Drainage PDF

CHAPTER
D R A I N A G E
D
7
RAINAGE
DRAINAGE
7.1 Overview
Water is the main contributor to the
wear and damage of low-volume rural
roads. The water can be in the form of
ground water, surface water (streams
and rivers) or rain and it can damage
the road in several ways:
by washing away the soil (erosion

and scouring),
by making the road body less
resistant to trafc (i.e. weakening
the load bearing capacity),
by depositing soils (silting) which
may obstruct the passage of water,
or
by washing away entire sections
of the road or its structures.
Damage and wear to the road can
be reduced if the f low of water is
controlled. Minor damages can easily
be repaired as part of the regular
maintenance provided to the road and
its structures. If the ow of water is not
properly managed, the deterioration of
the road will be more serious and occur
more rapidly. This will lead to higher
BUILDING RURAL ROADS

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maintenance demands and in the worst

cases result in serious damage which
may obstruct the passage of trafc.
An efcient drainage system is therefore

essential to allow water to f low off
and away from the road as quickly as
possible. This is achieved by a system
consisting of the following components:
road surface drainage which
enables the water to ow off the
road surface,
side drains and mitre drains
which collect and lead the water
away from the road,
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DRAINAGE
Various drainage measures are applied

to effectively deal with the water
arriving at the road. Surface water
arrives directly on the road as rain, as
runoff from the surrounding areas, or
in streams and rivers. In flat terrain,
the entire area around the road may
be inundated with water during the
rainy season. In addition, water also
travels underground which can have an
impact on the quality of the road.
road embankments in f lood

prone terrain, lifting the road
surface well above the highest
ood levels,
catch-water drains which catch
surface water before it reaches
the road,
scour checks, preventing erosion
in the ditches by slowing down
the ow of the water,
culverts which lead the water
from the side drains under the
road to the other (lower) side,
bridges and drifts which allows
the road to cross rivers and
streams in a controlled manner
throughout the seasons.
In addition, different arrangements
may be required for drainage of high
water tables to lower the levels of
underground water.
All these components need to work
well together. If one component of the
drainage system breaks down, it will
not only compromise the drainage in
that specic location, but may lead to

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crossings will greatly reduce the

drainage problems. By following ridges
and other high points in the terrain, it
is possible to benefit from the natural
drainage in such locations.
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DRAINAGE
In hilly or mountainous terrain, it is

important to select road alignments
which do not require steep road
gradients. Roads with steep gradients
are often troubled with excessive
erosion of the road surface and drains.
By reducing the road gradients, the
water can be drained away from the
road more eff iciently and at lower
speeds, thereby reducing the erosion
caused by the water.
overloading other drainage components

which in the next turn may lead to
more damage.
As the water can cause a serious impact

on both the road access and its strength,
an efficient drainage system is the most
important part of rural road construction
and maintenance works. Good drainage
needs to be taken into consideration
at the early design stages in order to
secure a long life for the road. With a
well-designed drainage system, future
rehabilitation and maintenance works
can be considerably reduced and thus
limit the costs of keeping the road in a
good condition.
Ensuring good drainage begins when
selecting the road alignment. A centre
line that avoids poorly drained areas,
large runoffs and unnecessary stream
In most cases, common drainage

problem s c a n be avoided i f due
consideration is given to these issues
during the design stage. The time and
costs spent trying to address problems
during the construction stage will
normally be less than the costs of
mitigating efforts after the works have
been completed.
W hen rehabilitating a n ex isting
road it is useful to assess the quality
a nd ef fectiveness of t he existing
drainage system. The reason for the
failure of a road section can often
be attributed to damages caused by
water. Rehabilitation works offer
a good opportunit y to assess the
various components of the drainage
system. Well-designed drainage will
clearly prove its worth, while less
effective components will show signs
of its shortcomings through excessive
scouring, accumulation of silt or entire
washouts.
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Obviou sly, t he de sign of proper

drainage relies on careful studies at
site. Equally important, the drainage
patterns and requirements should be
observed during rainy periods, in order
to obtain a realistic impression of the
how, and how much, water is moving
in the vicinity of the road.
Dr a i na ge of t he road su r f ac e i s
provided by shaping the carriageway
with a camber or a cross slope. The
combination of stagnant water on the
road surface and traffic can quickly
cause erosion of the road surface.
Secondly, if surface water penetrates
into the road body, it reduces the load
bearing capacity of the pavement,
which may cause further damage to
the road. To avoid these problems, it is
important to secure adequate drainage
of the road surface.
On most roads, the camber is roofshaped with the highest point at the
road centre line, with a descending
gradient towards the road shoulders. On
narrower local roads, the camber may
be constructed as a continuous slope
from one side of the road to the other.
This is referred to as a cross-slope.
Cross-slopes are also used to achieve
good driving dynamics. To counter the
centrifugal forces exerted on a vehicle
manoeuvring a curve, a cross-slope
is installed with a downward slope
towards the centre of the curve. When
roads have a grade towards the cut side
of a slope, the surface water needs to be
Finally, it is also worth mentioning

that the drainage system of a road may
have an impact on the environment in
the vicinity of the road. Water collected
through a road drainage system needs
to be carefully discharged from the
road, avoiding any damages to the
adjacent land. Equally, the drainage
system of a road needs to be carefully
adjusted so it does not conflict with
the drainage systems on adjacent
farmlands.
7.2 Road Surface Drainage
DRAINAGE
Before carrying out drainage improvements,

it is important that the reasons for the
damages are fully understood. When
surveying the works, try to establish
the exact cause and effect of the
drainage failures. On this basis, more
effective improvements can be made to
the road drainage and hopefully reduce
future maintenance demands, and
increase the lifetime of the road.
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led away to a side drain and eventually

t hrough some form of crossroad
drainage arrangement such as culverts
or splashes.
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DRAINAGE
On roads in mountainous terrain, some

design specifications require the crossslope to face the hillside of the road for
safety reasons. This is often referred
to as an inwards cross-slope. With this
design, there is a need to install a full
drainage system as mentioned above.
In mountainous terrain, this solution

can be effective when providing the
initial access into an area as it requires
less earthworks since the area normally
required for installing side drains can
be used as part of the carriageway. The
major drawback with this design is that
"out-sloped" roads with clayey soils
may become slippery during rains and
become a safety hazard. Also, for this
design to be effective, there is a demand
for limiting the amount of water from
the slope above the road. Cut-off drains
may address this problem.
When designing the road with an
inward slope, the advantage is that all
surface water can be properly managed
and the discharge of water can be
arranged in a controlled manner. A
well-designed system of side drains and
culverts, installed with safe measures
for leading water away from the road,
limits the damage water causes to the
road and its surrounding areas.
For low-cost roads, the cross-slope is

sometimes designed to drain the water
away from the hillside of the road. The
advantage of this design is that the side
drains can then be omitted and the
road carriageway can be moved closer
to the side slope.
The camber is the slope from either

side of the centre line towards the
road shoulders. The optimal gradient
of this slope varies depending on the
type of surface materials. For earth and
gravel roads, it is recommended that
the camber is installed with a slope in
the range of 7 to 10 percent. On earth
roads where the surface gets slippery
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DRAINAGE
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when wet, it may be necessary to reduce

the camber slope.
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DRAINAGE
For roads with an asphalt surface, the

camber is normally not more than 2
to 3 percent, because water will easily
f low off a hard, waterproof surface.
On earth and gravel roads, the camber
needs to be steeper because the water
will ow more slowly and the surface is
often uneven. Gravel and earth surfaces
also absorb some of the surface water
unless it is quickly drained away from
the road.
Eventually, traffic will erode the road

surface, creating wheel ruts and causing
more erosion at the centre of the road. It
is therefore recommended that the road

camber of a gravel road is constructed
at 7 to 10 percent. This will prolong the
lifetime of the road and allow a longer
period of time and use before reshaping
of the camber is required.
Cross Slopes
On sharp curves, the camber is often
substituted with a super-elevation which
leads the water to the inside of the
curve. The super-elevation is installed
with a gradual change of the road
cross section from a camber shape to a
road surface shaped with a cross slope.
At the same time the super-elevation
provides a certain resistance to a vehicle
from skidding off the road due to the
centrifugal force.
The centrifugal force is dependent on
the speed of the vehicle. Since access
roads are generally not designed for
high speeds (usually less than 30 km/h),
super-elevation on this type of road is
only necessary in curves with a radius
of less than 30m.

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To avoid stagnant water at the sections

where the camber is being converted
to a cross slope, it is useful to design
the road with a longitudinal gradient.
In any case, the section with a limited
cross slope should be made as short as
possible on gravel roads.
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DRAINAGE
A full cross-slope is also applied in other

circumstances. When the road width is
reduced (i.e. in mountainous terrain or
on low-volume village access roads), it is
common practice to construct a crossslope towards only one side of the road.
Constructing the Camber
The camber should be formed already
before the surface layer is provided.
It is created from surplus soils from
side drain excavation. The soil is first
heaped along the centre-line during the
ditching and sloping process and then
spread towards both sides of the road. If
necessary, use soils from the back slope
or widen the drains to provide sufcient
materials for the camber.
The correct shape of the camber can

be secured by setting out the levels of
the shoulders and the centre line with
profile boards and a line level (ref.
chapter on Surveying and Setting Out).
These levels are then transferred to pegs
placed at 5 metre intervals.
By stretching strings between the pegs,
the exact level of any point along the
road can be accurately determined. The
string provides useful guidance to the
workers carrying out the levelling.
The quantity of soil along the centre-line

should be sufcient to form the camber
with the correct angle. In order to
secure the prescribed cross-slopes on the
completed surface, it is common practice
to increase the slope on the loose soils
before compaction (7 to 10 percent before
compaction, equivalent to approximately
5 to 7 percent when compacted).
After compaction, check that the nal

levels of the road camber is exact and
to the prescribed standard and quality.
This can be done by setting out the
profile boards again, and controlling
the levels between the profiles with a
traveller. A quicker method, though less
accurate, is to use string lines to check
the level of the completed surface.
Once the soil for the camber has been

spread, the camber needs to be properly
compacted. To secure an optimal
moisture content during compaction,
the soils may need to be watered.
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DRAINAGE
If the levels are inaccurate, the irregularities

