operate option will energize the TH lamp
during a normal start-up, the same as it would during a power interruption.
TH lamp with voltage sensing relay. This method is available for MV and M-H lamps ranging
from 75W to 400W. Here, the TH lamp is energized after power is interrupted and remains on
until nominal operating voltage, corresponding to 60 to 70% of lamp lumen output, is sensed.

This break point, when the TH lamp extinguishes, occurs before 90V nominal is reached on the
secondary side of the ballast. [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 OMITTED].
(A normal 400W M-H lamp operates at 135V nominal on the secondary of the ballast. At
ignition, the voltage may be 20V to 30V and will increase to 135V as the resistance in the lamp
decreases.)
During an open circuit condition (i.e. as the HID lamp is cooling down prior to restrike), high
voltages occur across the arc tube. Open circuit conditions with a 400W M-H lamp may reach
300V. Higher voltages would damage the device; thus, a 400W M-H lamps is the maximum
permitted.
Maximum TH lamp rating must be determined by the fixture manufacturer and the fixture must
allow sufficient heat dissipation. Again, emergency light level requirements must be met by the
TH lamp.
TH lamp with voltage and current sensing relays. As shown in fig. 5, this method works the same
as the voltage sensing relay described above; however, it's able to handle the higher open circuit
voltage conditions that occur in M-H lamps above 400W.
Maximum TH lamp rating must be determined by the fixture manufacturer, and the fixture must
allow sufficient heat dissipation. As usual, emergency light level requirements must be met by
the TH lamp.
SUGGESTED READING
EC&M Articles:
"Practical Guide to HID Lighting-Part 1," April 1994 issue.
"Practical Guide to HID Lighting-Part 2, "July 1994 issue.
For copies, call 913-967-1801.
EC&M Books:
Practical Guide to Modern lighting Techniques To order, call 800-654-6776.
RELATED ARTICLE: TERMS TO KNOW
Ambient temperature: The temperature of the air or other medium in the vicinity of an operating
lamp, luminaire, or ballast.
Arc discharge: An electric discharge characterized by high cathode current densities and low
voltage drop at the cathode.

Ballast: A device that modifies incoming voltage and current to provide the circuit conditions
necessary to start and operate electric-discharge lamps.
Candela: The international unit of luminous intensity. One candela is one lumen per steradian.
Efficacy: The ratio of the total luminous flux of a lamp to the total lamp power input. (Expressed
in lumens per watt.)
High-intensity-discharge (HID) lamp: An electric discharge lamp in which the light producing
arc is stabilized by wall temperature and the arc tube has a bulb wall loading in excess of 3W per
[cm.sup.2].
Lamp: The term used in the electrical industry to indicate the light source itself; often what
laymen refer to as the bulb.
Lumen: The quantity of light emitted from a light source.
RELATED ARTICLE: WHAT IS AN HID LAMP?
To generate visible light, an HID lamp creates a plasma arc within a transparent or translucent
tube (arc tube) containing a gas vapor at a pressure that is slightly higher than atmospheric
pressure. The arc tube itself, which is generally surrounded by an outer glass bulb, emits all or a
large portion of the visible light generated.
Like a fluorescent lamp, an HID lamp requires a current limiting device: a ballast. HID ballasts
typically consume 10 to 35% additional watts, whereas fluorescent ballasts typically consume 1
to 20% additional watts. Unlike a fluorescent lamp, an HID lamp produces full light output only
when the arc tube reaches its operating pressure, which is generally several minutes after
starting.
The HID lamp family consists of mercury vapor (MV), metal-halide (M-H), and high-pressure
sodium (HPS) lamps.
MV light source. An MV lamp has an outer bulb that encloses an inner arc tube with electrodes
at either end of the arc tube. The sealed arc tube (made of quartz glass) contains an argon gas fill
and a small quantity of mercury. As the circuit is energized, a starting voltage pulse causes a very
short arc to be struck across the starting electrode and the adjacent main electrode. As this shod
arc develops heats, mercury atoms are ionized, causing a decrease in the resistance between the
main electrodes so that, finally, electron flow across the main electrodes begins. Thus, the arc
stream is the electrical circuit through the lamp.
The MV lamp takes about 5 to 7 min to warm up, depending on ambient temperature. If power to
the lamp is lost, the total time to cool down and warm back up to full stabilized output is 3 to 6
min, depending on the wattage, ambient temperature, and operating condition of the lamp.

M-H light source. Only single-ended, medium and mogul base, M-H lamps will be discussed
here. This is because double-ended M-H lamps always require a high voltage pulse to begin arc
conduction. An M-H lamp, although similar to an MV lamp in construction and operation, has a
quartz arc tube that is slightly smaller than that of a MV lamp of the same wattage.
In addition to mercury, small amounts of thorium iodide, sodium iodide and scandium iodide
vaporize in the arc stream, allowing the M-H lamp to have better color rendering characteristics
and higher efficacy than an MV lamp.
The M-H lamp, which operates at a relatively higher temperature than an MV lamp, takes about
5 min to warm up to full light output. If power to the lamp is lost, the total time to cool down and
warm back up to full stabilized output is 10 to 15 min, depending on wattage, ambient
temperature, and operating condition of the lamp.
HPS light source. An HPS lamp differs from both the MV and M-H lamp in construction and
operation. The flow of electrons across the electrodes inside the ceramic translucent arc tube is
begun by an electronic starter circuit, which works in conjunction with the magnetic component
of the ballast.
Since the arc tube diameter is too narrow to house a starting electrode, all HPS lamps use a high
voltage starter circuit.
The starter supplies a short high voltage pulse on each cycle, or half cycle, of the supply voltage.
This pulse has sufficient amplitude and duration to ionize the xenon gas and begin arc
conduction.
The HPS lamps takes about 4 min to warm up to full light output. Since the operating pressure of
an HPS lamp is less than either an MV or M-H lamp, the restrike time is much shorter: about 60
to 90 sec.
Karen Pharaoh-Murphy and Reynold Territo are senior staff engineers with CUH2A, Inc.,
Architects and Engineers, Princeton, N.J.

Effective lighting for automatic transaction

units.
Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Kaplan, Hyman
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Many factors must be considered, from effectiveness, safety, and environmental to review by
panning authorities, when designing lighting systems for automatic transaction units.

Automatic transaction units (ATUs) are everywhere and we use them all hours of the day and
night. The most familiar ATU is the automatic teller machine (ATM). To meet functional and
security lighting requirements for night time use, adequate illumination that is perpendicular to
the task must be provided so that user can identify the correct function he or she wished to
conduct at the site.
In addition, many of these units include video surveillance equipment that require proper lighting
for the camera to record images and shielding to prevent glare for the security and protection of
the user.
Importance of effective lighting
Proper lighting is a major tool allowing the accurate, rapid, and safe usage of the ATU.
Signage. The first thing necessary for good lighting is that it identifies the location of the unit(s),
usually through the use of signage. If outdoors, the graphic should be designed to be visible
during the day without illumination; during the evening, the sign should be brighter than the
background for rapid identification. This will vary with the brightness of the surrounding areas.
When indoors, the signage should be three to five times brighter than the surrounding
illumination. Many times the signage is built into the unit and there is no control of its
brightness.
Function area lighting. The lighting of the ATU's function areas is something we do have control
of. First, we should consider the light source (lamp), which should be a high efficacy (lumens
out/watts in) source with relative long life. The lighting system at most ATUs will operate at least
half of every day on average, which amounts to over 4380 hrs per year.
Light sources having less than 40 lumens per watt will cause excessive energy usage to meet the
required lighting levels. Those with a life rating of less than 10,000 hrs will require excessive
maintenance. (A nonfunctioning light will probably result in the unit not being used.)
Light sources that do meet these illumination needs are full-sized fluorescents (usually 4 ft),
compact fluorescents (over 15W), and small wattage (up to 150W) metal-halide (M-H) or high
pressure sodium (HPS) lamps.
Of all the sources, the HPS lamp (clear or diffused) provides the highest lumens/watt ratio and
the longest lamp life. But, these lamps have a poor-to-fair color rendering factor (22 CRI). The
deluxe HPS lamp (65 CRI) has better color rendering, but efficacy is reduced by approximately
35%.
When selecting a lamp and ballast system for outdoor applications, you must make certain that
the system has the ability to start and maintain lamp operation at the lowest temperatures
normally experienced in the area. (All sources except incandescent require a ballast for starting
and operating.)

If fixtures with M-H or HPS lamps are used, they should be equipped with an auxiliary
incandescent lamp to compensate for the restarting time of the HID lamp (approximately 8 min
for M-H and 1 min for HPS lamps).
Once the light source has been selected, the next concern is the fixture or luminaire selection. For
indoor installation, the most important concern is that the fixtures be compatible with the
architectural design. You can use almost any fixture type at interior locations to provide
illumination at the level required, and with the correct direction and necessary control. There is
greater concern when lighting ATUs for outdoor locations.
Usually, the only places to mount lighting figures outdoors are on walls. For such installations,
they can be mounted on the same wall in which the ATU is installed, on other parallel or
perpendicular walls, or on a pole located in the immediate area.
Fixtures used for ATU lighting have many requirements beyond providing adequate illumination.
* They should be vandal resistant to prevent breakage and partial or total loss of illumination.
* They should be, at a minimum, damp (moisture) labeled.
* Where exposed to rain, they should be raintight.
* They should have shielding to prevent direct glare in all directions.
In some instances, there may be a design review organization (members could be from the local
municipality, representatives from the building's owner, and/or representatives from the financial
institution itself) that will review and pass judgment on the style and size of the fixtures and/or
on the amount of illumination provided, and possibly on the mounting provisions that would be
used.
Lighting objectives
Process area lighting. ATU illumination should provide adequate light for the process areas,
including the ATU's keyboard, card and receipt slots, and the transaction area.
([ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED] on page 43) Not only does this allow rapid and
accurate ATU usage, it also minimizes glare on the video screen so as to not obscure instructions
or information.
The recommended levels of illumination for carrying out tasks at an ATU, as listed in the IES
Lighting Handbook, 8th Edition, 1993, are based upon an Illuminance Category of C, which has
a mid-range level of 15 footcandles (fc), or 150 lux. This level is not on a horizontal surface but
is on the actual face of the ATU. The best way to provide this lighting is from both ends of the
transaction area, not directly overhead or in front of it. Such two-source directional lighting
allows sufficient light while reducing the shadowing effect that can occur during the actual
transaction.

