Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3.

It is a common substance found

in rocks as the mineralscalcite and aragonite (most notably as limestone), and is the main component
of shells of marine organisms, snails, pearls, andeggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient
in agricultural lime, and is created when calcium ions in hard water react withcarbonate
ions creating limescale. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but
excessive consumption can be hazardous.
Chemical formula
CaCO3
Molar mass
100.0869 g/mol
Appearance
Fine white powder; chalky taste
Odor odorless
Density 2.711 g/cm3 (calcite)
2.83 g/cm3 (aragonite)
Melting point 1,339 C (2,442 F; 1,612 K) (calcite)
825 C (1517 F; 1,098 K) (aragonite) [1]
Boiling point decomposes
Solubility in water
0.013 g/L (25 C)[2][3]

Titanium dioxide
Chemical Compound
Titanium dioxide, also known as titanium oxide or titania, is the naturally occurring oxide of titanium,
chemical formula TiO 2. When used as a pigment, it is called titanium white, Pigment White 6, or CI
77891.Wikipedia
Formula: TiO2
Molar mass: 79.866 g/mol
Melting point: 1,843 C
Density: 4.23 g/cm
Boiling point: 2,972 C
IUPAC ID: Titanium dioxide, Titanium(IV) oxide

Optical brighteners are additives that paper manufacturers put into paper in order to help a
paper look "whiter." They are also calledoptical brightening agents (OBA), or sometimes
"artificial whiteners."
Optical brighteners, optical brightening agents (OBAs), fluorescent brightening agents
(FBAs) or fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) are chemical compounds that absorb light in
the ultraviolet and violet region (usually 340-370 nm) of the electromagnetic spectrum, and re-emit
light in the blue region (typically 420-470 nm) by fluorescence. Fluorescent emission is a short-lived
period of light emission by a fluorophore, unlike phosphorescence, which is long-lived. These
additives are often used to enhance the appearance of color of fabric and paper, causing a
"whitening" effect; they make intrinsically yellow/orange materials look less so, by compensating the
deficit in blue and purple light reflected by the material, with the blue and purple optical emission of
the fluorophore.

Pulping[edit]
Chemical pulping involves dissolving lignin in order to extract the cellulose from the wood fiber. The
different processes of chemical pulping include the kraft process, which uses caustic soda and
sodium sulfide and is the most common; alternatively, the use of sulfurous acid is known as
the sulfite process, the neutral sulfite semichemical is treated as a third process separate from
sulfite, and soda pulping which is the least ecologically hazardous utilizing sodium
hydroxide or anthraquinone.[2]
Caustic soda is added to increase the pH in the pulping process of fibers. The higher pH of the
paper-fiber solution causes the fibers to smoothen and swell, which is important for the grinding
process of the fibers.

Processing pulp in a Hollander beater

Bleaching[edit]
Main article: Bleaching of wood pulp
In the production of white paper, the wood pulp is bleached to remove any color from the trace
amounts of lignin that was not extracted in the chemical pulping process. There are 3 predominant
methods of bleaching. The first is elemental chlorine bleaching, which useschlorine and hypochlorite.
Elemental chlorine-free bleaching is more environmentally friendly since it eliminates the use of
hypochlorite and replaces chlorine with chlorine dioxide or sodium chlorate.[3] The third method is
totally chlorine-free bleaching, which utilizes oxygenand hydrogen peroxide. This is the most
environmentally friendly process since it eliminates all chlorinated pollutants. [4]

Sizing[edit]
Main article: Sizing
Most paper types must have some water-resistance to maintain a specific writing quality and/or
printability. Until 1980 the typical manner of adding this resistance was by using arosin in
combination with alum. When the paper industry started using chalk instead of china clay as filler,

the paper chemistry had to switch to a neutral process. Today mainly AKD (alkyl ketene dimer) and
ASA (alkenyl succinic anhydride) are used.

Strengthening[edit]
Wet-strength[edit]
Main article: Wet strength
Wet-strength additives ensure that paper retains its strength when it gets wet. This is especially
important in tissue paper. Chemicals typically used for this purpose
includeepichlorohydrin, melamine, urea formaldehyde and polyimines. These substances polymerize
in the paper and result in the construction of a strengthening network.

Cationic starch

To enhance the paper's strength, cationic starch is added to wet pulp in the manufacturing process.
Starch has a similar chemical structure as the cellulose fibre of the pulp, and the surface of both the
starch and fibre are negatively charged. By adding cationic (positive charged) starch, the fibre can
bind with the starch and thus also increase the interconnections between the fibres. The positively
charged portion of the starch is usually formed by quaternary ammonium cations. Quaternary salts
that are used include 2.3-epoxy propyl trimethyl ammoniumchloride (EPTAC, also known as or
Glytac Quab) and (3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride (CHPTAC, also known as
Quat 188).

Dry-strength[edit]
Dry-strength additives, or dry-strengthening agents, are chemicals that improve paper strength
normal conditions. These improve the paper's compression strength, bursting strength, tensile
breaking strength, and delamination resistance. Typical chemicals used include
cationic starch and polyacrylamide (PAM) derivatives. These substances work by binding fibers,
often under the aid of aluminum ions in paper sheet.

Binders[edit]
Styrene butadiene latex, Styrene acrylic, dextrin, oxidized starch are used in coatings to bind the
filler to the paper. Co-binders are natural products such as starch and CMC (Carboxymethyl
cellulose), that are used along with the synthetic binders, like styrene acrylic or styrene butadiene.

Co-binders are used to reduce the cost of the synthetic binder and improve the water
retention and rheology of the coating.

Fillers[edit]
Main article: Filler (materials)
Mineral fillers are used to lower the consumption of more expensive binder material or to improve
some properties of the paper.[5] China clay, calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide, and talc are common
mineral fillers used in paper production.

Retention[edit]
Main article: Retention agent
A Retention agent is added to bind fillers to the paper. Fillers, such as calcium carbonate, usually
have a weak surface charge. The retention agent is a polymer with high cationic, positively charged
groups. An additional feature of a retention agent is to accelerate the dewatering in the wire section
of the paper machine. Polyethyleneimine and polyacrylamide are examples of chemicals used in this
process.

Coating[edit]
Main article: Coated paper

Pigments[edit]

Paper Coating

Pigments that absorb in the yellow and red part of the visible spectrum can be added. As
the dye absorbs light, the brightness of the paper will decrease, unlike the effect of an opticalbrightening agent. To increase whiteness, a combination of pigments and an optical-brightening
agent are often used. The most commonly used pigments are blue and violet dyes.

Optical-brightening agent[edit]
Optical brightener is used to make paper appear whiter. Optical-brightening agents
use fluorescence to absorb invisible radiation from theultraviolet part of the light spectrum and reemit the radiation as light in the visible blue range. The optical-brightening agent thus generates blue

light that is added to the reflected light. The additional blue light offsets the yellowish tinge that would
otherwise exist in the reflected light characteristics. It thus increases the brightness of the material
(when the illumination includes ultraviolet radiation). [6]

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