should be removed or lled in. If further
f illing is required, make sure that
this patching work is also properly
compacted. Finally, repeat once again
the checking of the levels to ensure that
the earthworks are completed to the
prescribed quality.
Before the road is gravelled, ensure that
the road base is properly compacted and
has the correct camber. Compaction and
levelling of the road base is as equally
important as the final surface layers
and needs to be carried out to the same
level of accuracy and quality in order to
secure a lasting and smooth surface.
Road Gradients
Providing the vertical alignment of the
road with a gentle longitudal gradient
improves the road surface drainage.
This gradient facilitates the discharge of
water from sections of the road surface
with limited cross-slope. As the levels of
side drains are often set out relative to
the level of the road shoulder, the road
gradient is replicated in the side drains.
Steep road gradients cause surface
water to move rapidly and make surface
drainage difficult to control. These

problems start when the longitudal road
gradient exceeds 8 percent. Due to the
steep grade, it becomes more difficult
to evacuate water from the carriageway.
Instead, the water has a tendency of
finding a passage parallel to the road
alignment, commonly following wheel
ruts. In a very short time, this will
result in accelerated wear of the road
surface.
Steep road sections are almost always
a problem when dealing with road
maintenance. In the long run, the most
effective counter measure is to realign
the road section to reduce the gradient.
Such measures are costly, and should
preferably be carried out when the road
is first constructed. However, due to
the high maintenance costs incurred on
such roads, realignments should also be
considered as part of the rehabilitation
works.
The increased erosion of the road
surface and side drains can also cause
problems in terms of silt deposits
building up in downstream drainage
systems, resulting in blocked drains and
culverts. Equally, the eroded materials
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DRAINAGE
Short sections with steep gradients are

normally not prone to the same level
of erosion as longer sections as long
as the drainage is properly designed.
Longer sections, however, will always
be ma intena nce intensive. If the
steep gradients cannot be avoided by
realigning the road, an alternative is to
provide an erosion resistant surface to
this section, such as stone pavement,
asphalt or concrete. Equally, the side

drains need to be protected in a similar
fashion.
When selecting the nal alignment for
a rural road, it is more important to
choose a design which is resistant to the
envisaged exposure to rainfall, rather
than insisting on using the shortest
distance between two points. The most
important feature with a rural road is
to maintain its service levels, basically
allowing all weather access at all times.
can damage surrounding farmlands

and other property.
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material is well protected from surface

water. This is achieved by (i) reducing
the permeability of the pavement
by ensuring that the soils are well
compacted and (ii) using a surface
material which prevents water from
entering the road body.
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DRAINAGE
The actual travel distance and time

is a secondary concern. It is therefore
more important to secure an alignment
which is easy to maintain and which
does not run the risk of becoming
impassable during subsequent rainy
seasons after it has been rehabilitated.
Road Pavement
The pavement constitutes an essential
part of the drainage of the road. A
dense and strong surface, together
with the cross-slope on the carriageway
ensures that rainwater does not enter
the foundation of the road, but instead
is lead off to the side of the road.
The sub-grade and base of a rural road

normally consists of locally available
soils. If compacted properly these
materials are able to withstand the
loads exerted by the trafc. The use of
local soils as the main road building
material, however, requires that the
When local soils are utilized for road

building purposes, it is important to
know how they react to water. Wellgraded materials with an appropriate
distribution of nes and larger particles,
such as natural gravels, can provide
a firm surface, resistant to the wear
caused by traffic and water. Clay, silt
and sand with a uniform grading
easily absorbs water if left unprotected
to traff ic and water. W hen water
penetrates into these soils, the bearing
capacity of the road rapidly deteriorates.
Furthermore, when these soils are wet,
they are very vulnerable to the abrasive
effect of trafc.
Potholes provide a good example of the
destructive effects of water and trafc.
When the surface pavement has been
worn down to the extent that potholes
penetrate the surface, allowing water
to enter into the layers underneath, the
deterioration of the road will accelerate.
Unless patching is carried out as soon
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as possible, the hole in the surface layer

continues expanding, also eroding the
soils underneath.
Equally, the surface of side fills needs

to be designed with a sufciently gentle
slope to avoid water causing erosion. As
a nal measure, covering the side slopes
with grass turf further protects the ll.
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DRAINAGE
It is therefore important that the base

course and sub-grade materials are
protected from exposure to water. This
involves not only protecting the road
carriageway, but also the road shoulders
and the surface of fills. For the road
surface, the most common approach is
to provide a surface layer of compacted
gravel, however, when traffic levels
are high, other more durable surface
treatments should be considered (i.e.
concrete or asphalt based mixtures).
If the road shoulders are susceptible

to erosion, some form of protective
measure should be provided to these
surfaces. This is usually achieved by
extending the surface layer to cover the
shoulders. If the soils on the shoulders
consist of well-graded materials, they
will normally stand up to the water
draining from the road carriageway.

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7.3 Side Drains
The function of the side drains (or

ditches) is to collect water from the
carriageway and surrounding areas and
lead it to an exit point where it can be
safely discharged.
DRAINAGE
The side drains need to have sufcient

capacity to collect all rainwater from
the road carriageway and dispose of it
quickly and in a controlled manner to
minimise damage. Sides drains can be
constructed in three forms: V-shaped,
rectangular or as a trapezoid.
The V-shape is the standard shape
for ditches constructed by a motorgrader. It can be easily maintained by
heavy equipment. However, it carries a
lower capacity than other cross-section
shapes.
The rectangular shape requires less

space but needs to be lined with rock
or concrete to maintain its shape. This
shape is often used in urban areas where
there is limited space for the drainage.
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W hen u si n g l a b ou r-ba s e d work

methods, it is possible to construct a
trapezoid shaped side drain. This shape
carries a high f low capacity and by
carefully selecting the right gradients
for its side slopes, will resist erosion.
Excavating Side Drains

The excavation of the side drains should
only commence after all levelling works
have been completed. When relying on
manual labour, side drain exca-vation is
done in two stages. First, a rectangular
ditch is excavated, then the side slopes
of the ditch are excavated. Normally,
one or two days are given between each
stage to allow sufcient working space
for the workers. The excavation work is
set out using string line and pegs, and
controlled by using ditch templates.

The soils from the ditches are placed in
the middle of the road.
The reason for excavating the ditch in
this manner and shape is that it is easier
to measure and control than excavating
it in one operation. The correct width
and depth can be controlled with a
stick with the correct length or using
a template. Each worker assigned to
In flat or slightly undulating terrain one

would aim to achieve a longitudinal
gradient between 2 and 5 percent (1:50
and 1:20) in the drains. With gradients
less than 2 per cent, silting occurs easily
while with gradients steeper than 5 percent
the ditches will easily erode.
DRAINAGE
The exact dimensions of the side drains

are dependent on the expected amount
of rainwater and the distance to the
next exit point where the water can
be diverted away from the road. The
construction of side drains is also a
source of materials for constructing the
road formation and camber. In flat or
rolling terrain, it is common practice to
maintain a balance between the volume
of soils excavated to create side drains,
and the need for soils to build the road
camber. By increasing the dimensions
of the side drains, it is possible to raise
the level of the carriageway.
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excavating drains should mark a stick

with the appropriate length and width.
The template is used by the gangleader
or foreman to check the nal shape of
the drain.
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DRAINAGE
Soil Erosion
T he ma in cha l lenge in terms of
maintaining good quality side drains is
to control erosion and silting. Erosion
is caused by large quantities of water
travelling at high speeds. Soil erosion
can be reduced by various design
measures such as widening the side
drains, installing scour checks, lining
the side drains or by leading the water
away from the road before it builds up a
signicant ow and speed.
The best way to control erosion is by
reducing the amount of water flowing
through the drain. This can be done by
installing sufficient numbers of mitre
drains, cut-off drains and culverts.
These structures limit the amount of
water in the drains, emptying them

at sufficient intervals to avoid that the
volume of water builds up and starts
eroding the ditches.
Silting is caused by sand and silt

settling out of the water. This only
occurs with slow owing or stationary
water. It takes time for the particles to
settle, so the further the water travels in
the drain, the more time there is for the
silting to take place. A good solution
is therefore to empty the side drains
frequently by means of installing mitre
drains and culverts at regular intervals.
Lining Side Drains
In urban areas, side drains are normally
shaped with a rectangular cross-section
and a cover. This method is chosen
to utilize the space next to the road
more efficiently. In rural areas, there
is normally sufficient space within
the road reserve to choose less costly
design solutions. With a V-shaped or
trapezoidal cross-section with stable
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side slope gradients, existing soils and

vegetation will in most cases provide a
solid enough surface. When soil erosion
occurs in the drains, this can be dealt
with using scour checks, mitre drains,
cut-off drains and culverts.
DRAINAGE
In mountainous terrain, however, where

road gradients reach 8 to 10 percent, it
may be necessary to consider lining the
side drains in the steep sections. Drain
lining can be made from concrete,
stone or bricks. Rock, if available in
the vicinity of the road, is the preferred
building material and can be laid as
dry or wet masonry. The size of the
stone should be a minimum 200 mm
to avoid the rock being washed away by

water. The masonry work needs to be
well laid to ensure that water does not
enter underneath the lining allowing
it to become unstable and eventually
wash away.