Surrounding area lighting. The next lighting concern is the area immediately around the ATU.
This area has many functions: finding items in wallets and purses, locating and preparing forms
for the transaction, and retrieving any dropped or misplaced items.
Per IES, lighting levels in ATU writing areas inside a bank are based upon an Illuminance
Category of D, with a mid-range level of 30 fc, or 300 lux.
For outdoor ATUs, the light from fixtures and other sources should result in approximately 7 1/2
fc (75 lux) at a 10-ft radius from the unit. This design meets the IES recommended level for
service type areas.
Lighting to serve CCTV coverage
Video camera surveillance for the safety of those approaching and departing the area and for
identification of persons performing the transactions also occurs in the service area. This task
requires lighting a space from 3 to 6 1/2 ft above ground and from in front of one or more units
to a 10-ft semicircular approach area, as shown in Fig. 2. The illumination level should be a
minimum of 5 fc (50 lux). This amount of illumination allows the closed circuit TV (CCTV)
camera lens to be set for the entire area without continuous adjustments of the aperture due to
low light levels at the perimeter.
For CCTV operation, you should select light fixtures that minimize any direct brightness in the
user's eyes, which may cause temporary loss of vision. Some installations have the camera
located behind or adjacent to the ATU, allowing viewing of the person approaching and using the
system. This operation is relatively easy to illuminate, using the same fixtures as those used for
lighting the ATU itself.
There are some installations where the cameras are set behind and to the side of the person using
the equipment. This position views the person's back while they are using the unit and their front
as they are leaving. In this case, a supplemental source of light, located near and aimed in the
same direction as the camera, is necessary to illuminate the plane of action.
Illumination to provide safe passage
Now that you've provided IES recommended illumination levels so that a person can carry out
financial transactions rapidly, accurately, and safely, your work is done, right? Wrong!
You still have to provide illumination for the safe and secure passage of the ATU user to his or
her vehicle. For secure passage, the design should consider the possibilities of tripping over
curbs or obstructions; bumping into branches; dealing with a rapid change in grade; and/or
slipping on surfaces. The term "safe" refers to protection against mugging, robbing, etc.
The fact that the area may contain landscaping, berms, hard and soft paths, areas in which to
hide, high foliage, and adjacent structures, all lead to the reality that there is no single easy way
to illuminate the ATU area without producing disabling glare. The following are some suggested
safe passage lighting methods.

* Floodlighting from above with fixtures spaced at a distance not exceeding 2.5 times the
fixtures' height above grade.
* Path lights mounted almost on grade to approximately 10 ft high.
* Uplights into the foliage of trees or large bushes and where the light is reflected onto the paths.
* Various combinations of the above methods.
In areas with normally low lighting levels (2 to 3 fc or 20 to 30 lux), it's very important to be
able to distinguish color difference. A person wearing a blue jacket can be difficult to notice
against a green- or brown-colored bush or structure, but with good color rendering sources, this
task is easily accomplished, even at low lighting levels. It's recommended that the light sources
used have a color rendering index (CRI) of at least 65 to allow for color discrimination.
Make sure that you select fixtures and locations that will not ca use disabling glare to the user.
Even with the highest lighting levels and the best color rendering, a person leaving or
approaching the ATU area will not feel safe and secure and may not return if they experienced a
temporary disabling glare.
State and municipal laws and regulations
In many cases, laws, regulations, and environmental issues are directly at odds with each other.
In 1990, the State of Calif. passed Assembly Bill 633, which establishes rules to promote "safe"
use of ATMs. This law is being used as a model code and has been adopted, almost intact, by at
least 10 cities and states in the U.S. It establishes a lighting level of 10 fc on a banking
transaction unit's face as well as in an area 5 ft away from the unit. (This distance is below what
is really needed.)
The law also requires 2 "candlefoot power" at a radius of 50 ft from the unit on all walkable
surfaces. (The law does include the definition for "candle foot power" as "the light intensity of
candles on a horizontal plane at 36 inches above ground level," which is actually the definition of
horizontal footcandles.) Nowhere in the law does it address how to provide the required
illumination. Many installations use floodlights installed on walls above a transaction unit, at
approximately 15 ft above grade, and aimed almost horizontally to produce the 2 fc at the plane
36 in. above the ground. This results in projecting relatively horizontal light, producing glare.
These types of installations are referred to as "glare bombs" and are probably causing more
problems from glare than any safety provided.
A final concern is the impact of excess light distribution, which can effect the local environment.
Uncontrolled lighting that crosses property lines can deliver undesired illumination and glare on
a neighboring property. Additionally, light that is generated from a fixture above a line parallel
with the ground can produce light pollution into the atmosphere, effecting night time telescope
observation as well as enjoyment of the night sky.

As such, you must carefully investigate the various factors that impact the lighting system for
your ATU installation and then provide proper solutions, whether for an interior or exterior
operation. The selection and location of the light sources; the effectiveness of the light to provide
safety and functionality for the user; the impact on the surrounding areas; all must go into the
installation planning. In many cases, a computer generated point-by-point illuminance plot of the
lighting, as well as a model to show possible areas of discomfort or disability glare, will be
helpful to the client and the planning authorities before the design is finalized. The Financial
Facilities Committee of the IES is presently working on a design guide to provide more
recommendations and information for lighting ATMs. This document, when finished, will
address all types of electronic transaction units.
SUGGESTED READING
Books
IES Lighting Handbook, 8th Edition, 1993. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.
N.Y.
For ordering information, call 212-248-5000.
RELATED ARTICLE: WHAT'S AN ATU?
In today's commercial environment, many transactions are made using credit or debit cards, and
an increasing majority are being made electronically without direct contact with sales or banking
personnel: This step forward in electronic transactions is an expansion of the automatic teller
machine (ATM), which was originally developed for banks and savings and loan organizations
and allows people to make financial transactions 24 hours a day.
Typical ATU transaction activities include inserting an envelope, receiving paper money or
tickets, and accepting and verifying a printed receipt.
All of these functions are included within a vertical space of approximately 2.5 ft wide by 2.8 ft
high with an approach area in front for access, preparation, transaction, and departure. The most
active part of the approach area is a semi-circle within a 10-ft radius of the ATU.
The equipment itself consists of a panel board with buttons that serve distinctly different
functions. The first thing you notice as you approach it is the video screen, which provides stepby-step instructions on usage, as well as transaction information. It requires shielding to prevent
glare on the screen, allowing instructions on the use of the keyboard to be seen. And, the
keyboard and location of the credit/debit card input slot should easily be seen.
These devices are now in facilities other than banks and savings and loans institutions. They are
located in many countries around the world as local currency dispensers to reduce the need for
prepurchasing foreign currency when traveling. Automobile gasoline stations are incorporating
their functions directly at the pump island to expedite transactions for the self-service customer
and to reduce staff. Retail stores, including markets, are having ATUs built into checkout stands

to provide faster and more accurate sales. These units are also finding their way into the
transportation and entertainment areas, allowing the user to obtain tickets for airlines, trains,
buses, as well as theatrical and entertainment functions. These are just a few of their uses and
they can be located anywhere, inside or out-of-doors, where power and telephone lines can be
provided.
Hyman Kaplan, P.E., is Vice President & Chief of Lighting Design at Belden, Inc., Consulting
Engineers, San Leandro, Calif. Mr. Kaplan is the chair of the Illuminating Engineering Society
(IES) Financial Facilities Committee and is active in the energy committees of both IES and the
International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD).

Using lighting software program.

Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Knisley, Joseph R.
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Are lighting application software programs useful for people who are not involved in lighting
design full time?
Lighting application software programs are not as intimidating as they once were. Depending on
the type of program, they are user friendly for novices as well as full time lighting designers.
But, this ease of use is like a double-edged sword: if you don't know the fundamentals, you can
wind up with a less than desirable lighting system.
With this in mind, let's see what's currently available from lamp and lighting fixture
manufacturers.
Software program categories
Engineers and contractors are using lighting software programs to assist in the design of new
construction projects and in planning the retrofit of existing facilities. These programs are
generally classified into two categories.
* Less powerful retrofit/relighting programs, which may have some lighting design capability.
* More powerful programs, which can prepare a complete lighting design layout and fixture
schedule while also creating graphic representations of a project.
Less powerful programs. Used for both interior and exterior projects, the less expensive (or free)
software programs offered by the major lamp manufactures use a relatively simple and straight
forward calculation called the zonal cavity method. You simply insert numbers into one or more
formulas, and the required calculations are made, allowing you to determine an economic course
of action. The zonal cavity method is ideal for rapid calculations, when fast comparisons are

desired. The software is easy to use, since most employ the point-and-dick method of going
through the steps.
A typical less powerful program can do the following.
* Compare different lamp types or lighting systems to determine the most cost effective choice
based on total lamp, power, and labor costs against the quantity of light delivered.
* Plan the most effective lighting system maintenance schedule and provide productivity
analysis, demand charges, and environmental impact factors, which can be printed out for
presentation.
More powerful programs. The more powerful (and expensive) programs sold by independent
software firms use the point-by-point method of calculation, which is very accurate and precise
and which can also be used for graphic renderings. These programs run best on a microcomputer
(a PC) with a 486DX2 microprocessor, which has a math co-processor. This is needed to handle
the large amount of computation required in doing point-by-point calculations. The less
expensive 486SX chip does not have a math co-processor.
Today, the cost of a well-equipped, 486 chip-based PC with the necessary graphics card, color
monitor, graphic user interface (the mouse), etc., is about $2000. So, if you might have a once- or
twice-a-month application need for a lighting design program, you would find one of the more
powerful software packages to be an economical investment.
One development that's spurring the use of these software programs is the availability of
photometric data files: These files are in the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) standard
format, so that files of fixture products from just about any manufacturer can be put into the data
base.
Fixture manufacturer programs
Some lighting fixture manufacturers also offer sophisticated lighting design programs. In
general, these programs can cost from $300 to more than $800.
One popular indoor/outdoor lighting design and analysis program provides calculations for all
lighting metrics, including illuminance, exitance, surface luminance, point-by-point horizontal
and vertical illuminance, room surface luminance, visual comfort probability (VCP), and relative
visual performance (RVP). With this program, you can enter data graphically and even extract
the data from an AutoCAD DXF file. An integral photometric file editor allows you to create
standard format IES and TM14 (used in the United Kingdom) photometric data files in just
minutes. Output from the program can be viewed as contour plots, and gray-scale renderings can
be produced for any viewing position within the space.
Another indoor/outdoor lighting design and analysis program uses simple, largely intuitive
commands; a tutorial makes it easy to learn the features. With this program, you have the option
of using either a digitizer tablet or a mouse. The software is particularly useful for special