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7.4 Mitre Drains
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DRAINAGE
The mitre drains (or off-shoot drains)

lead water away from the side ditches to
lower areas. By installing mitre drains
at frequent intervals, it is possible to
reduce the risk of both soil erosion
and silting. Mitre drains are also
used for diverting water away from
the abutments on crossroad drainage
structures such as bridges and drifts.
The location of mitre drains should be
determined during the initial stages when
setting out the road alignment, thereby
ensuring that the road receives good
off road drainage. It is important that
sufficient numbers of mitre drains are
located before side drain excavation starts.
The optimal spacing between the mitre

drains depends on a number of issues
such as gradient, intensity of water
flow, soil type, and most important,
the terrain conditions. Mitre drains
can only be constructed in terrain with
a downward gradient. In principle the
more mitre drains provided, the better.
Where possible they should be placed
at intervals as shown in the table below.
At the same time, the gradient of the
drains should be at a minimum of 2
percent. To avoid silting in the mitre
drains, the ideal situation is to maintain
the same gradient in the mitre drains as

in the side drains.
Remember that these are maximum
distances; the quicker the water is
led off the road, the less damage will
occur (either from scouring or silting).
Wherever possible, the discharged
water from the mitre drains should
be channelled to streams or land
boundaries in order to avoid damage to
farmland. The soils from excavating the
mitre drains should be deposited on the
downhill side of the drain.
There are some important items to bear
in mind when designing mitre drains:
There needs to be a strong
block off in the side drain, to
make it easy for the water to
ow along and out of the mitre
drain. Water always flows the
easiest way. The water will try to
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expensive, more likely to silt up

or get blocked off, and in general
more difcult to maintain.
An effective slope for a mitre
d ra in is 2 % . T he grad ient
should definitively not exceed
5%, to avoid erosion in the drain
or to the land where the water
is discharged. In mountainous
terrain, it may be necessary to
accept steeper gradients. In such
cases, appropriate soil erosion
measures should be considered
such as ditch lining or scour
checks. In flat terrain, a small
gradient of 1% or even 0.5%
may be necessary to discharge
water, or to avoid very long
drains. These low gradients
shou ld on ly be u sed when
absolutely necessary. The slope
should be continuous with no
high or low spots.
In general, the mitre drains
should connect to natural runoff channels that take the water
clear of the road. If this is not
possible, then the next mitre
should be set out to catch this
water before it enters back into
the side drains.
Finally, it is important that
t he d i sc h a rge d water doe s
not disturb farming or other
activities in the surrounding
areas. By discussing the location
where to discharge water from
the road with local residents, it
may be possible to nd solutions
which may improve rather than
destroy the water management
in the surrounding areas.
DRAINAGE
continue to flow down the side

of the road because it is usually
steeper and in a straight line. In
order to divert the water into the
mitre drain it is vital that the
water is effectively channelled
into it.
The best way to provide a strong
block-off in the side drain is to
leave 3 - 8m of natural ground
not excavated on the drain line.
Forming the block-off with
excavated material is not as
strong. Block-offs can also act as
useful turning points for trucks
and other equipment during
the gravelling operation. Once
the road has been completed,
they are a good location for offloading and storing gravel for
future routine maintenance
works.
The amount of water entering
the mitre drain cannot be greater
than the amount flowing out.
Otherwise, the drain will fill
up and over f low, damaging
the block off and causing even
greater problems at the next
mitre drain. The mitre drain
therefore needs to be designed
wit h su f f icient c apacit y to
discharge the water from the
side drain, also when the slope of
the side drain is greater than the
mitre drain slope. In such cases,
the mitre drain should be made
wider than the side drain.
The length of the drain depends
on the terrain ground levels and
the slope of the drain. Mitre
drains should be as short as
possible. Long mitre drains are
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Angle of Mitre Drains

The angle between the mitre drain and
the side drain should never be greater
than 45 degrees. An angle of 30 degrees
is ideal.
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DRAINAGE
The angle between the mitre and

side drain can be checked by f irst
constructing a 90 degree angle and
then using the measurements as shown
in the triangles below:
If it is necessary to take water off at
an angle greater than 45, it should be
done in two or more bends so that each
bend is less than 45.
Mitre drains are constructed using the
same work methods as those used for
excavating side drains. String and pegs
are used to set out the drains with the
exact depth of the mitre drains marked
on the pegs. Control of the gradient of
the mitre drain can be secured by using
prole boards and a traveller.
When excavating the mitre drain, the

soils should be disposed of in a manner
which avoids that they are washed back
into the drainage system when it starts
raining.
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7.5 Scour Checks

Depending on the prevailing site
conditions, soil erosion in the side
drains can be countered using a number
of different measures:
Another measure to control erosion is
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DRAINAGE
as mentioned earlier, by installing

frequent mitre drains, the amount
of water in the drains can be kept
at a minimum,
by increasing the dimensions of
the side drains (i.e. the width),
the ow of water can be kept at
slow speeds,
lining the drains using stone
masonry, bricks or concrete is
a common measure to protect
the drains particularly in
mountainous areas with steep
road gradients.
to install scour checks in the drains.

These are only used in hilly terrain with
steep gradients where it is not possible
to remove water using mitre drains.
When road gradients are steeper than
4 percent, the drainage water gains
higher speeds, which may cause erosion
of the side drains. Their function is to
slow down the water flow by reducing
the natural gradient of the drain by
allowing the drain to silt up behind the
scour check.
The scour checks hold back the silt
carried by the water ow and provide a
series of stretches with gentle gradients
interrupted by small "waterfalls".
Scour checks are usually constructed
in natural stone or from wooden or
bamboo stakes. Masonry, or concrete
scour checks require less maintenance,
but are more expensive to build.

2 3 3
7
DRAINAGE
Constructing Scour Checks

The frequenc y of scour check s
is determined on the ba sis of t he
longitudinal gradient of the side drains.
At the place of each scour check, the
ditch is deepened and widened to provide
room for securing the boulders or stakes.
When stakes are used, they should be
driven deep into the ground. The stone is
placed downstream of the stakes.
Scour checks are usually constructed

in natura l stone or with wooden
or bamboo sticks. Although more
expensive, they can also be built from
concrete or brick masonry. By using
natural building materials available
along the road, they can easily be

maintained after the road has been
completed. The appropriate distance
between scour checks is shown in the
following table:
The basic measurements for constructing

a typical scour check are shown in the
gure below:
After the basic scour check has been

constructed, an apron is built immediately
downstream using stones. The apron
helps resist the forces of the waterfall
created by the scour check. Sods of grass
should be placed against the upstream
face of the scour check wall to prevent
water seeping through it and to encourage
silting to commence on the upstream
side. To stabilize them, the long-term goal
is to establish a complete layer of grass
covering the silted scour checks.
2 3 4
7.6 Catch-water Drains (Cut-off Drains)
Wherever possible the catch-water

drains should be diverted to a natural
watercourse. Catch-water dra ins
usually have a trapezoidal cross-section
and the excavated material should
always be deposited on the downhill
side of the drain. These soils should
be properly stabilized so they are not
washed away during rains - ending up
in the side drains of the road.
surface water usually carries a lot

of silt and if not properly built,
the drain can silt up quickly,
as they are off the road they will
probably receive less maintenance
- especially when they are difcult
to reach,
when they fail, water breaks
through in a concentrated flow
causing damage, and
they may be ploughed up or
blocked off by people using the
land.
These risks can be reduced if they are

carefully designed and properly built.
The following precautions should be
taken:
T he r i sk of si lt i n g c a n b e
reduced by making sure there is
a continuous downhill gradient
and that there is a clear outlet at
the end.
The drains need to be easy
to maintain thereby limiting
In most cases, it is cheaper and safer to

direct water away from the road, using
cut-off drains, rather than providing
erosion control measures in the side
drains. However, there are certain

dangers with cut-off drains that must
be carefully considered:
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Catch water drains are ditches more or

less parallel to the road. Their function
is to catch and lead away the surface
water coming from higher lying areas
before it reaches the road or to direct
water to where it can safely cross the
road at constructed water crossings
such as culverts, bridges and drifts.
These drains, when properly built,
are very effective in reducing the
amount of water around the road, thus
limiting the damage to the road and
consequently reducing maintenance
costs.
2 3 5
7
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erosion damage and maintenance

needs (wide with sloped sides).
Catch-water drains which are
not properly maintained and
which start pooling water may
reduce the stability of the slope
and trigger land slides.
The drain needs to be made
strong. This can be done by
anticipating the possible weak
points where water may break
through and strengthen the
drain at such locations.
The drains must be placed at a
safe distance from the road, to
ensure that it does not weaken
the geotechnical stability of any
side cuts, and thereby increase
the danger of landslips.
The drains need to be carefully
located after discussions with
local people. Where people have
to cross the drain, easy side
slopes should be provided so
that nobody falls into the drain.
These drains may conflict with
the current use of the land.
Before they are constructed the
land needs to be released from
its current owners, by the same

procedure used when securing
the road reserve.
Finally, it is important to give
careful consideration to the
design of the exit point of the
catch-water drain. It should not
cause negative environmental
effects to the surrounding areas
and the economic activities
in such places, i.e. flooding or
silting of farmlands, conicting
with existing irrigation systems
or causing new drainage problems
elsewhere.
The most common purpose of catch
water drains is to divert surface water
from reaching the road and its side
drains. Drains can also be used for
diverting minor streams away from the
road and collecting it at points where
major drainage crossings are being
installed. Such interception drains can
provide substantial savings in overall
construction costs, however, careful
attention should be given at the design
stage when considering changes to the
natural ow patterns of water.

2 3 6
7.8 Drifts
Culverts are the most common crossdrainage structure used on roads. They
are built using a variety of materials, in
different shapes and sizes, depending on
the preferred design and construction
practices. Culverts are required in order
to (i) allow natural streams to cross the
road, and (ii) discharge surface water
from drains and the areas adjacent to
the road.
Dr i f t s prov ide a n e f f ic ient a nd

economic method of allowing water
to cross from one side of a road to the
other. In the case of drifts, the water
is actually allowed to pass on top of
the road surface. As a result, the road
surface needs special protection to stand
up to the forces from the ow of water.
This is usually done by constructing a
stone packed or concrete surface where
the water will pass. The level of the
drift is lower than the road on each
side, to make sure that water does not
spill over onto the unprotected road
surface.
Culverts form an essential part of the

drainage system on most roads, and
most road construction or rehabilitation
works include the installation or repair
of culverts.
Culverts are constructed using a wide
variety of designs. The most common
culvert design is based on the use of
concrete pipes. This type of culvert is
built with 1 - 3 rows of culvert pipes
with diameters commonly ranging
from 0.6m to 1m.
Chapter 8 provides a detailed description
of the use and construction of culverts.
7
DRAINAGE
7.7 Culverts
Drifts are normally constructed to pass

river streams which are dry during long
periods of the year. If the waterway has
a continuous ow of water throughout
the year, the use of other cross-drainage
solutions such as culverts, vented fords
or bridges should be considered.
There are three types of structures that

together are known as drifts:
(i) Splashes are minor crossings
that carry water from a side
drain across the road to the
lower side. As an inexpensive
alternative to culverts, splashes
are located at low points along
the road alignment when the
side drain cannot be emptied by
During rains, most drifts carry shallow

flows of water through which vehicles
can pass. Occasionally, deep drifts are
ooded for short periods and the road
will be closed for trafc.
2 3 7
7
DRAINAGE
mitre drains and the water has to

be lead across the road.
(ii) Drifts are crossings at large
drainage channels and small
rivers. Although the f low of
water is normally seasonal, they
may have to take strong ows of
water.
(iii) R iver Crossings are longer
crossings of riverbeds. In order to
allow trafc to cross the riverbed,
it would usually consist of deep
sand or rock. When improving
a river crossing, the running

surface is improved by building a
firm foundation. With seasonal
flows of water, a concrete slab
would be sufficient, however,
with a ll-year-round f low of
water, it would normally be more
appropriate to design a vented
ford, or a combination of a vented
ford and a drift slab.
Choosing drifts as the preferred crossdrainage structure has a number of
2 3 8
Floodwater often carries excessive amounts

of debris and silt which can easily create
blockages. While such debris often poses
a danger to culverts and bridges, drifts
do not face such problems. Drifts require
limited maintenance compared to
other structures and the most common
maintenance tasks for drifts are far less
complicated.
Drift Warning
Adequate sign posting
to warn traffic of the
location of a drift or river crossing
should be placed on the side of the
road. Trafc can then reduce speed and
proceed safely down the approach and

across the drift.
Additional guidance can be given in the
form of marker stones painted white and
placed along both sides of the drift slab.
Site Location
As with all cross-drainage structures,
part of the design work is to identify
the optimal location for the river
crossing. If the drift is wrongly placed,
it may result in extra work during
construction as well as afterwards
during maintenance. The main points
to consider are:
The angle between the centre line
of the road and the flow of the
water should be close to 90 degrees.
The site should be on a straight
length of the stream.
Places where there are signs of
scouring or silting should be
avoided. Such locations run
the risk of generating excessive
7
DRAINAGE
advantages. Most importantly, the drift

is a low-cost structure which carries
a good capacity. In places with only
seasonal flows of water, but with large
and intense flows during parts of the
year, the drift provides an economic
and technically feasible approach to
dealing with water crossings.

2 3 9
7
DRAINAGE
maintenance problems.
If possible, avoid places with
steep riverbanks. A crossing with
gentle side slopes is the optimal.
This reduces the excavation
work required for building the
approach roads at a reasonable
gradient.
Preferably, the site should be on
a straight length of road.
Drift Approaches
The ideal slope for a drift approach
is 5%. Steeper approach slopes may
cause problems for the traff ic. All
drift approaches should have the same
gradients, so that drivers can establish
a good estimate of safe speeds to travel
across the drifts.
Once the site has been established,

the nished level of the drift is set out
at the same level as the present level
of the riverbed. The level of the drift
should not be set below or above the
level of the riverbed. Any disturbance
of the natural ow of water may cause
scouring at or next to the drift.
The road connecting to the drift

approaches should have a standard
cross-section shape with a camber. At
the bottom of the approach, the drift
is f lat (i.e. without a camber). The
cross-section of the drift approach
will therefore need to be designed so
that there is a gradual change from a
camber at the top, to a flat surface at
the bottom of the approach.
In cases where the river is suffering

from silting up, it is best to lift the drift
20 - 25cm above the natural rived bed.
This will speed up the water passing
over the drift and reduce the danger of
the drift becoming silted up.
When planning the construction of a

drift, the approaches are set out rst to
assess how much excavation is required.
Sometimes, it may be possible to reduce
the excavation works by moving the
location of the drift.
The actual river crossing should be at

least the same width as before the drift
was constructed. No attempt should be
made to constrain the width of the river
by reducing the length of the actual
drift. This may seem feasible during
the dry season, however, during high
ood periods this may lead to scouring
and eventually wash-outs of parts of the
river crossing structure.
First, the end points of the drift bed are

located. Two proles are set out with a
5% slope at each side of the crossing.
The length of the approach can be
found by means of a traveller moved
along the line of the slope proles until
it levels up with the slope proles.
The traveller can also be used to
measure the depth of the dig along
2 4 0
7
DRAINAGE
the proposed approach, and this can

be used to estimate the volume of
excavation required. If the initial setting
out results in excessive excavation
works, consideration should be given
to moving the drift to an alternative
location.
the availability of materials, such

as gravel, stone, aggregate and
sand,
the quality and strength of the
existing river bed foundation,
and
costs of labour and materials.
Surface Materials
It is important to select the appropriate
surface material for the drift, which will
support the traffic as well as stand up
to the expected water ow in the rainy
season.
For slower f lowing water, gravelled

drifts with gabions or dry pitched stone
paving is adequate. Stone pitching is
more suitable for riverbeds with loose
sands and a gentle ow.
There are a number of possible solutions

ranging from gabions with gravel, stone
paving or constructing a concrete slab.
The choice depends on the following
issues:
the expected force of the water
ow,
At some crossings, it may be difcult to

decide if a gravel surface is practical
- it may be washed out too often. In
these cases, the cheaper solution using
gabions with gravel should be adopted
rst, and then allow a full rainy season
before deciding whether it is necessary
to upgrade the crossing with a stone
2 4 1
pavement or a concrete slab.
7
DRAINAGE
The gure above shows an example of a

drift consisting of a porous dam which
retains the gravel/rock from being
carried away by the water ow. The top
of the gabion dam is between 15 and
20cm higher than the riverbed at the
downstream end.
This construction provides a simple
and economic solution. A one-metre
wide trench is excavated along the
downstream edge of the future road.
The gabions are then placed in position,
filled with rock and bound together
with binding wire. Gravel is then
placed upstream from the gabion to
form the road surface. An apron on the
downstream side of the gabion to resist
scouring should also be put in place.
Strong flows of water will erode and

wash away gravel surfaces and dislodge
dry pitched stones, resulting in high
maintenance costs to keep them repaired
and in good condition. Where large
volumes of strong f lowing water are
expected, a concrete slab or cement
bound stone paving with a solid base will
provide the only long-lasting solution.
Stone masonry can also be used for the
drift aprons and foundations. However,

the use of such building materials
requires good availability of quality
stone and skilled masons. A very good
alternative to pitched stone works is the
use of gabions for the same components
of the drift.
Gabions have the advantage that:
they are easier and faster to
build,
stone of lesser quality and size
can be utilised, which are easier
to nd locally,
gabions are more resistant to
erosion and
they do not require sk illed
masons.
A typical cross section of a concrete
slab is shown below. If the foundation
is made of gabions, the concrete is laid
on an adjustment layer of gravel/sand
which is placed on the top of the
gabion mattresses. The gravel needs to
be levelled to provide a uniform and
well-compacted surface on which the
concrete deck is constructed.
Once the concrete has been placed,
it should be kept damp and allowed
to cure for 7 to 10 days. An adequate
supply of water must be available on site
2 4 2
during the curing period, and a worker

should be assigned to keep the concrete
surface moist during this period. The
traffic needs to be diverted away from
the drift during the curing period.
Splashes
A splash is a low-cost solution to
crossroad drainage and provides an
inexpensive alternative to culverts. This
drainage structure is normally only
applied to rural roads with very limited
trafc volumes.
As with culverts, the main purpose

of the splash is to lead water from the
hillside drain across the roadway to be
discharged on the downstream side
of the road. The main design element
when building a splash is therefore to
secure a surface on which the water
can flow without creating any erosion
As with all drainage structures, the

frequency and capacity of the splashes
need to be assessed in relation to
the overall drainage system of the
road. However, providing frequent
possibilities for water to be discharged
from the side drains will minimize the
chances of erosion and silting.
Downstream from the splash, it is
often necessary to protect the area
where the water is discharged. Packed
stone or gabions can provide a solid but
inexpensive surface for this purpose.
The splash is basically a simplified

version of the drift, however, while
drifts are used to cross natural streams
and rivers, the splash is mainly used to
lead road surface water across and away
from the road.
Similar to drifts, the splash is designed

at a lower level than the road with
descending approaches on both sides.
The splash needs to be deep enough
to cater for the highest flow of water,
without reaching the unprotected
road sections on each side of the water
crossing.
7
DRAINAGE
If the length of the slab is less than 12m

there is no need for an expansion joint.
On longer river crossings, expansion
joints are required for approximately
every 10 to 15 metres.
or reducing the bearing capacity of the

road. In exceptional cases, where there
is a limited ow of water, good natural
soils and little trafc, the splash can be
built using gravel. However, in most
cases it is necessary to install a more
durable surface made from materials
such as stone or concrete.
2 4 3
7.9 Vented Fords
7
DRAINAGE
Vented fords, a lso referred to a s

causeways, can provide a cost-effective
alternative to culverts and bridges.
While drifts are appropriate for streams
which dry out during periods of the
year, vented fords are commonly used
for crossing rivers and streams which
carry a minimal ow of water through
the dry season.
The advantage of the ford is that it
is a relatively inexpensive structure
appropriate for both narrow and
wide river crossings. Vented fords
use a combination of culvert pipes
to discharge water under the road
during low water f lows, and a drift
slab allowing water to overtop the
structure during high water ows. This
arrangement keeps traffic out of the

water most of the year when the ow of
water is limited. With a solid running
surface made from stone masonry
or concrete, the entire structure is
submerged during high water ows, but
still allows trafc to pass.
Similar to drifts and culverts, the
installation of vented fords needs to
be carefully designed, taking into
consideration the topography, the
features of the river or stream and
the water flow. The ideal location of
a vented ford is at a shallow stream
location, away from river bends. The
riverbed should be firm and stable,
preferably with bedrock or coarse soils
so that there is limited scouring or
sedimentation.

2 4 4
7
DRAINAGE
The key design parameters for a vented

ford are to establish (i) the appropriate
drainage required through the culvert
pipes during low f lows, a nd (ii)
provide a sufficiently solid structure
with adequate capacity to cater for

the highest water f lows. Important
factors for the design of a vented ford
are low and high water levels, design
and protection of approach roads
and protecting the structure and its
surroundings against scouring.
Once the location for the river crossing

has been selected, the ford can be
set out using the same methods as
when building a drift. This includes
establishing the exact location of
the end points of the ford bed and
designing the approach roads with a
gentle and uniform slope. With the
highest flood levels established, it is
possible to determine the appropriate
length of the sections of the approach
roads that need to be protected with a
reinforced surface. Allow between 0.3
and 0.5 metres in elevation between the
top of the reinforced roadbed and the
highest level of the oodwater.
Similar to culverts and drifts, the
introduction of a structure in the stream
2 4 5
7
DRAINAGE
will cause some form of disruption in

the natural flow of water which may
cause scouring in the soils surrounding
the ford. As with culverts, the ford will
need proper aprons on the downstream
side of the structure. With vented fords,
however, the ow of water can be more
intense than in culverts, and therefore,
the protection measures need a more
solid design. This implies that the base
of the ford, the cut-off walls and aprons
needs to be constructed with a more

solid foundation.
During flood periods, the water flow
will be diverted from its uniform ow
to pass through the culvert pipes. This
will cause strong currents close to pipe
inlets.
To avoid the water from scouring the
soils close to the inlet and thereby
undermine the foundation of the ford,
it is useful to install a cut-off wall
upstream and strengthen the riverbed
next to the inlets. Gabion mattresses
provide low-cost and effective protection
for this purpose.
Equally, the sides of the approach roads
need to be protected from scouring
during high ood levels.