applications such as parking lots, tennis courts, and other outdoor sports facilities and building
sites. Although not a full-fledged CAD program, it has the essential tools to create a background
drawing for lighting design and calculations. The program also can import CAD drawings in
DXF file formats and allows the change of colors for minimum and maximum light levels. Also
included is an extensive symbols library, which approximates the new IES Symbols Design
Guide.
SUGGESTED READING
EC&M Articles
"How EPA's Green lights Program Works," April 1993
"Daylighting Design Fits into An Energy-Conscious Market," November 1994
"Software Training Programs: The New Learning Mode," May 1994 For ordering information,
call 913-967-1801
RELATED ARTICLE: TERMS TO KNOW
Illuminance: The density of light falling on a surface. Its unit is called the footcandle when using
the English measurement system and lux when using the international system.
Point-by-point method: A design procedure for determining the illuminance at various locations
in a lighting system using luminaire photometric data. The direct component of illuminance from
the luminaire(s) and the inter-reflected components of illumination for the room surface would
be calculated separately.
Radiant exitance: The density of radiant flux leaving a surface. It is expressed in watts per unit
area of the surface.
Visual comfort probability (VCP): The rating of a lighting system expressed as a percentage of
people who, when viewing from a specific location in a specific direction, will be expected to
find the installation acceptable in terms of discomfort glare.
Relative visual performance (RVP): The quantitative assessment of performance of a visual task,
taking into account speed and accuracy.
Zonal cavity method: A method of calculating average illumination levels that assumes each
room or area is divided into three cavities. These include the ceiling cavity (extending from the
lighting fixture plane to the ceiling), the room cavity (the space between the fixture plane and the
work plane), and the floor cavity (the space extending from the work plane to the floor). If the
lighting fixtures are recessed, there is no ceiling cavity; likewise, if the work plane is at floor
level, there is no floor cavity. By treating each of these spaces separately, the effect of the
differences in reflectance values of the ceiling, walls, and floor can be determined, as well as the
inter-reflection of light among the various room surfaces.

Understanding Variable Speed Drives (Part

2)
Apr 1, 1999 12:00 PM, Turkel, Solomon S.
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A thorough understanding of how to match the VFD to the driven load is the key to a successful
application.
When applied properly, the variable frequency drive (VFD) is the most effective motor controller
in the industry today. Modern VFDs are affordable and reliable, have flexibility of control, and
offer significant electrical energy savings through greatly reduced electric bills.
They are used in a wide variety of applications for various reasons. For example, they are the
most effective energy savers in pump and fan applications; they enhance process operations,
particularly where flow control is involved. VFDs provide soft-start capabilities, which decrease
electrical stresses and line voltage sags associated with full voltage motor start-ups, especially
when driving high-inertia loads.
To obtain a clear understanding of the proper and most effective application of VFDs, you first
should gain a working knowledge of VFD basic theory as well as a strong familiarity with
practical know-how.
Basic VFD theory
Applying a VFD to a specific application is no mystery when you understand the requirements of
the load. Simply put, the VFD must have ample current capability for the motor so that the motor
can produce the required torque for the load. You must remember that machine torque is
independent of motor speed and that load horsepower increases linearly with rpm.
VFD applications can be divided into the following individual load types.
Constant torque loads. These loads represent 90% of all general industrial machines (other than
pumps and fans). Examples of these load types include general machinery, hoists, conveyors,
printing presses, positive displacement pumps, some mixers and extruders, reciprocating
compressors, as well as rotary compressors.
Constant horsepower loads. These loads are most often found in the machine-tool industry and
center driven winder applications. Examples of constant horsepower loads include winders, coredriven reels, wheel grinders, large driller machines, lathes, planers, boring machines, and core
extruders.

Traditionally, these loads were considered DC drive applications only. With high-performance
flux vector VFD's now available, many DC drive applications of this type can be now handled by
VFDs.
Variable torque loads. Variable torque loads are most often found in variable flow applications,
such as fans and pumps. Examples of applications include fans, centrifugal blowers, centrifugal
pumps, propeller pumps, turbine pumps, agitators, and axial compressors. VFDs offer the
greatest opportunity for energy savings when driving these loads because horsepower varies as
the cube of speed and torque varies as square of speed for these loads. For example, if the motor
speed is reduced 20%, motor horsepower is reduced by a cubic relationship (.8 X .8 X .8), or
51%. As such, utilities often offer subsidies to customers investing in VFD technology for their
applications. Many VFD manufactures have free software programs available for customers to
calculate and document potential energy savings by using VFDs.
Sizing VFDs for the load
How do you size a VFD drive for an application and feel confident it's going to work? First, you
must understand the requirements of the load. It helps also if you understand the difference
between horsepower and torque. As electrical people, we tend to think of loads in horsepower
ratings instead of torque ratings. When was the last time you sized something based on torque?
Thus, both torque and horsepower must be carefully examined.
Torque. Torque is an applied force that tends to produce rotation and is measured in lb-ft or lb-in.
All loads have a torque requirement that must be met by the motor. The purpose of the motor is
to develop enough torque to meet the requirements of the load.
Actually, torque can be thought of as "OOUMPH". The motor has to develop enough
"OOUMPH" to get the load moving and keep it moving under all the conditions that may apply.
Horsepower. Horsepower (hp) is the time rate at which work is being done. One hp is the force
required to lift 33,000 lbs 1 ft in 1 min. If you want to get the work done in less time, get
yourself more horses!
Here are some basic equations that will help you understand the relationship between hp, torque,
and speed.
hp = (Torque x Speed)/5250 (eq. 1)
Torque = (hp x 5250)/Speed (eq. 2)
As an example, a 1-hp motor operating at 1800 rpm will develop 2.92 lb-ft of torque.
Know your load torque requirements Every load has distinct torque requirements that vary with
the load's operation; these torques must be supplied by the motor via the VFD. You should have a
clear understanding of these torques.

* Break-away torque: torque required to start a load in motion (typically greater than the torque
required to maintain motion).
* Accelerating torque: torque required to bring the load to operating speed within a given time.
* Running torque: torque required to keep the load moving at all speeds.
* Peak torque: occasional peak torque required by the load, such as a load being dropped on a
conveyor.
* Holding torque: torque required by the motor when operating as a brake, such as down hill
loads and high inertia machines.
Practical knowhow guidelines
The following guidelines will help ensure a correct match of VFD and motor.
1. Define the operating profile of the load to which the VFD is to be applied. Include any or all
of the "torques" discussed above. Using a recording true rms ammeter to record the motor's
current draw under all operating conditions will help in doing this. Obtain the highest "peak"
current readings under the worst conditions. Also, see if the motor has been working in an
overloaded condition by checking the motor full-load amps (FLA). An overloaded motor
operating at reduced speeds may not survive the increased temperatures as a result of the reduced
cooling effects of the motor at these lower speeds.
2. Determine why the load operation needs to be changed. Very often VFDs have been applied to
applications where all that was required was a "soft start" reduced voltage controller. The need
for the VFD should be based on the ability to change the load's speed as required. In those
applications where only one speed change is required, a VFD may not be necessary or practical.
3. Size the VFD to the motor based on the maximum current requirements under peak torque
demands. Do not size the VFD based on horsepower ratings. Many applications have failed
because of this. Remember, the maximum demands placed on the motor by the load must also be
met by the VFD.
4. Evaluate the possibility of required oversizing of the VFD. Be aware that motor performance
(break-away torque, for example) is based upon the capability of the VFD used and the amount
of current it can produce. Depending on the type of load and duty cycle expected, oversizing of
the VFD may be required.
Key VFD specifications
While there are many specifications associated with drives, the following are the most important.

* Continuous run current rating. This is the maximum rms current the VFD can safely handle
under all operating conditions at a fixed ambient temperature (usually 40 [degrees] C). Motor
ball load sine wave currents must be equal to or less than this rating.
* Overload current rating. This is an inverse time/current rating that is the maximum current the
VFD can produce for a given time frame. Typical ratings are 110% to 150% overcurrent for 1
min, depending on the manufacturer. Higher current ratings can be obtained by oversizing the
VFD. This rating is very important when sizing the VFD for the currents needed by the motor for
break-away torque.
* Line voltage. As with any motor controller, an operating voltage must be specified. VFDs are
designed to operate at some nominal voltage such as 240VAC or 480VAC, with an allowable
voltage variation of plus or minus 10%. Most motor starters will operate beyond this 10%
variation, but VFDs will not and will go into a protective trip. A recorded voltage reading of line
power deviations is highly recommended for each application.
Applications to watch out for
If you answer any of the following questions with YES, be extra careful in your VFD selection
and setup parameters of the VFD.
* Will the VFD operate more than one motor? The total peak currents of all motor loads under
worst operating conditions must be calculated. The VFD must be sized based on this maximum
current requirement. Additionally, individual motor protection must be provided here for each
motor.
* Will the load be spinning or coasting when the VFD is started? This is very often the case with
fan applications. When a VFD is first started, it begins to operate at a low frequency and voltage
and gradually ramps up to a preset speed. If the load is already in motion, it will be out of sync
with the VFD. The VFD will attempt to pull the motor down to the lower frequency, which may
require high current levels, usually causing an overcurrent trip. Because of this, VFD
manufacturers offer drives with an option for synchronization with a spinning load; this VFD
ramps at a different frequency.
* Will the power supply source be switched while the VFD is running? This occurs in many
buildings, such as hospitals, where loads are switched to standby generators in the event of a
power outage. Some drives will ride through a brief power outage while others may not. If your
application is of this type, it must be reviewed with the drive manufacturer for a final
determination of drive capability.
* Is the load considered hard to start? These are the motors that dim the lights in the building
when you hit the start button. Remember, the VFD is limited in the amount of overcurrent it can
produce for a given period of time. These applications may require oversizing of the VFD for
higher current demands.