2 4 6
Construction
Obviously, the construction of fords
should take place during the dry season
when water levels are at its lowest.
Equipment and construction materials
need to be assembled in advance, so
work is ready to start when the stream
is at its lowest. Before any construction
can take place, the existing stream
needs to be temporarily diverted away
from the work site.
After laying the culvert pipes, the
DRAINAGE
As with culverts, the first step is to

excavate the trenches for the cut-off
walls. A suitable culvert bed is then
levelled and compacted between the
cut-off walls. It is recommended that a
concrete bedding is provided on which
the pipes are placed. The bedding
should be indented to accommodate the
shape of the culverts and its joints. The
bedding must be set out at the correct
level, thus ensuring that the culvert
pipes are ush with the riverbed.
headwalls are constructed up to the

road level. Headwalls are normally
built from cement bound masonry. The
space between the pipes is backfilled
with a well-graded stony material. Lean
concrete with rock may also be used
as a backlling material, although this
choice will increase the costs of the
structure.
For the road surface, it is recommended
to install a 10 cm reinforced concrete
layer with a 3 percent cross-fall. The
surface slab needs to be strong enough
to protect the culvert pipes from the

2 4 7
7
DRAINAGE
expected trafc loads. The connection

bet ween t he approaches a nd t he
horizontal stretch should be rounded to
provide a smooth riding surface. The
concrete slab must be kept moist for
at least 10 days during curing. Traffic
should be kept off the slab for two
weeks.
Aprons can be constructed from stone

masonry, concrete or gabions. On the
downstream side they should be at least
two times the height of the causeway.
Marker stones can be placed along both
sides of the road surface slab to provide
traffic with proper guidance when the
ford is immersed in water.
2 4 8
CHAPTER
C U L V E R T S
8
C U LV E R T S
ULVERTS
8.1 Introduction
Culvert works constitute a significant
part of both rural road construction
and maintenance. Road construction
may obstruct the natural flow of water
unless the crossroad drainage is properly
designed. As a crucial part of the drainage
system, the culverts are also essential for
basic access along a road section.
Culverts a llow water to cross
underneath the road. Their function
is to lead water from the uphill side of
the road to the lower side where it can
be safely discharged. The water may be
from natural streams or run-off surface
water from the road structure or areas
close to the road. There are basically
2 5 0
two types of culverts, depending on

their function:
stream culverts, allowing water
from streams and canals to cross
beneath the road, and
relief culverts, which divert water
from the high side to the lower
side of the road, relieving the side
drains of water which cannot be
discharged by mitre drains.
Culverts can be built using a variety

of materials, including brick and stone
masonry, corrugated steel, timber and
concrete. Culverts are also constructed
in a wide range of shapes and sizes.
C U LV E R T S
Culvert works should be planned at an

early stage of any road improvement
project so that when all the culverts are
in place, good access is provided to all
sections of the road and the remaining
works activities. Culvert works are
sensitive to local weather patterns.
During the rainy season, it may be
difcult to carry out culvert installation
or improvement works.
They can be manufactured on site

or purchased from suppliers of prefabricated building materials. Smaller
d ia meter c u lver t s a re c om mon ly
manufactured in advance, while larger
culverts are built to specications on site.
The pipes can have cross-section with
a circular or rectangular shape or built
as an arch. The most common type of
culvert is tted with one or several rows
of circular pipes made of concrete.
Rectangular shaped culverts referred
to as box culverts - are commonly used
to cater for larger crossings.
The most common is the pipe with

a diameter of 60 cm. Any smaller
diameter should be avoided as they
tend to get blocked more easily and are
difcult to keep clean. Larger diameters
requiring a high ll over the rings (the
overfill) can be replaced with two or
more rows of a smaller dimension.
If large flows of water are expected,
multiple rows of culverts are placed in
appropriate locations.
Culverts are placed at each low point
in t he ver t ic a l a lignment of t he
2 5 1
road, and at locations where relief or

crossover culverts are required. The
frequency and size of culverts are
ideally determined by the hydrological
conditions prevalent in the surrounding
areas to the road.
C U LV E R T S
A major concern when designing and

installing culverts is to minimize the wear
and tear the water being drained away
from the road may have on the culvert
and the adjoining road sections. For this
reason, the location, dimensions and
choice of inlet and outlet arrangements
play an important role when choosing
the optimal design solutions.
Culvert Pipes
Culvert pipes with a circular crosssection are usually made of reinforced
concrete, although thicker un-reinforced
concrete pipes can be used provided
that adequate back ll is provided. This
type of pipe is often manufactured on
site. The most common dimension and
frequently used for rural roads is
60cm (inside diameter).
Most pipes are manufactured with a

length of one metre however longer
dimensions can be obtained from
sp e ci a l i z e d m a nu f a c t u rer s. T he
standard one metre pipes have the
advantage of being easier to handle,
especia lly during loading a nd
unloading. These pipes can be laid
relying entirely on manual labour.
Culvert Bed
The pipes are laid on a stable bedding,
properly a l i g ne d a nd at c or re c t
levels, preferably at the levels of the
surrounding terrain. If the natural soils
are of good quality, the culvert can be
installed using in-situ materials. Stones
should be removed from the culvert
bed as they may damage the pipes. If
the natural materials are not suitable, a
2 5 2
8
C U LV E R T S
bed of gravel or sand can be used as a

foundation for the pipes. If the ground
is swampy or muddy, it may be useful
to construct a bed made from stone
packing, lean concrete or selected soils
such as sand or gravel.
It is important to install the culvert at
the correct position, level and gradient,
preferably with a slope of 2 5%. The
inlet and outlet level and gradient of
the culvert should to the extent possible
follow the existing natural water
channels and ground levels.
T he leng t h of aprons shou ld be

equivalent to at least one and a half
If the culvert inlet is lower than the

surrounding terrain, sediments will start
to deposit at the inlet side of the pipe
and eventually reduce the flow capacity
of the culvert. This may in turn lead to
overowing and possible damages to the
road body above the culvert.
Aprons
Aprons are constructed at the inlets
and outlets to protect the culvert
bed and the connecting ditches from
erosion and scouring. At the outer end
of the aprons, it is common practice to
construct a toe wall to prevent water
from eroding the soils underneath
the apron. Aprons and toe walls can
be made of stone, brick, concrete or
gabions.
Equally, it is important to align the

culvert with the existing terrain at the
outlet side. If the outlet is higher than the
surrounding terrain, the water exiting the
culvert may erode the side slope and the
terrain below the culvert outlet.
2 5 3
times the diameter of the pipes. In

addition, there may be a demand for
further soil stabilisation measures
downstream of the apron.
8
C U LV E R T S
Headwalls and Wing Walls

The purpose of headwalls and wing walls
is to protect the backll and the side slope
of the road embankment from water
damage. Headwalls are built parallel to
the centre line of the road (preferably
even when the culvert is located in a
skewed position) in order to take the
pressure from the trafc evenly. They can
be built using hand packed stone, mortar
bound masonry or concrete.
With good natural soils, the culvert can

be installed using the existing sub-grade
as the culvert bed. By omitting aprons,
headwalls, wing walls and culvert beds
of imported materials, it is possible to
reduce the cost of culvert installations
by approximately 30 percent.
Drop Inlets
In mountainous terrain, there may not be
sufcient space for a headwall at the inlet
side. In such situations a wing wall is
only installed at the outlet of the culvert.
Instead, a drop inlet is constructed on
the high side of the culvert.
In populated areas, the inlet can be
fitted with a grill to avoid people and
debris falling into it.
If the headwalls and wing walls are

omitted, the side slopes of the backfill
should not be steeper than 1:2. However
with well-graded and cohesive natural
soils, the gradient of the side slopes can
be increased. The culvert should be long
enough to reach the end of the side slopes
on each side of the road.
2 5 4
8
C U LV E R T S
8.2 Culvert Location

Before xing the position and frequency
of culverts, it is necessary to carry out
a survey of the surrounding terrain to
establish the exact patterns of water
ow and on this basis the exact need for
crossroad drainage. Roads will obstruct
the natural f low of water. Crossroad
drainage is therefore essential in terms
of discharging the water surrounding
the road. The frequency and location of
culverts forms an important part of the
water management surrounding the road.
small gullies have formed because

water has been owing across the
road,
sand has deposited on the road
because of standing water, or
drains have been badly damaged
Insufficient cross-drainage may lead to

washouts of entire road sections. In such
instances, it is important to carry out a
thorough reassessment of the drainage
situation before starting the repair works.
An investigation should be carried out as
to why the washout occurred and how to
avoid it happening again.
Ca ref u l consideration shou ld be
given to how and where the water is
discharged. Water collected along the
road and discharged through a culvert
may cause serious soil erosion and
damage to the surrounding areas.
Appropriate measures dealing with
how the water is dispersed downstream
of the culvert is an integral part of
the culvert design. When water is
discharged on to farmland, the water
management needs to be discussed with
local farmers, thereby avoiding damage
to and disrupting farming activities. In
some instances, the farmers may be able
to make use of the water.
If an existing road is being improved,

the locations of most culvert sites are
obvious, as large quantities of water will
leave their mark on the existing road
structures. Insufficient cross drainage
would lead to the road being damaged
in some way. In such situations, look
for places where:
because they have been carrying

too much water.
2 5 5
8.3 Setting Out
8
C U LV E R T S
The culverts form an essential part of

the overall drainage system of the road.
This implies that their frequency and
locations need to be carefully assessed
in relation to the location, function
and capacity of other drainage elements
such as bridges, drifts, cut-off drains
and mitre drains.
A well functioning drainage system is
dependant on the efcient operation of
all the elements of the system. If one
component in this system fails, such as
a blocked culvert, the water will exert
more pressure on the remaining parts
of the drainage system.
the optimal positioning of the road

alignment. Floodwater from rivers and
streams can cause serious damage to
the road structure so the crossings need
to be designed so that they minimize
the chances of any future damage.
Determining the exact location of

culverts is carried out during the initial
setting out of the road alignment. The
location and direction of rivers and
streams have an important impact on
Relief culverts manage surface water

from the road and its side cuts. They
are normally built at right angles to the
centre line of the road. Stream culverts
are built following the direction of the