* Are starting or stopping times critical? Some applications may require quick starting or
emergency stopping of the load. In either case, high currents will be required of the drive. Again,
oversizing of the VFD maybe required.
* Are external motor disconnects required between the motor and the VFD? Service disconnects
at motor loads are very often used for maintenance purposes. Normally, removing a load from a
VFD while operating does not pose a problem for the VFD. On the other hand, introducing a
load to a VFD by closing a motor disconnect while the VFD is operational can be fatal to the
VFD. When a motor is Started at full voltage, as would happen in this case, high currents are
generated, usually about six times the full load amps of the motor current. The VFD would see
these high currents as being well beyond its capabilities and would go into a protective trip or
fail altogether. A simple solution for this condition is to interlock the VFD run permissive circuit
with the service disconnects via an auxiliary contact at the service disconnect. When the
disconnect is closed, a permissive run signal restarts the VFD at low voltage and frequency.
* Are there power factor correction capacitors being switched or existing on the intended motor
loads? Switching of power factor capacitors usually generates power disturbances in the
distribution system. Many VFDs can and will be affected by this. Isolation transformers or line
reactors may be required for these applications.
Power factor correction at VFD-powered motor loads is not necessary as the VFD itself does this
by using DC internally and then inverting it into an AC output to the motor. All VFD
manufacturers warn against installing capacitors at the VFD output.
RELATED ARTICLE: Application considerations
* Starting torque currents
* Running torque currents
* Peak loading currents
* Duty cycle
* Load type
* Speed precision required
* Performance (response)
* Line voltages (deviations)
* Altitude
* Ambient temperature

* Environment
* Motoring/regenerating load
* Stopping requirements
* Motor nameplate data
* Input signals required
* Output signals required
Solomon S. Turkel is Senior Instructor and Course Author for ATMS (Advanced Technologies
Marketing and Service), Inc., Baltimore, Md.

D&B's new worldwide headquarters: a case

stud
Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, McElroy, Mark W.
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The design and installation of new voice/data, premise, video, audio/visual, and information
wiring systems required close coordination so that a tight construction schedule could be met.
How do you approach the design of an information systems network for Dun & Bradstreet's
(D&B's) new, state-of-the-art, world-wide headquarters? How do you prepare a tight yet
comprehensive construction schedule? And how do you coordinate these activities? These were
the tasks facing KPMG Peat Marwick. One of KPMG's key roles was to not only take
responsibility for the design of D&B's communications systems, but to al so provide related
interpretive support to the project's architectural and engineering (A&E) team. This would ensure
that all network and information systems requirements related to the scope of the A&E team's
activities could be identified and properly conveyed to the appropriate parties. This also would
help to address the A&E team's limited understanding of technology, while at the same time
allow for its proper treatment within the scope of their work. [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1
OMITTED].
To successfully complete this task, KPMG decided to organize around several initiatives, some
of which were exploratory in nature while others were more matter-of-fact. One of the
exploratory initiatives was to determine the feasibility of using wireless network technology for
day-to-day, intra-site data communications (i.e., a wireless local area network, or LAN).
A more matter-of-fact initiative was to undertake the development of an "Advanced Premises
Wiring" system that would support the day-one and future needs of D&B's voice, data, and video

distribution needs. Unlike the wireless initiative, the premises wiring initiative was an absolute
must-do project; thus the separate approach taken on these two initiatives. In total, six separate
initiatives were launched.
Let's look at these in more detail.
Communications and computing facilities design
This initiative dealt with the need to specify spaces within D&B's headquarters that would be
dedicated to technology. For example, a series of centralized and distributed equipment rooms
were defined for host-based and file server systems as well as for the voice and video systems to
be installed in the new facility. Rather than have the A&E team struggle through the learning
curve of what systems would be used and what the facility's implications for each would be,
KPMG assumed this role on the project. In that capacity, detailed facilities specifications were
developed for all equipment areas (including space, power, and HVAC needs); then all such
information was furnished to the A&E team for their use in the completion of their work
products.
This initiative also focused on the requirements definition for cabling distribution systems
throughout the new headquarters. To assist in this area of work, consultants with appropriate
skills were assigned to the project. In particular, two RCDDs (Registered Communications
Distribution Designers) were assigned. (The RCDD designation is administered by the Building
Industry Consulting Services International organization (BICSI) based in Tampa, Fla.)
In general, the scope of distribution systems design includes pathways, spaces, and other
physical provisions set aside for the distribution and protection of communications wiring (e.g.,
conduits, backboxes, raceways, poke-thrus, underfloor ducts, chases, riser systems, wiring
closets, racks, cable trays, etc.).
Advanced premises wiring design
This initiative dealt with the obvious need to design and implement a comprehensive,
communications wiring system for the new buildings. KPMG's role was to author the design
specifications and to recommend an approach that would carry D&B well into the next century.
Once completed, these specifications were to be forwarded to the project's A&E team, which
would then include them in the broader set of Construction Documents (CDs) to be issued for
bidding purposes.
The performance of work on this initiative actually preceded, in part, that of the cabling
distribution systems design in the first initiative. The thinking here, not surprisingly, was that
before you can competently specify cabling distribution systems (cable trays, conduits, etc.), you
first must know what the make-up of the cable plant itself will be. As such, a very systematic
approach was taken to this project: first the cable plant was designed, and then the capacity needs
of the distribution systems were specified, based on cable types, volumes, and cross-sectional
area needs. Once the types, sizes, and routing requirements were defined by the KPMG team, the
engineering of the distribution systems by the A&E team painlessly followed.

Data network infrastructure design, equipment selection, and installation

This initiative focused on the need to design and select a data network infrastructure for the new
site. As it turns out, D&B's data network standards were fairly well defined, and required that a
Token Ring network be installed at the new site. In spite of this determination, a Token Ring
vendor and equipment platform had not been selected, nor had a specific Token Ring
configuration been defined. Our team was therefore tasked with the development of a sitespecific configuration, and also assisted with the issuance of an RFP (Request For Proposal) to
qualified vendors.
In addition to the specification and selection of Token Ring electronics, KPMG also provided the
space, power, and HVAC support that the A&E team needed to properly prepare wiring closets
and other areas for use by this equipment. Since much of this information was actually required
before the final vendor had been selected, a hypothetical worst-case specification was developed
that could be used by the A&E team based on preliminary information received from vendors
that were known candidates.
Video network infrastructure design, equipment selection, and installation
This fourth initiative dealt with the subject of how video communications would be handled at
D&B's headquarters. Of particular importance was the assumption that, unlike traditional LANs
in today's technology, tomorrow's technology would feature the use of not just voice and data to
the desktop, but full motion video as well. Moreover, these technologies would most certainly
come into play in a combined form, thereby suggesting that we also examine the potential for
day-one integration of voice, data, and video to the desktop. This would prove to be a
challenging proposition.
In terms of pure video, we began by identifying a series of potential applications, some of which
we envisioned as desktop applications, while others we agreed were more group oriented. In
general, we approached this task by separating in our minds video feeds, or source-types, versus
video delivery modes, or destinations. While destinations generally fell into either the desktop or
shared room categories, source-types or feeds were much more varied and included CATV,
satellite feeds, closed circuit TV (CCTV), subscription video-based news services, in-house VCR
or videodisk players, text-based bulletin boards, FM radio, and other analog program types.
Conceptually, our goal was to create the ability to deliver any of these program types to the
desktop, anywhere within D&B's headquarters campus.
Wireless technology assessment
This fifth initiative focused on a desire to explore the possibility of using wireless networking
technology at the new site, initially for data-related applications only. The vision, in this case,
was to enable D&B's executives to connect to the LAN (i.e., the campus LAN) on an untethered
basis such that an individual could carry a laptop computer from one room to another, or sit
anywhere other than at the conventional desk, and still be connected to the network all the while.

In terms of voice and video, D&B's voice standards called for the use of conventional PBX
technology, all of which was to be handled by D&B's internal staff. As far as video was
concerned, we were all sufficiently familiar with wireless LANs to know in advance that video to
the desktop over a private wireless network was too much to hope for at this stage of the game.
Thus, this initiative confined itself to the study of just how far wireless technology had come in
the support of conventional data-only campus-based networks.
Information/audio visual systems integration
In addition to engaging KPMG to assist with the voice/data/video aspects of its new headquarters
design, D&B hired a separate firm to assist with the planning of audio/visual (A/V) systems
(Sam George and Associates in New York, or SGA). This led to some very interesting and
complex efforts to explore the means by which D&B's A/V systems could, or should, be
integrated with its voice, data, and video systems. In addition, SGA itself was tasked with the
design of several high-end A/V systems to support D&B's rather elaborate meeting and
conference room facilities, which by any standard of measurement, were expected to be world
class.
Creating a construction calendar
Our work officially began on this project in January 1994, and concluded in December of that
same year. Move-in was scheduled to take place even sooner: November 1. This gave us, the
A&E team, and the general contractor only ten months to gut the two buildings and to rebuild the
interiors. Clearly, this was a fast-track project.
Now, if you know anything about computers and telecommunications, you know that one doesn't
simply unplug equipment from one site and move it to the other over the course of two or three
days before the move-in date. The process is much more involved. To make things worse, we
knew that with only ten months to work with, chances were that the builder would be running
down to the wire to complete the project in all of its aspects, including the spaces and utilities
that we needed to effectively install D&B's systems. This raised the possibility that computer
rooms, wiring closets, cabling, and other technology-based features of the new buildings would
not be available for installation purposes until the eleventh hour, even though we needed
significant lead time to do an effective job of installation, testing, and cutover from a systems
point of view.
Our first step, therefore, was to create a technology-based calendar that declared on a very
formal basis precisely which facilities and other aspects of the space were required by the
technology team, and by which dates. We created this calendar by starting from the planned
move-in date of November 1, and then worked backwards. Given all of the phases required to
properly move, set-up, and test hardware, we concluded that all of the technology spaces and
facilities were needed ninety days in advance of the scheduled move-in date. That worked out to
be August 1. That meant that the builders only had seven months to prepare those areas. The
areas and facilities identified were as follows.
* The main equipment room (computers, servers, and telephone PBX).