2 5 6
streambed so that the culvert does not

interfere with the natural ow of water
in the stream.
Wooden pegs are placed close to the inlet

and outlet positions of the culvert pipe to
mark the centre line of the culvert pipe.
In most cases these pegs will be located
on the road shoulders or side slopes. In
addition, it is therefore useful to place
reference pegs well outside the work area
of the culvert works.
Setting Out Tools:

2 ranging rods
2 prole boards
1 line level or hose pipe
50 m string line
20 pegs - 40 cm long
2 pegs - 1 to 1.5 m long
1 hammer
1 permanent markers pens
1 measuring tape 20 m
1 measuring tape 5 m
Tools for Setting Out

The exact position and gradient for
a culvert can be established with
simple setting out methods, using
prof ile boards and a line level. In
addition to setting out tools, there
may be a demand for some bush
clearing equipment such as axes and
bush knifes. In case the soils are dry
and hard, chisels or metal spikes are
useful accessories to the setting out
equipment. A more detailed description
of the equipment required for the actual
culvert construction works is covered
in the chapter dealing with tools and
equipment.
Step 1: Culvert Position

The first step of positioning a culvert
is to establish the exact location
of the culvert pipe. If the culvert
is required for a stream, it should
follow the alignment of the existing
channel - skewed if required. If it is
a relief culvert, it should be set out
perpendicular to the road centre line.
C U LV E R T S
Depending on the direction of the road

at the stream crossing, these culverts
may be at an angle or "skewed" to
the centre line of the road. Skewed
culverts require more pipes as they do
not follow the shortest distance across
the road. To avoid skewing the culvert,
the best approach is to realign the road
so that the road crosses the stream at a
90-degree angle.
8.4 Setting Out Procedures
Step 2: Length of Culvert

The total length of the culvert pipe is
established by calculating the distance
between the two pegs at the inlet and
outlet. Pipes are manufactured at a xed
length, determined by the dimensions
of the culvert mould, commonly with
2 5 7
8
C U LV E R T S
a length of one metre. Culvert pipes

are therefore installed at a total length
consisting of multiples of the individual
length of the pipe segments.
For example, if the total road width,
including side slopes is 4.4 metres,
one would choose to build a culvert
with a total length of 5 metres using
1 metre long culvert pipes. The total
length of the culvert pipe also needs
to accommodate the thickness of the
headwall in addition to the road width.
If the culvert crosses a tall embankment,

the length of the culvert is extended to
cater for the width at the base of the
road ll.
Step 3: Width of Culvert Trench
The trench should be wide enough to
allow workers to comfortably carry out
the pipe installation and backfilling
around the pipes. A clearance of at
least 40 cm on each side of the pipes is
therefore recommended.
When installing two or more pipe rows,
it is important to provide sufficient
space between the pipes to allow for

proper compaction of the fill material
between the pipes.
The total width of a trench for a single
pipe culvert with a 60cm pipe can be
calculated as follows:
With a pipe thickness of 6cm, the
outside diameter of the culvert pipe is
then 60cm + (6cm x 2) = 72cm.
WIDTH of trench to be excavated =
72cm + (40cm x 2) = 152 cm
2 5 8
8
C U LV E R T S
The purpose of adding an extra width

of 40 cm on each side of the pipe is to
secure sufcient space to:
Step 4: Trench Depth at Inlet

The level at which the culvert is built
needs careful consideration when
preparing the detailed design. If
possible, the culvert inlet should be
built at the same level as the bed of the
stream or the level of the surrounding
ground. If the culvert inlet is higher
than the existing ground levels, this
may cause scouring of the soils around
the inlet. If the level of the pipe is lower
than the surrounding terrain, this may
Setting out the depth of the trench

needs to start at the inlet of the culvert
to ensure that adequate cover is secured.
The thickness of the backll should be
3/4 of the inside diameter of the pipes.
When installing a 60cm pipe, the backll should be at least:
60cm x 3/4 = 45cm
The trench depth is based on the outer
diameter of the culvert pipe. With
a pipe thickness of 6cm, the outer
diameter would then be:
60cm + 2 x 6cm = 72cm
Finally, with a 10 cm trench bed of
imported materials, the calculation
would be as follows:
Depth of trench =
45cm + 72cm + 10cm = 127cm
easily place the pipes in the trench

and make the nal adjustments to
achieve a straight row,
easily adjust the position of the
pipes to secure tight joints,
provide su f f icient space for
compacting the f ill material
with hand rammers or plate
compactors. This activity should
be carried out in layers with
thickness of not more than 10 cm.
lead to silt deposits inside the culvert.
The pipes are placed on a well-compacted

foundation thereby avoiding any future
settlements. Imported materials for the
culvert bed usually consist of gravel or
lean concrete (1:3:6) if the soil in the
2 5 9
trench is too soft. Stone can also be used

to create a sufciently strong foundation.
8
C U LV E R T S
Step 5: Level of the Outlet

The preferred gradient in a culvert pipe
is 3 percent. With lower gradients there
is a risk of sediments being deposited
in the culvert pipe. At 3% or higher
gradients the flow of water will keep
the culvert free of deposits and thereby
reduce future maintenance requirements.
the gradient. In this case:

127cm + 15cm = 142 cm
When determining the level of the

culvert, also ensure that there is a
sufficient slope in the outlet drain,
downstream of the culvert.
Setting out the slope of the culvert is usually

done after the trench has been excavated to
the correct level at the inlet side.
Having already established the level

at the inlet, the depth of the trench at
the outlet can be determined. With
a gradient of 3% on a 5 m long pipe
culvert, the level at the outlet can be
calculated as follows:
Length of culvert x gradient =
level difference
The above example describes the ideal

situation, in which it is possible to set
the gradient at the desired grade. In at
terrain, it is often not possible to obtain
this gradient. In such cases, the culvert
grade needs to be determined by the
levels of the surrounding terrain at the
inlet and the outlet of the culvert.
With a 5m long culvert, the difference

in levels at the inlet and the outlet is:
In some cases, the f low of water

changes to the opposite direction at
certain times of the year. In such cases,
the slope of the culvert is set out at zero
percent (no gradient).
The level of the outlet is the level of the

inlet plus the level difference caused by
2 6 0
8
C U LV E R T S
Step 6: Maintaining the Correct Gradient

Once the levels of the inlet and outlet
are established, it is possible to prepare
a smooth culvert bed with the desired
gradient. With a line level and profile
boards, this can be achieved following
the process described below:
(i) Place ranging rods at the exact

locations of the inlet and outlet
of the culvert.
(ii) Measure up one metre from
the level of the inlet and mark
this level with a profile board
attached to the ranging rod.
(iii) Use the line level to transfer this
level from the inlet to a ranging
rod placed at the outlet.
(iv) On the ranging rod placed at the

outlet, measure 15 cm down from
the level transferred from the
inlet and place a prole board at
this level. This should mark the
level one metre above the level of
the outlet, when applying a 3%
gradient for a 5m long culvert.
(v) To establish the correct level
of the trench between the inlet
and the outlet, place a one metre
high traveller in the trench and
sight from the profile boards at
either side to control the depth.
(vi) The correct depth is achieved
when the top of the traveller is
level with the sight line between
the prole boards. If the traveller
2 6 1
is above the sight line, it means

that more excavation is required.
If it is lower, this means that the
trench is too deep.
8
C U LV E R T S
Step 7: Setting Out Headwalls

Headwalls around the culvert inlet and
outlet serves to protect the surrounding
road body next to the culvert pipe.
Together with the wing walls the head
walls also acts as collectors, directing
the water to the pipes.
As the foundation of the headwall is
located under the outer rings of the
culvert pipes, this activity needs to
be carried out at the same time as
when the levels of the culvert pipes are
established. The headwalls are normally
built parallel to the road centre line.
(i) Re-establish the road centre
line (20m to both sides of the
culvert) and set out straight lines
parallel to road centre line at
both ends of the culvert.

(ii) S e t o u t t h e w i d t h o f t h e
headwalls (start from the centre
line of the culvert, measuring
out to both sides) and mark the
outer corners of the walls with
pegs. This width is normally
equivalent to the outer diameter

2 6 2
wing walls and mark the outer

corners with pegs,
(iii) Mark the height of the wing
w a l l s on t h e p e g s ( a t t h e
headwall side and outer ends),
(iv) Set out the thickness of the wing
walls,
(v) Set out the depth of the wing
wall foundations
8
C U LV E R T S
of the culvert pipe when laying

a single pipe culvert. With
mu ltiple pipe cu lver ts, t he
headwalls normally extend to the
outer edges of the pipes.
(iii) Set out the thickness of the
headwa l ls. Ma rk t he inner
corners with pegs and mark
the height of the headwalls
on the pegs. Finally, set out
t he dept h of t he he adwa l l
foundations. Remember that the
headwall foundations need to
be constructed before laying the
pipes.
The top of the headwalls on each side
should be constructed to the same
level. To achieve this, the height of the
headwall at the culvert outlet, measured
from the top of the pipe, will be higher
than at the inlet side. This difference
in height between the two headwalls
is equivalent to the height difference
resulting from the gradient of the pipe(s).
Step 8: Setting Out Wing Walls

Wing wa lls ser ve the purpose of
stabilising the side slopes adjacent to
the headwall. They are constructed at
the same time as the headwall, at an
angle of 30 or 45 to the culvert centre
line. On skewed culverts, the angles
of the wing walls at each side are not
necessarily the same. In such cases, the
angle depends on the angle between the
road centre line and centre line of the
culverts
(i) S e t out t he d e s i r e d a n g l e
between the culvert pipe and the
wing wall,
(ii) Set out the correct length of the
2 6 3
Step 9: Aprons and Toe Walls

Aprons and toe walls are constructed
to avoid scouring of the soils close to
the culvert inlet and outlet. The depth
of the toe walls is normally the same as
the depth of the headwall foundations.
C U LV E R T S
(i) Set out the thickness of the

aprons. The aprons should be
constructed at the same gradient
and level as the culvert pipe.
(ii) The gradient of aprons can be
set out using string line levels
and prole boards.
(iii) Set out the depth of the toe walls
at the outer edge of the aprons.
Step 10: Soil Erosion Measures