* All wiring closets.

* All power and HVAC in the main equipment room and wiring closets.
* All riser cabling and distribution systems (cable trays and conduits).
* No disruption to above facilities during remainder of construction.
This was a tall order, but was absolutely essential if we were to meet our commitment of
November 1.
The results
As it turned out, all of the targets listed above were miraculously met by August 1st; the
technology was installed as planned; and the technology-ready date of November 1 was met.
When all was said and done, the following results were achieved on each of the six initiatives
discussed above.
Communications and computing facilities design. In terms of spaces dedicated to D&B's
equipment needs, two centralized equipment rooms were designed by the KPMG team, one for
voice and data, the other for video. The voice and data room was designed to accommodate
D&B's numerous servers and centralized communications equipment as well as its centralized
PBX. The voice and data room is a conventional computer room in that it contains a raised floor,
is highly secured, is supported by dedicated power and HVAC systems, and is fully backed up by
an on-site diesel generator.
The video room is dedicated to housing D&B's on-site broadband head-end, and also houses the
control equipment for two rooftop satellite receivers. The video room is also positioned between
two of the main conference and meeting rooms, and therefore contains a full complement of A/V
equipment as specified by SGA.
All of the design specifications for both rooms were generated by KPMG (and SGA, in the case
of the video room), including dimensioned drawings for equipment placement, power, and
HVAC requirements as well as the supporting equipment infrastructure for cabling distribution
systems.
Advanced premises wiring design. Like most contemporary premises wiring designs these days,
KPMG recommended a combination of industry-standard unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and
fiber cabling for the facility. The UTP cable plant was further designed in accordance with
structured cabling concepts, and was therefore designed with a presence in all of D&B's offices,
conference rooms, and other miscellaneous areas. All UTP on a given floor was star-wired from
individual faceplates to designated wiring closets on the same floor. In general, all faceplates
contained a total of four Category 5 UTP jacks, which were each supported by a dedicated 4-pair
wire.

At the wiring closet end of each face-plate, the four 4-pair wires were grouped into four separate
termination "fields." Each field was designated alphabetically as A, B, C, and D respectively. The
A and B fields represented two of the jacks from each faceplate throughout the floor area served
by the wiring closet, and therefore corresponded to two jacks on each face-plate. These two
fields consisted of AT&T 110-type hardware, and were loosely defined as voice-related. The C
and D fields represented the other two jacks and were loosely defined as data-related. As such,
these fields consisted of RJ-type jack panels that were used to patch between data jacks and
network equipment also located in wiring closets.
The riser components of D&B's cable plant consists of three media: voice-grade UTP for voice
riser requirements, multi-mode fiber for high-speed data backbones, and 25-pair UTP for
auxiliary low-speed data applications. The voice riser terminates onto 110-type blocks; the fiber
terminates onto ST-type fiber patch panels; and the 25-pair data UTP terminates onto RJ-type
patch panels.
All riser Cables between the wiring closets and the main voice/data equipment rooms were
further distributed across diverse routes within D&B's buildings for disaster planning purposes.
As such, there is no single point of failure on the backbone (physical failure, that is).
In light of D&B's strong interest in video capabilities, we also expanded our cable plant design to
include video cabling (i.e., coaxial cabling) to the desktop. While we firmly believed (and still
do) that video services will be commonplace on what today serve as data-only networks over
UTP, the technology hasn't quite evolved yet to the point where it's feasible. As a result, we
decided to bite the bullet and install a separate coaxial cable plant for video applications, which
provides connectivity to a centralized video head-end (i.e., an analog broadband network).
Accordingly, many of D&B's faceplates not only contain RJ-type jacks, but also contain F-type
video connectors.
Data network infrastructure design, equipment selection, and installation. Before the move to the
new site, D&B's LAN infrastructure consisted of passive Token Ring MAUs, which were clearly
obsolete and needed to be replaced. As a result, we developed an RFP (Request For Proposal)
and issued it to a number of Token Ring equipment vendors. The goal was to select a Token Ring
equipment platform that featured "intelligent" hardware that could be centrally managed, and
which could also be reconfigured on-the-fly without having to necessarily dispatch support staff
to wiring closets to move wires and patch cords.
The result of this effort was the selection of a family of products. Using these Token Ring hubs,
D&B has established fully ubiquitous access to its campus network, such that any user on site
can connect to the network from any location in either of the two buildings.
Video network infrastructure design, equipment selection, and installation. As noted earlier, one
of D&B's goals was to enable the delivery of video-based applications and services to the
desktop. The solution ultimately chosen consisted of a combination of coaxial cabling and a
centralized video head-end through which multiple feed-types could be distributed to desktops
and other areas within the campus. (See Fig. 2 on page 62.) This system is fully capable of

delivering all of the pro-gram and service types listed above and can be easily expanded in scope
at any time to support new services in the future.
Wireless technology assessment. In the final analysis, the decision was made to defer on the
implementation of wireless technology at the new facility due to the immaturity of the
commercial products available at the time. Without getting too technical on the reasons behind
our decision, let it suffice to say that the Token Ring standards in place at D&B for wired LANs
proved difficult to match in the form of wireless technology. As it turned out, most wireless LAN
products were either based on proprietary, non-standard technology or on Ethernet LAN
standards, both of which were incompatible with D&B's Token Ring platform. Basically, the
decision was made to revisit the subject in a year after the dust, so to speak, has settled.
Information/audio visual systems integration. For the most part, the integration of D&B's
information technology with its A/V systems occurred in three forms, all of which took place in
conference and meeting rooms. The first form consisted of the development of custom interfaces
between D&B's desktop and network technologies, and the various projection systems that were
designed for meeting rooms. This enabled the projection of images from personal computers
(PCs) onto large screens via switching devices connected to ceiling mounted projectors. In
addition, wireless keyboards were selected to enable the control of these PC-based images from
any seat at a conference table without having to situate the PC itself, along with its wiring, on the
table top as well.
The second form of integration took place at the level of physical wiring and related distribution
systems. One of the most complicated and time-consuming aspects of the project turned out to
involve the design of recessed floor boxes beneath each of the conference room tables, since
these boxes had to accommodate all A/V wiring as well as the standard cable plant specified for
the entire building. In addition, a number of special connectors were designed for these boxes
that would support hard-wired keyboard connections and a variety of other A/V devices.
The third form of integration between D&B's information systems and the A/V systems involved
the sharing of peripherals such as monitors in conference rooms. These monitors were
configured in such a way that they could selectively be switched to support A/V output from, say,
video-disk players or, alternatively, could be switched to support computer screen output from
PCs, or full-motion video output from D&B's numerous video teleconferencing systems. What
was truly impressive was the ability to selectively switch . between all of these modes using a
master wireless control device that was also used to control most of the other A/V technologies
in the same rooms.
By now, the dust has finally settled at D&B's new corporate headquarters in Wilton, and the
result can only be described as a truly world class facility. Feel free to contact me for further
information on any of the topics discussed in this case study by writing to: KMPG Peat Marwick,
100 Matsonford Road, Suite 500, Radnor, PA 19087.
SUGGESTED READING
EC&M Articles:

"The Do's and Don'ts of UTP Cabling," June 1994 issue.

"EC&M's Voice/Data Engineering/Installation Guide," May 1994 issue.
For copies, call 913-967-1801.
Books:
The Corporate Cabling Guide.
To order, call 617-769-9750 or 800-225-9977.
RELATED ARTICLE: TERMS TO KNOW
Backbone. A term used to describe a central distribution cable from an interface. This can be a
common cable providing connection from the main distribution frame to an individual floor, with
copper wires or fiberoptic cables.
Cable administration. A method of maintaining a permanent record of the cables installed in a
building. Labeling of the cables at their termination points is generally part of the administration
system.
Device outlet. The modular communications outlet, or jack, mounted on a wall plate.
Ethernet. A type of baseband LAN characterized by 10-Mbps transmission speeds.
Horizontal wiring. The cabling run extending from a telecommunications closet on an office
floor to workstation outlets located on the same floor.
MAU: An acronym that stands for multistation access unit, which is a concentrator or hub device
used to interconnect workstations, or nodes, in a Token Ring network.
Numbered wiring configurations. A number, such as RJ11, RJ25, and RJ45, represent a specific
wiring configuration for a telecommunications jack. An RJ11 is a four-conductor jack, an RJ25 is
a six-conductor jack, and an RJ45 is an eight-conductor jack. A telecommunications jack, which
accepts a male plug, is a hardware item that is mounted on a wall plate.
PBX. An acronym that stands for private branch exchange. A PBX is an in-house telephone
system.
Punch down blocks. The hardware item used to terminate individual copper wire conductors in a
telecommunications cable. A punch down tool is used to insert and secure a conductor to a dip
terminal.