Culverts are designed to collect water
from a large area and discharge it on
the lower side of the road. In doing
so, the surface water is concentrated
to a limited area at the culvert outlet
wh ic h m ay c au se soi l erosion
downstream from the culvert. This
may have a detrimental effect on the
stability of the culvert, as well as cause

damage to the land areas below the
culvert. In areas with a risk of such
damage, it is important to install
appropriate protection measures to
avoid soil erosion.
In mountainous terrain, the water from
culverts is often discharged onto large
side slopes. If the water is left to run
down the side of the slope, it may cause
considerable erosion and eventually make
the side ll unstable. If this continues for
2 6 4
a period of time, the road carriageway

may eventually be at risk of collapsing.
Similar arrangements need to be

considered where the slopes are not
necessarily ver y steep, but where
the soils are incohesive and prone to
erosion. The installation of a culvert
may trigger soil erosion in areas which
at the outset appeared to be stable.
The drop inlet is constructed in a

square shape with its inside dimensions
equivalent to the outside diameter of
the culvert pipe. The thickness of the
walls of the drop inlet should follow the
thickness of the headwalls and wing
walls. The height should be minimum
40cm higher than the outside diameter
of the pipes and its bed level should be
ush with the culvert pipe.
8
C U LV E R T S
A common solution for strengthening

the soils and surface below culvert
outlets is to install gabion mattresses
below the outlet. These mattresses will
then act as a cushion on which the
falling water can land. On high slopes,
gabions are installed starting at the foot
of the slope, covering the entire surface
up to the outlet apron.
the water on the lower side below the

road. Drop inlets are usually made of
the same materials as the headwalls and
wing walls, such as concrete or stone or
brick masonry.
The level of the inlet of the collectors

should be at the same level as the side
drains, and its size and shape should follow
the size and shape of the side drains.
Step 11: Drop Inlets

In mountainous or rolling terrain, the
road is often constructed as a side cut
into sloping terrain. In such terrain, most
culverts would need head walls and wing
walls on one side only. At the inner side, i.e.
close to the side slope, it would be more
appropriate to construct a drop inlet.
The function of drop inlets is to collect

water from the side drains and feed
it through the pipe culvert dispersing
2 6 5
8
C U LV E R T S
Step 12: Securing Sufcient Backll

Depending on the type and design of
the culvert pipes, the thickness of the
backfill may constitute a vital part of
the design of the culvert. A sufciently
thick backll above the pipe will protect
the pipe from the forces exerted by the
traffic. A rule of thumb is to ensure
that the backll is at least _ of the pipe
diameter. This often implies that the
road levels need to be lifted in order to
accommodate this requirement. Once
again, this design consideration stresses
the importance of assessing the need for
culverts and their locations and levels
already when carrying out the initial
design of the road alignment.
Suff icient backf ill is also required

during the construction period to avoid
any damages to the pipes. Although the
road may still not have been completed
to its final levels, it is important to
secure sufficient cover on top of the
culvert pipes to cater for trafc during
the construction period.
When building box culverts, backfill
is normally not required, as the top
slab of the box is normally designed
to carry the expected traffic loads. In
areas where it is difcult to secure the
necessary backfill over culvert pipes,
the alternative is to introduce the use of
box culverts.

2 6 6
Detours
Before starting the excavation of the
culvert trench, traff ic needs to be
diverted away from the work site. When
excavating the trench and laying the
pipes, the road is blocked and traffic
will not be able to pass. If it is not
possible to build a detour outside the
culvert site, the alternative is to build
one half of the culvert while allowing
traffic to pass on the other half of the
roadway. The diversion should be
properly organised to cater for existing
levels and type of trafc, and equipped
with adequate sign posting to avoid any
accidents caused by the diversion.
Excavation Works
Once the position and depth of the
trench have been set out, the excavation
can commence. By digging the trench
starting from the outlet side towards
the inlet, it is possible to keep the
trench free of water. The trench should
be marked with pegs and string lines, to
The trench should not be excavated

deeper than to the intended levels.
The natural soils are normally well
compacted, and if left alone, they will
in most cases provide a sufciently rm
foundation for the culvert. If the trench
is dug too deep, it is necessary to rell
the trench to its intended levels and
provide the ll with proper compaction
at optimal moisture content.
Ensure that any water which may enter
the trench can exit. This not only
implies that excavation should start at
the outlet side of the drain. It is also
essential that the water is properly
drained away from the culvert outlet.
In order to keep the work site dry and

free from water, it may be necessary
to build temporary waterways. With
efcient management of surface water,
the culvert works can also be carried
out during the rainy season.
ensure that it is excavated at the correct

location and to the correct width. With
the use of prole boards and a traveller,
the foundation bed is excavated to the
correct level and slope.
C U LV E R T S
8.5 Construction Operations
2 6 7
Keeping the work site dry and free of

water will contribute to securing the
correct dimensions and levels as shown
on the drawings.
8
C U LV E R T S
When excavating deep

trenches it is important
to show some caution in regards to the
safety of the workers operating inside the
trench. Unprotected trench walls may
collapse when the water content in the soils
increases and may cause serious harm to
workers. When excavating deep trenches
during periods of the year when rains occur,
it may be necessary to support the trench
walls with temporary retaining walls.
Bedding and Foundations
The foundations for the headwalls
should be completed up to bed level
on both sides before starting the
construction of the culvert bed. The
exact position of the foundation for the
headwalls should be carefully measured
from the centre line of the road.
Before commencing any concrete or

stone masonry works, it is important
to ensure that mud or any unsuitable
materials are removed and replaced by
selected materials, correctly levelled and
compacted.
T he b e dd i n g su r f a c e s hou ld b e
well compacted, providing a f irm
foundation throughout the length of
the culvert. If the existing soil in the
trench is of poor quality, it is replaced
with a layer of imported materials such
as sand or gravel. The fill material is
watered and compacted in 10 cm layers.
The supervising engineer will normally
insist on inspecting the quality of the
culvert bed before laying pipes and
backlling commence.
Before pouring concrete, make sure
that the compacted ground under the
formwork has been properly watered to
prevent any water being absorbed from
the concrete. If the concrete surface
is kept continuously damp, adequate
curing for a concrete bed would take 4
days following the placing of concrete.
Placing the Pipes
Pipe joints come in different forms. The
most common is the bell and spigot
joint, however larger pipe diameters
often have ush joints without the bell
shape but still with a socket and spigot.
When laying the pipes on the prepared
foundation, start from the outlet and
2 6 8
proceed towards the inlet. The pipes

should be oriented so that the bell or
socket is facing the inlet. If the pipes are
tted with a bell and spigot, a void should
be excavated to fit the bell joints snugly
into the trench bed, ensuring that the full
length of the pipe is resting on the bed.
After laying the complete run, the joints

are sealed with cement mortar. When
sealing the joints, the mortar must be ush
with the inner surface of the pipe, thus
securing a smooth inner surface, easy to
maintain and keep clean of debris and silt.
C U LV E R T S
The culvert pipes should be gently

lowered into the trench using a rope.
Avoid the pipes falling onto each other
as this may damage the pipes. The
surface of the joints should be cleaned
from dirt and soil before they are tted
together. Using crowbars, the pipes
are eased up tight against each other,
ensuring that they are in a straight line
and properly joined. The pipes must be
placed in the right position forming a
straight line along the culvert pipe axis.
Any pipe found defective or damaged
during laying should be replaced.
Before commencing the backfill, it is

common practice that the supervising
engineer inspects and approves the laying
of the culvert pipes and the mortar work
at the joints. The contractor should not
commence any backfilling of the pipes
before he receives an explicit go-ahead
from the engineer.
2 6 9
8.6 Constructing Headwalls, Wing Walls and Aprons
8
C U LV E R T S
Culvert headwalls, wing walls and aprons

can be constructed in concrete, stone
or brick masonry. The work should be
carried out by skilled workers with good
experience in masonry works. Besides
providing important protection to the areas
surrounding the culvert inlets and outlets,
the headwalls and wing walls act as facades
to the structure and therefore require a
neat and clean nish to the surfaces.
The choice of materials for this purpose
depends on their availability in the area
where the structures are located. Equally,
the choice of materials depends on the
aesthetic preferences of the agency in

charge of the construction works.
Stone Masonry
Stone masonry is commonly applied to
wing walls and aprons on culverts and
small bridges. It can also be used for the
foundation work on such structures. Stone
is also used for providing a surface texture
and therefore needs to be hard, clean and
compact and should be carefully selected
to ensure roughly at sides.
Although these structures can be built
in dry masonry, it is more common to

2 7 0
Clean chips can be used as wedges

in the mortar joints where necessary
8
C U LV E R T S
set the stones in mortar. When using

mortar for the joints, the stone needs to
be wet before laying in order to prevent
any absorption of water from the mortar.
Equally, the bed of each layer (course) of
stones should be clean and also wetted
before applying the next layer of mortar.
The stones should be fully surrounded
by mortar covering both the bed and the
vertical joints. When laying the stones,
they should be carefully settled in place
and a wooden mallet used immediately
after so that they are firmly embedded
before the mortar sets.
to support the stones in the required

positions and to avoid thick beds of
mortar joints. Use of chips, however,
should be limited to the extent possible
by carefully choosing stones that fit
neatly together.
No dry or hollow space should be left
anywhere in the masonry. Each stone
must have a ll the embedded faces
completely covered with mortar. A
smooth face should be maintained where
the joints are not more than 2 cm thick.
In general, the length of the stone should

not exceed 3 times of its height. The
breadth of the stone at its base should
not exceed three fourths of the thickness
of the wall, nor less than 15cm.
Whenever foundation masonry is laid

directly on rock, the face stones of the
rst course should be dressed to t snugly
into the rock when pressed down in the
mortar bedding on top of the rock.
The height of a course depends on the

size of locally available stone. The selected
stone should produce a course height of
not less than 15 cm. Common heights of
courses are 16 cm, 18 cm and 20 cm.
2 7 1
C U LV E R T S
2 7 2
Common sizes of face stones for these

heights of courses are given in the table
below:
(i) Fix the first string line at the

bottom of the course of stones
bet ween t wo ra ng i ng rod s
outside the wall (exposed side),
(ii) Fix a second line between two
ranging rods at the top of the
course,
(iii) Using a plumb bob to ensure
8
C U LV E R T S
With some effort it should be possible

to obtain the size of stones specified
above. When measuring the size of
stones, the height of course should be
fixed by the engineer in charge and
insisted upon during the construction.
The face work should be brought up
evenly. Two lines of nylon string are used
to control the surface of each course:
that both ranging rods are in a

correct vertical alignment,
(iv) Adjust t he stones
so that the top and
bottom of each stone
slightly touch the
g u id a nce strings.
Chips can be used to
support the stone in
its correct position
a nd a n g le b e fore
lling the mortar,
(v) Repeat this activity
for all courses.
Brick Masonry
If stone is not readily available, a good
alternative is using brick masonry.
Bricks can also be used as fade or
they can be plastered, giving a smooth
concrete like surface.
When laying bricks, they first need to
be soaked in water for a minimum of
one hour before being placed. After
having been soaked, they are taken out
of the water sufficiently in advance so
that the skin of the bricks is dry at the
time of laying. The soaked bricks are