Ring topology. A design for a LAN formed by placing stations at nodes along a closed loop
connected by sections of a medium, such as optical fiber or copper wire. Data circulates around
the ring.
Shielded twisted pair (STP). A cable construction in which a pair, or two or more pairs, of copper
wires are enclosed in a metallic shield to prevent interference.
ST or compatible type connectors. A general reference to a type of connector used with FO
cables.
Star topology. A data network with a radial topology in which the central control node is the
point to which all other nodes are joined.
Token Ring: A type of baseband LAN usually characterized by 4- or 16-Mbps transmission
speeds.
RELATED ARTICLE: THE MAKING OF A WORLD CLASS FACILITY
In late 1993, D&B issued a press release announcing its intent to relocate its worldwide
headquarters from New York City to a nearby suburb in Wilton, Conn. The planned move would
involve some 200-plus people, all of which would be relocated to a site in Wilton already owned
by D&B. The target site for the move consisted of two standalone buildings that were connected
to one another by an elevated, two-story foot-bridge. These two buildings were already owned by
D&B but were scheduled to be completely gutted and then rebuilt to serve as the new world
headquarters for the company as it enters the next century. It was senior management's stated
intent, therefore, that the new corporate headquarters be designed as a state-of-the-art facility.
This included the desire to see to it that the technical infrastructure at the new site be as robust
and as flexible as possible, and that the technologies used to achieve these goals be selected with
long-term use in mind.
In general, D&B's technology-related goals focused on the need for a well-planned network
infrastructure at the new site, such that all day-one and future information systems could be
supported without having to either rewire the buildings or otherwise modify the base-building
systems.
KPMG Peat Marwick (KPMG) was subsequently engaged to help turn these goals into reality
and to provide the systems design and implementation assistance that D&B was looking for. As
the Project Manager on this engagement, I was personally involved in all aspects of our work,
and can therefore speak on a first-hand basis for the recommendations that followed.
As a backdrop to the work that we performed on this project, consideration was given to the
concept of "Intelligent Buildings" as defined by the Intelligent Building Institute (IBI) in
Washington, D.C. That definition, depicted in Fig. 3 (on page 64), focuses on four systems
and/or disciplines that combine to serve the functional, technical, and operational needs of
building owners and occupants. Voice, data, and video communications (the scope of our project,
in rough terms) fall within the "Building Services" category of the IBI's definition.

Mark W. McElroy is the Partner-In-Charge of KPMG Peat Marwick's Enterprise Networks

Practice and is based in Radnor, Pa.

Signal reference grids: myths, facts, and

sensible choices
Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Singer, Richard E.
0 Comments ShareThis5
Your choice of SRG depends on knowing what's legitimately true and patently false about
grounding, bonding, and electrical noise mitigation.
Proper bonding and grounding is based on science, not snake oil. While there is an abundance of
in-vogue Computer grounding information, some of the "facts" are unsubstantiated and can cause
unnecessary confusion and expense. To set the record straight, let's discuss the real facts and
debunk the prevalent myths.
Facts and myths
To help you design an effective computer grounding system, you must understand and appreciate
the following.
Facts:
* Electric current, with no exceptions, always returns to its source. It does not run into earth
ground unless that is the lowest impedance back to the source.
* Transient noise current enters the grounding conductors, possibly creating errors in
transmission of data between interconnected equipment.
* It's possible to reduce the effects of this noise with properly designed ground planes, which are
usually in the form of grids called signal reference grids (SRGs).
* An SRG's bandwidth, where it must have a low impedance, is known and is not related to the
bandwidth of low level (5V or less) signals or data.
* Data integrity can be protected by SRGs, if they are properly utilized.
[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED]
In our discussion here, we'll debunk the following myths. Myths:
* The bandwidth of the electrical noise is the same as the signal bandwidth.

* Bonding strap resonance can seriously affect digital systems operations.

* Loose or casual connections are "good enough."
* Access floor pedestal connections are important in high frequency grounding.
* You must have a "single point ground."
* Larger conductors are significantly more effective in minimizing electrical noise than small
conductors.
* Good DC or 60 Hz earth ground is of critical importance for noise control.
Control of electrical noise
Noise caused by transients in the power and grounding system of sensitive electronic equipment
can interact with signals on interconnecting data cables. It can be minimized with proper use of
components such as a transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS), an isolation transformer, a
filter, and proper wiring techniques.
There are two reasons why noise gets into the ground system. First, the inductive reactance of the
typical ground system ("green wire" ground) is much higher than its resistance at the frequencies
we are concerned with here. (See Table 1.) This means that all references to "ground resistance"
are not a valid measure of required grounding effectiveness. For example, the frequent
requirement of a "one ohm ground" for communications or computer sites, in fact, may be
counterproductive. This may be the case if the connection to this point is through conductors
having high impedance at frequencies that can disrupt sensitive electronic equipment. Digital
equipment are sensitive to virtually all frequencies from "DC to daylight."
Second, disruptive transients are often caused by changes in load current in large systems;
however, other load changes, such as capacitor bank switching or even remote lightning, can
cause significant transients. For power equipment such as transformers, motors, and lighting
circuits, this is usually not a problem because the transient voltages are usually of very short
duration and low amplitude relative to the equipment operating voltage.
For data and communications circuits, however, the ground voltage may be zero at one location
but may be much different at another location. This difference in potential may look like a signal
to the sensitive electronic circuits involved and, as a result, may create false information.
The equipment ground system (green wire ground) is required by the NEC to assure personal
safety. The Code does not address reliable equipment operation.
SRGs, on the other hand, do provide an improved degree of operating reliability. They are a
"grounding/bonding" system in addition to the safety ground required by the Code. (Please note:
nothing we discuss here should be interpreted as being in conflict with the Code.)

Noise sources that threaten system performance

The most severe transients on power systems have been well documented and are described in
ANSI/IEEE C62.41-1980, Guide for Surge Voltages in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits. We can
accurately determine the frequency spectrum of any non-sinusoidal wave and we can verify if
conditions that are detrimental to sensitive electronic equipment exist. Based on this information,
we can then take effective action to protect the equipment.
If we treat conducted noise as a circuit problem, then bonding and grounding are part of the
solution. (Note, we are concerned With conducted transients including those that are capacitively
and magnetically coupled into the conductors.)
SRG performance requirements
A total SRG system must do the following to be effective.
* Function as a broadband equipotential plane for transient noise.
* Provide a lower impedance ground reference than signal conductors and shields.
* Maximize capacitance from data cables to a zero voltage reference.
* Assure low surge impedance to transients.
* Reduce the magnitude of common mode noise on data cables. [ILLUSTRATION FOR
FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
* Guarantee predictable performance not subject to long term degradation.
Some examples of components, circuits, and systems known to perform reliably in noisy
environments are discussed below.
Noise in integrated and printed circuits
Computer data and other signals are not a source of noise. If they were, then the circuitry inside
of an enclosure would never function correctly. Integrated circuits often have conductor spacings
of 1 to 2 microns (40 to 80 millionths of an in.). This small spacing provides a wonderful
opportunity for crosstalk and coupling between conductors; yet, the circuits work reliably, unless
acted upon by external noise.
One reason for this successful performance is that a built-in signal reference plane covers most
of the chip area. This is the common (or zero voltage) signal reference for the data.
The same technique is used at the printed circuit board level, where a signal reference plane is
one of the layers. This ground plane is separated from signal conductors by a few thousandths of

an inch. We've known for many years that noise sensitive conductors must be as dose as possible
to the ground plane.
Conclusion. To be effective, the SRG ground plane must reduce noise according to the noise
threat's spectrum, not the signal's spectrum.
The worst transient threat: the ring wave
Of the various waveforms described in the C62.41-1980 standard, the ring wave is the most
likely transient in most facilities. A typical ring wave is a 6kV peak voltage that oscillates at 100
kHz, has a decrement due to resistance in the power circuit, and is the result of distributed series
inductance and shunt capacitance of branch circuit wiring interacting with a transient.
(Considerations of other waveforms would not cause significant change in any of the following
conclusions; this includes the various waveforms listed in IEC Standards.)
If there is more than a 6kV peak amplitude on branch circuits, flashovers may occur within
panelboards and other wiring devices. As such, you should use TVSSs to limit the magnitude of
these transients. Below 6kV, the common mode voltages on data cables can be reduced by an
SRG.
Regardless, an SRG must provide a sufficiently low impedance to the transients. Because these
transients are not related to the bandwidth of digital systems, the SRG design only has to
consider real-life transient threats to proper operation.
Results of SRG impedance studies
At frequencies above 100 to 200 Hz, inductive reactance is the major factor in determining the
impedance of conductors. Resistance, including skin effect resistance, is not a major factor.
The total inductance is the sum of self-inductance (determined by conductor size, shape, and
length) plus or minus mutual inductance (determined by spacing and orientation) of nearby
conductive objects. For current traveling in the same direction, the mutual inductance adds to the
self-inductance.
For an SRG, total inductance ([L.sub.T]) can be expressed as follows.
[L.sub.T] = [L.sub.S] (Self inductance) + Summation of [L.sub.M] of all elements in grid
where [L.sub.S] = self inductance
[L.sub.M] = mutual inductance
Fig. 2, shown on page 74, illustrates the effects of self-inductance and mutual inductance on the
total inductance of grids of varying sizes. The mathematical model agrees closely with
experimental results.