2 7 3
stacked on a clean place where they will

not be soiled by dirt or earth.
8
C U LV E R T S
Bricks are laid in an appropriate bond

ensuring good interlocking between the
bricks. A plumb bob and line level should
be used to ensure that the work is even
and true in both vertical and horizontal
directions. Joints should be maintained at
a uniform thickness and level. To secure
a neat and even outer surface, bricks
used on the face should be complete with
uniform size and true rectangular face.
Bricks should be laid with frogs up,
if any, on a full bed of mortar. When
laying, the bricks are pressed slightly
into the mortar so that the mortar can
get into the surface pores of the bricks
to ensure proper adhesion. All joints
should be properly ushed and packed
with mortar so that no hollow spaces
are left. The thickness of joints would
normally not exceed 10mm.
Mortar
Mortar consists of cement, sand and

water and is mixed in the proportion
1:4 (cement : sand).
If hand mixing is permitted, the
operation should be carried out on
a clean watertight platform. In order
to obtain a good mix it is useful to:
- rst mix dry cement and sand
in appropriate portions until a
uniform colour is obtained
- mix the mortar for at least 2
minutes after the addition of
water.
The mortar will stiffen after a while
due to water evaporation. It should
then be re-tempered by adding
water as frequently as needed to
restore the right consistency.
When using bricks for the foundation,

a 15 mm layer of mortar is placed over
the base on which the brick works are
evenly laid. The rst layer of bricks is laid
immediately after spreading the mortar.
Backlling
The backll should be carried out after
the concrete is fully set or the masonry
has hardened. It should be carried out
in such a manner that it does not cause
any thrust or pressure to any part of the
structure.
The backfill around the pipes and the
overll should be placed in 10 cm layers
of suitable material free from large or
sharp stones. Preference should be given
to suitable material excavated from
the pipe trench or the foundation. If
these soils are unsuitable, good quality
material should be borrowed from
adjacent locations or by importing
granular materials such as sand or gravel.
Backfill material should be spread,
watered and compacted in layers using
hand rammers or plate compactors. It
may be necessary to add water to ensure
that compaction takes place at optimum
moisture content. Care should be taken
not to hit and damage the pipes when
compacting. The minimum thickness
of the backfill above the culvert rings
should not be less than three quarters
of the pipe diameter.
2 7 4
8
C U LV E R T S
8.7 Culvert Approaches

In at areas, it is often necessary to lift
the road on an embankment in order
to achieve sufcient ll height on top of
the culvert rings. In such cases, a ramp
needs to be constructed on each side of
the culvert to avoid a rapid change of
the road gradient.
Proper compaction of the approach

sections is essential in order to provide
a smooth and uniform running surface
across the culvert pipe. If the road
body is not properly compacted before
and after the culvert, it will continue
to settle after traffic is allowed on
the road. The culvert pipe is a rigid
structure so the section above the
culvert pipe will be subject to less
8.8 Concrete Pipe Manufacture

Culverts form an essential part of the
drainage system of the road, so it is of
great importance that the quality of
the concrete pipes is good. Technical
specif ications a nd drawings will
normally prescribe the dimensions and
quality of the culvert pipes.
I n m o u nt a i n o u s t e r r a i n , r a m p
construction shou ld be avoided.
Suff icient depth of the trench can
then be secured when determining the
vertical alignment of the road.
settlement as compared with the

adjoining sections. As a result, the
traffic will cause more consolidation
of the road body before and after the
culvert, and the road section directly
above the culvert pipe will appear as
a bump in the road surface. However,
with proper compaction, this potential
defect can be avoided altogether.
Circu la r cu lver t pipes c a n be

manufactured making use of steel
culvert moulds of different sizes.
Pipes can also be purchased from
manufacturers of concrete products or
be produced on site.
2 7 5
If a road works project involves the

installation of a considerable amount
of culverts, the contractor may choose
to manufacture culvert pipes on site.
For smaller works, it would be more
economical to purchase the pipes from
a supplier.
C U LV E R T S
When manufacturing culvert pipes on

site, it is important that the conditions
for proper works procedures are in place
and that proper standards as regards to
concrete technology are adhered to.
Adequate space is required on which
the manufacturing work s can be
effectively organised and carried out.
This includes space for the moulding
works, as well as for storage and loading
the pipes for transport to the work site.
Materia ls such a s c ement,

aggregates, sand and water need
to be stored in a clean and safe
environment. These supplies
need to be secured on site well in
advance of the pipe manufacturing;
A level and firm casting floor
needs to be prepared close to
where the materials are stored
(preferably a concrete oor);

The moulds should be
checked for any damages and
deformations, and need to be
properly aligned. All joints and
hinges should be checked to
ensure that they are free from
dirt and old concrete;
The required hand tools and
c oncrete m i xer s shou ld be
checked that they are in good
order before starting works.
A gauge box is used to ensure
proper control of the concrete
ingredients by volume;
2 7 6
8
C U LV E R T S
A shed or a sunshade under

which the pipes can be placed
during the curing period needs
to be erec ted. I n add it ion
arrangements for adequate water
supply for the curing process
should be put in place.
The mixture for concrete pipes should
be 1:2:4 (cement : sand : aggregate).
If possible, concrete cover outside the
reinforcement bars should be 4cm, else
centre aligned.
When pouring the concrete, compact
the concrete using a steel bar and by

knocking the outside of the mould
gently with a hammer.
The mould should be left on the pipes
for 24 hours before being reused. 24
hours after pouring the concrete, the
rings should be stiff enough to remove
the mould.
The commonly used 60cm concrete

pipe without any reinforcement is
normally regarded as suff iciently
strong to carry common traffic loads
on rural roads, provided that they are
placed according to good construction
practices (i.e. placed on a sound
foundation and with sufcient backll).
The rings must be kept damp for

another 7 days to ensure proper curing
of the pipes. The pipes should be 28
days old before being transported to the
work site and installed.
For larger diameters it is often necessary

to increase the strength of the culvert
rings by adding reinforcement steel.
2 7 7
and extra care should be taken to avoid

cracking the pipes during off-loading.
On road sections requiring a substantial
amount of pipes, the pipes should be
manufactured close to the work sites to
avoid unnecessary haulage.
8
C U LV E R T S
Reinforcement steel cages are then

made in advance and fitted into the
culvert mould before pouring the
concrete. The figure below illustrates
some common dimensions and how the
reinforcement is positioned.
The quality of the culvert pipes needs
to be carefully controlled before they
are installed on site. Arrangements for
quality testing of the concrete and the
finished pipes need to be agreed upon
and established as part of the work
organisation. The supervising engineer
must ensure that the contractor keeps
proper records of the manufacturing
and the curing process.
Throughout the production, it is

important to control the quality of the
moulds. Through extensive usage, the
moulds will need to be maintained to
ensure that they produce the right shape
culvert pipes with a smooth and even
surface and uniform thickness. After
each use, they should be thoroughly
cleaned, ensuring that no deposits of
concrete are left from the previous
mould. Hinges and lockers need to
be properly cleaned so they remain in
good condition.
The transport and handling of the pipes
should be treated as a delicate exercise,
2 7 8
C U LV E R T S
2 7 9
8.9 Corrugated Steel Pipes
8
C U LV E R T S
Culvert pipes are also manufactured

from corrugated sheets of galvanised
steel. These pipes are available in a
variety of lengths and shapes. Some
suppliers provide pipes which are ready
to be installed in their full length while
others are assembled from rounded
segments by bolting them together on
site.
The most common brand is Armco,
who delivers these pipes in a variety
of diameters and shapes. Armco pipes
are easy to transport and assemble,
however, they are usually slightly more
expensive to use than concrete pipes.
T heir adva nta ge a s compa red to

concrete pipes is that large numbers of
pipes can easily be transported to site at
the same time so that they are ready to
be installed. As compared to pipes made
of concrete, they do not need any curing
period before they are put to use.
Armco pipes can also be used to produce
arch formed culverts. The half circle is
then placed on a concrete bedding which
acts as the oor inside the arch pipe.
When utilising corrugated steel pipes
for culvert works, they are used in the
same manner as concrete pipes, fitted
with aprons, head and wing walls and
installed with a similar backll.

2 8 0

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CHAPTER

by washing away the soil (erosion

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

maintenance demands and in the worst

An efcient drainage system is therefore

Various drainage measures are applied

road embankments in f lood

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

crossings will greatly reduce the

In hilly or mountainous terrain, it is

overloading other drainage components

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

As the water can cause a serious impact

In most cases, common drainage

Obviou sly, t he de sign of proper

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

Finally, it is also worth mentioning

7.2 Road Surface Drainage

Before carrying out drainage improvements,

led away to a side drain and eventually

On roads in mountainous terrain, some

In mountainous terrain, this solution

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

For low-cost roads, the cross-slope is

The camber is the slope from either

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

when wet, it may be necessary to reduce

For roads with an asphalt surface, the

Eventually, traffic will erode the road

is therefore recommended that the road

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

To avoid stagnant water at the sections

A full cross-slope is also applied in other

The correct shape of the camber can

The quantity of soil along the centre-line

After compaction, check that the nal

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

Once the soil for the camber has been

If the levels are inaccurate, the irregularities

drainage difficult to control. These

Short sections with steep gradients are

asphalt or concrete. Equally, the side

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

can damage surrounding farmlands

material is well protected from surface

The actual travel distance and time

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

The sub-grade and base of a rural road

When local soils are utilized for road

as possible, the hole in the surface layer

Equally, the surface of side fills needs

It is therefore important that the base

If the road shoulders are susceptible

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

7.3 Side Drains

The function of the side drains (or

The side drains need to have sufcient

BUILDING RURAL ROADS

The rectangular shape requires less

W hen u si n g l a b ou r-ba s e d work

Excavating Side Drains

controlled by using ditch templates.

BUILDING RURAL ROADS