In a grid, the mutual inductance is a complex function of grid spacing and orientation. Mutual
inductance increases the impedance across a grid. The worst case is diagonally across the grid,
which is assumed in our discussion here. As grid spacing decreases, total inductance decreases
but at a slower rate as the floor size increases. The most important factor in grid design is to
minimize [L.sub.S].
Table 2 (see page 74) compares impedance between commonly used grounding conductors. Here
we see that two parallel No. 6 AWG conductors provide lower inductanc than one 4/0 AWG
conductor, provided they are separated enough to minimize mutual inductance. Also note that a
2-in. wide flat strip, with only 14% of the amount of copper, also provides even lower inductance
than either the 4/0 AWG or 210 AWG conductors. It's obvious that oversizing conductors is not
the way to go.
Types of SRGs
There are different types of SRGs.
Access floor stringers. The bolted stringers of an access floor can be used as an SRG. There are
pros and cons to this approach.
* Con: The inductance of steal stringers is generally higher than copper strips, especially at
frequencies below 1 MHz. [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
* Con: Bolted connections are known to loosen over a period of time and lose electrical
continuity. These connections are structural connections and are not tested or guaranteed as an
effective connection for low current/voltage noise. Retightening exposes new surfaces between
mating members to provide a renewed path for low level noise. Periodic maintenance is
necessary and recommended.
* Con: Vertical spacing between cables and stringers is relatively large, thus limiting the ability
to minimize common mode noise.
* Pro: Bonding straps to equipment are shorter.
Prefabricated mesh. Another type of SRG is a prefabricated mesh, made of solid round wire with
brazed crossovers, that is usually buried in the concrete of the structural floor. Equipment
connections are made to ground plates, which are flush with the floor and connected to the mesh.
While prefabricated mesh is very effective, this type of SRG is usually a more expensive
solution.
Flat conductors. Flat conductors with a large surface area have lower inductance than other
conductors. Increasing conductor thickness only adds cost, although conductors thinner than
0.0159 in. (26 gauge) may be prone to damage during normal installation. This is an important
consideration when the SRG lies on the structural floor (recommended where possible) or is
suspended over the cables (second choice). The SRG must be able to withstand the possible
pulling forces of cables being added or removed. The suspended SRG (whether wire or flat strip)

is somewhat more prone to damage and is not recommended except in retrofit applications.
Another benefit of flat strip construction is that, properly made, it lays flat on the floor and is less
likely to snag or dam age cables during installation or removal.
Table 3 (see page 76) lists the construction, relative costs, and effectiveness of various SRGs.
As an example of better performance, the relative inductance of a No. 2 AWG SRG on 24-in.
centers compared to an SRG on 48-in. centers connected to pedestals using No. 6 AWG was
calculated. The inductance of the No. 2 conductor on 24-in. centers was 28% higher than the 48in. grid using flat strip. This calculation assumes that all No. 2 conductor cross-overconnections
were conducting as they would with welded or brazed crossovers.
Conclusion. Broad, thin strips are the most effective choice of SRG conductor.
Assuring low surge impedance within a ground plane
Surge impedance can be expressed by the following equation.
[Z.sub.o] = [square root of (L/C)]
where [Z.sub.o] = characteristic impedance
L = total inductance between any two points
C = capacitance to ground between the same two points.
You would need a low surge impedance to minimize the voltage drop along the interconnecting
cables as well as between the cables and all points on the ground plane. Therefore, a low value of
L in an SRG and a high value of C between the SRG and cables is desirable.
To minimize L, the SRG provides many low impedance current paths in parallel. To maximize C,
the spacing between the cables and the SRG must be kept as small as possible. It doesn't matter if
the SRG is above or below the cables, as long as the distance is small. Laying the cables on top
of the SRG and using random lay is the best method and least costly to install.
Cables laying one on top of another have shields that are closely coupled; this helps increase
capacitance to the SRG. Impedance (mainly capacitive reactance) to the stringers above or
reinforcing steel below is always very high because of the separations involved.
There's another way of looking at minimizing coupling of noise into the system. The following
excerpt from the book Grounding and Shielding in Facilities by Morrison and Lewis (John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1990) is especially noteworthy.
The primary function of a ground plane under an electronic facility is to reduce common-mode
coupling into signal paths. The interference can arise from any nearby interconnecting cables or
from external radiation. Common-mode coupling causes interfering currents to flow in the same

direction on all conductors in a cable bundle. The extent of common mode coupling is dependent
on the open area between conductors and the ground plane. This coupling is minimum when the
cable run is very close to the ground plane.
In other words, the best way to minimize noise in cables is to lay them directly on the SRG. Even
a few inches of spacing between the cables and the SRG will reduce its effectiveness.
Conclusion. Keep cables very close to the SRG.
Resonance
We've been warned of resonance problems in grounding and bonding conductors. Resonance
may occur at a single frequency or at a very narrow band of frequencies. At 1 MHz, the one
quarter wavelength resonant length of a conductor in free space is 75 m (246 ft.); also, the peak
amplitude of the ring wave is about 100 microvolts and decreases rapidly at frequencies above
this value. If the equipment being protected is sensitive to voltages of this magnitude, then you
must consider the effects of resonance. Note that the amplitude of a single frequency at 1 MHz or
any other single frequency above this value is too low to be a threat to the proper operation of
digital systems working from a 5V power supply. At 10 MHz and above, this voltage "threat" is
so low that it can usually be neglected.
Conclusion. Grounding/bonding conductor resonance is not a concern in digital systems.
Raised floor SRGs
A few years ago, SRG studies were performed at a laboratory equipped to test large assemblies.
The test program concentrated on evaluating the inductive reactance of various approaches to
SRG design. At that time, the use of raised floor bolted stringers was thought to be sufficient for
effective performance. Cost wise, the raised floor SRG was "free" because in most cases, a
bolted stringer floor was required for the sped tic installation at hand. Test results are
summarized below.
* The inductance of the bolted stringer floor was about 20% to 25% higher than the flat strip
copper SRG.
* The raised floor bolts had to be over-torqued to get the above measurements. (Overtorqued
bolts loosen over time.)
* Loosening of some bolts made no significant difference in performance, while the loosening of
other bolts (near the signal injection or take-off point) made the floor behave as a much higher
impedance circuit. This is a major concern because the path of the noise source cannot be known
beforehand. Therefore, all inter-connections must remain highly conductive for the raised floor
to be considered as a reliable ground plane.
ESD considerations

While electrostatic discharge (ESD) is not a primary topic of our discussion here, an SRG can be
used effectively to dissipate it. An SRG can be useful in conducting charges on the access floor
surface to a common reference plane. In fact, testing has shown that connecting floor pedestals to
an SRG can be very effective for this purpose. One connection for every 144 sq ft of floor should
be adequate.
Low inductance bonding straps
A bonding conductor is very important. Not only must it be the lowest possible impedance, but
terminations at both its ends must be of the highest quality to assure a long lived, low resistance
connection. Due to their relatively small size in comparison to the length of conductor,
connections are primarily resistive and exhibit very low inductive reactance.
Keep the length of bonding straps as short as possible to minimize inductive reactance. In
practice, bonding straps using the same broad flat strip used in the SRG have worked well.
Flexible braid can also be used; it's more flexible than solid straps but has a higher impedance for
the same ampacity as well as a higher cost.
Where very long straps (perhaps 1 1/2 m or longer) are required, you might consider using two
straps of unequal lengths (30% difference usually recommended) to minimize any possible
resonance effects. However, you must maintain maximum separation between these straps to
reduce mutual inductance. (Straps close to each other exhibit about the same impedance as one
strap; wide separation reduces total impedance to almost 50% of a single strap.)
Conclusion. Keep bonding straps broad and short if possible.
Bonding the SRG to building steel
In small areas having a single power source and a small equipment configuration, there's
probably no need for an SRG. In large areas, however, where interconnected equipment is
concentrated and especially where there's more than one panelboard or computer power supply
[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 OMITTED], you should provide an SRG. In this case, you
must decide on whether to bond the SRG to building steel (every available column) or to a
common ground point. (A common ground point is often called a single point ground; this term
is misleading because, except at DC, distributed inductance and capacitance prevent a true single
point ground return.)
A single point ground that is effective over a large area is not possible.
An SRG, on the other hand, can provide noise reduction for a large area of interconnected
equipment and can be connected to building steel or another return path to earth at a common
point, or at many points. Either approach provides protection from noise and meets NEC
requirements for a safety ground effective at power line frequencies.
A common mistake by designers and installers is to have the SRG connected to building steel at
two or three points. You should either connect the SRG to an earth return at only one point, or

connect it at as many points as possible. If the SRG is connected to building steel at two points,
then a well defined path for lightning or other transients exists right under the computer floor.
Because a single point ground must be maintained to assure its continuing integrity, the usual
recommendation is to connect the SRG to all available building steel.
Conclusion. Multipoint bonding of an SRG to all available building steel is usually best.
Special note: when making the SRG and ground connections as shown in Fig. 6, you must adhere
to the following guidelines.
* NEC and local codes must be followed.
* All equipment must be bonded to the SRG using low impedance risers. Never connect to the
strip closest to the outside wall.
* Every 6th floor pedestal in each direction must be connected to the SRG with a No. 6 AWG
concentric copper conductor.
[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 4 OMITTED]
* All columns, conduits, water pipes, etc. entering the computer room must be bonded to the
SRG (at each side of the room if these are horizontal).
* Power distribution panels and centers should be mounted directly to the building steel or
bonded to it by a short length of grounding conductor equal to the "green wire ground", but at
least a No. 4 AWG copper.
* The grounding wire inside any enclosure or panel supplying AC power to the computer must
be bonded to its enclosure.
Richard E. Singer is Applications Engineering Manager, ERICO, Inc., Solon, Ohio.

Receptacle configurations on highly loaded

circuits.
Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Hartwell, Frederic P.
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There are circumstances when a plug and receptacle configuration can be used above the normal
limit of 80% of their rating.
We received some manufacturer's literature on commercial cooking equipment from an engineer.
He was concerned about two items in particular, namely, some microwave ovens with nameplate

ratings of 19A, and a commercial coffee maker with a nameplate rating of 29A. The units were
factory-designed for cord- and plug-connection. The microwave ovens had 20A 125V cord caps,
and the coffee maker had a 30A 125/250V cord cap. The engineer wanted to know if the units
could be used with the cord configurations as described.
We asked him to check and see if the testing laboratory (UL in this case) had actually seen the
cord connections. We have long experience with commercial cooking equipment being produced
and listed with only a knockout, and then improper cords and plugs being added in some
warehouse by unqualified personnel. To the field installer, it looks like the equipment was listed
with improper configurations.
In this instance, however, UL had seen the equipment with the cords and plugs. In addition, UL
supplied some relevant pages from applicable standard, Commercial Electric Cooking
Appliances, UL 197. The relevant material is in Paragraph 10.5.5, as follows:
10.5.5 The current rating of the attachment plug of a n appliance rated more than 15 amperes,
shall not be less than 125 percent of the maximum current input of the appliance when tested in
accordance with the Power Input Test, Section 41.
Exception: The attachment plug may be rated not less than the current and voltage rating of the
appliance it, when operated continuously for at least 3 hours with no food load or as described
for the normal temperature test, the average current input to the appliance is 80 percent or less of
the ampacity of a branch circuit equal to or higher than the nameplate rating. See marking
required in 61.10.
We have no reason to doubt that the appliances were properly tested and presumably qualified
under the exception. We also assume the cords are properly rated and sized. The question that
follows then is, does the allowance in UL 197 violate the NEC?
The EC&M Panel's response
We think that the allowance in the standard is proper, but an installer providing branch circuits
and receptacles for these loads must be very careful as to the choice of devices. The basic rules
are in Sec. 210-21(b)(1) and(b)(2):
(b) Receptacles.
(1) A single receptacle installed on an individual branch circuit shall have an ampere rating of not
less than that of the branch circuit.
Exception: Where installed in accordance with Section 430-81 (c).
(FPN): See definition of "Receptacle" in Article 100.

(2) Where connected to a branch circuit supplying two or more receptacles or outlets, a
receptacle shall not supply a total cord- and plug-connected load in excess of the maximum
specified in Table 210-21(b)(2).
The fine print note refers to the definition of a receptacle in Art. 100, and that definition makes
dear that a duplex receptacle is two receptacles, even though it would be installed at a single
outlet. Therefore, a single 20A receptacle on an individual branch circuit installed for each
microwave oven would comply with Sec. 210-21 (b)(1), as would the 30A receptacle for the
coffee maker. If the receptacle were a 20A duplex, the applicable rule would be Sec. 210-21 (b)
(2) and the limits in Table 210-21(b)(2) would apply, limiting the permitted receptacle loading to
16A.
Although there are no specific receptacle placement rules for commercial occupancies, Sec. 21050(b) does apply:
(b) Cord Connections. A receptacle outlet shall be installed wherever flexible cords with
attachment plugs are used. Where flexible cords are permitted to be permanently connected, it
shall be permitted to omit receptacles for such cords.
A single receptacle must be provided for each of these cooking appliances, at a location where
the correct receptacle will, in fact, be the one used.
What about equipment restrictions?
There are other restrictions in the NEC that may appear to disallow this, however, principally
Sec. 210-23. For example, Sec. 210-23(a) reads as follows (pay particular attention to the second
sentence):
(a) 15- and 20-Ampere Branch Circuits. A 15- or 20-ampere branch circuit shall be permitted to
supply lighting units, other utilization equipment, or a combination of both. The rating of any
one cord- and plug-connected utilization equipment shall not exceed 80 percent of the branchcircuit ampere rating. The total rating of utilization equipment fastened in place shall not exceed
50 percent of the branch-circuit ampere rating where lighting units, cord-and plug-connected
utilization equipment not fastened in place, or both, are also supplied.
Be careful with the second sentence. It refers to the rating of any one utilization equipment. It
applies to applications where there are multiple receptacles or multiple outlets. The idea is to
reserve some branch-circuit capacity for the vacant half of a duplex receptacle, for example, or
for other receptacles on the circuit. Then, if equipment is permanently installed, the rules reserve
even more capacity (50%) for the other outlets or receptacles. The result is a logical progression
from a 100% loading allowance for an individual branch circuit, to an 80% limit on any one
cord- and plug-connected appliance, to not over 50% for permanent equipment.
The parent language in Sec. 210-23, which governs all subsections that follow, supports this
argument:

210-23. Permissible Loads. In no case shall the load exceed the branch-circuit ampere rating. An
individual branch circuit shall be permitted to supply any load for which it is rated. A branch
circuit supplying two or more outlets shall supply only the loads specified according to its size in
(a) through (d) below and summarized in Section 21024 and Table 210-24.
The second and third sentences of this section must be read in concert. The second sentence
clearly allows, as in this case, a 20A individual branch circuit to supply a 19A microwave oven,
and a 30A branch circuit to supply a 29A coffee maker. The third sentence has the effect of
removing the receptacle restrictions from the individual branch circuits described here. The
subsections that follow only apply where there are "two or more outlets."
This will be further clarified in the 1996 NEC. The words "or receptacles" will be added after the
phrase "supplying two or more outlets." This will directly correlate this wording with Sec. 21021(b)(2), which refers to "two or more receptacles." The requirements in Sec. 210-23(a) through
23(d) will only apply to single receptacles on individual branch circuits.
Branch-circuit protection
This analysis assumes noncontinuous loading. The branch-circuit overcurrent protection must
properly protect the plugs and receptacles as installed, and Sec. 210-21(b)(1) requires the branchcircuit protection to not exceed the receptacle configuration ratings in these cases. If the load
were effectively continuous, the branch-circuit overcurrent protection would need to be increased
to cover the additional 25 % load allowance required by Sec. 220-3(a), and that would, in turn,
increase the required receptacle (and therefore, the required plug) ratings. This in turn is why the
UL standard (see Par. 10.5.5 above) normally requires a 125% allowance and only permits the
100% sizing with actual continuous loading not over 80% of the branch circuit rating.
EDITOR'S NOTE:
These answers are given by our panel of experts. I am chairing this panel, and the other panel
members include Bill Summers, James Stallcup, and Dan Leaf. The opinion expressed is that of
the panel. If a panelist disagrees with the majority opinion, his explanation is printed following
the answer. Although authoritative, the answers printed here are not, and cannot be relied on as
formal interpretations of the National Electrical Code.

The basics of solid-state devices

Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM
0 Comments ShareThisNew
A diode, in lay terms, is a semiconductor that has two electrodes and that passes electric current
in one direction only. An ideal diode offers no impedance to current flow in .one direction and an
infinite impedance in the other. A typical solid-state diode has a very low forward resistance

(resulting in a 0.5 to 1.5V drop) and a reverse current of a few milliamperes when blocking
several hundred volts, as shown in Fig. 1.
What causes current flow?
A typical semiconductor diode has what are called N-type and P-type materials. These materials
are created by altering their crystal structure; in other words, some atoms within their crystal are
replaced with atoms from another element.
An N-type material is created by adding atoms from an element that has more electrons in its
outer shell than the crystal. This provides more free electrons and since they have a negative
charge, the material is called N-type ("N" for negative).
The same procedure is used to create P-type material, except that atoms from an element having
fewer electrons in its outer shell are added to the crystal. This results in empty holes in the
crystalline structure and these represent positive charges; hence, the name P-type ("P" for
positive).
When voltage is applied to a diode, the holes in the P-type material are filled with the free
electrons from the N-type material; thus, the current flow from negative potential to positive
potential. (Note that in electron theory, current flows from negative to positive, whereas
conventional current flow is positive to negative.)
The above is a very simplified explanation; however, it provides the justification for unidirectional current flow.
Which end is which?
When you apply the proper polarity to a diode, it's called forward bias and results in forward
current. When you apply the opposite polarity, it's called reverse bias and this results in a reverse
current that is very close to zero.
As shown in Fig. 2, the symbol for a diode has two parts: a straight line representing the cathode
and a triangle representing the anode. As we discussed earlier, electrons flow from the cathode to
the anode.
Manufacturers denote anode and cathode locations in varying manners. One method has the
diode symbol on the surface of the diode; another uses a band around the diode indicating the
cathode; a third method has the cathode end physically larger than the anode end; and a fourth
method has the cathode end beveled.
If you're unsure about the polarity, you can use an ohmmeter as verification. An ohmmeter's
polarity is usually denoted by the markings on its face (+ or -) or by color coding (red for
positive; black for negative). However, the ohmmeter's battery actually determines the external
polarity.

To find the polarity (forward and reverse bias) of a diode, you place the diode in one direction
between the known polarities of the ohmmeter and take a resistance reading; then, reverse the
diode's direction and take another reading. A low resistance reading indicates forward bias while
a high resistance reading indicates reverse bias. Since the ohmmeter's polarity is known, the
diode end connected to the negative lead during forward bias must be the cathode; and the end
connected to the positive lead must be the anode.
Testing diodes
While diodes are very reliable, they certainly aren't indestructible. What can damage them?
Anything from high voltages to improper connections to overheating. As such, you may have to
verify the condition of a diode during troubleshooting of inoperative solid-state equipment.
Open and shorts are the two most common problem areas. Here's how to interpret ohmmeter
readings to determine a diode's condition.
Open diode. When taking two sets of resistance readings, one with test leads connected positiveto-anode, negative-to-cathode, and one with negative-to-anode, positive-to-cathode, high
resistance readings are obtained in both cases.
Shorted diode. When taking two sets of resistance readings, one with test leads connected
positive-to-anode, negative-to-cathode, and one with negative-to-anode, positive-to-cathode, low
resistance readings are obtained in both cases.
Good diode. When taking two sets of resistance readings, one with test leads connected positiveto-anode, negative-to-cathode, and one with negative-to-anode, positive-to-cathode, the first
connection provides a low resistance reading and the second connection provides a high
resistance reading.
If a diode is open or shorted, it must be replaced.
Diode capacity and derating
The amount of current at which a diode can operate without damaging itself is limited by two
factors: the size of its heat sink, which helps dissipate heat, and its P-type material, N-type
material (PN) junction temperature rise.
Most diodes are rated to operate at 25[degrees]C, or at room temperature. This is a reflection of
the diode's PN junction temperature rise. If the ambient temperature increases, the diode can't
dissipate as much heat and must then be derated. This means that the diode's maximum operating
current must be reduced. Manufacturers offer derating tables to help you find these limits.
Solid-state equipment manufacturers usually install heat sinks to permit internal diodes to
operate at or close to maximum operating current. In retrofit or trouble-shooting activities, you
may want to install a heatsink to overcome frequent diode damage. Again, this information is
available from solid-state equipment manufacturers for your use.

Typical diode application

Diodes are usually seen in rectifiers, gates, modulators, and detectors. Let's talk about rectifiers
here. While AC power is generally the most available, many electronic devices require DC
power for operation. As such, AC power must be converted to DC. Circuits that provide this
conversion are called rectifiers and these circuits use semiconductor diodes.
The simplest form of a rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier, as shown in Fig. 3. The circuit
includes a load resistor, [R.sub.L], along with a diode across an AC source. A rectifier circuit
affects the AC voltage by cutting it in half or, as is commonly said, rectifying it. Because the
signal now travels in only one direction, it's called pulsating DC. This type of power supply
circuit is only one in which diodes are used.