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BIRD LIFE
A GUIDE TO THE BEHAVIOR AND
BIOLOGY OF BIRDS
by
STEPHEN W. KRESS, Ph.D.
Research Biologist, National Audubon Society
Illustrated by
JOHN D. DAWSON

GOLDEN PRESS NEW YORK

Western Publishing Company, Inc.

Racine, Wisconsin

FOREWORD
B i rd s su rround u s with th eir vibra n t colors a n d son g s .
Even the most abundant spec ies rewa rd observers with
opportun ities to watch seldom- seen behaviors. This book
i s d e d i c a t e d to t h o s e i n te r e s t e d i n g o i n g b e yo n d
identification of b i rd s . It introduces such topics a s b i rd
behavior, fam ily l i fe, fl ight, migration , popu lations, and
c o n servat i o n . T h i s fi n a l sec t i o n-c o n s e rvati o n-i s a
subject of great u rgency.
Because birds require large amounts of clean food and
a i r to mai nta i n their high-speed lifestyles, they are sensitive
indicators of the quality of their environ ments. When bird
popu lations decline, human welfare is equally threatened .
Yet protecting birds is more than prudent conservation for
o u r own wel l-be i n g . B i rd c o n servati o n i s a n eth i c a l
responsibil ity that we must assume as stewards of the earth .
We hold the future of the earth's 8,700 species of birds in
our hands today. Each species is an irreplaceable treasure
that must be carefully passed from our generation to that of
our children.
S.W.K.

1991 Stephen W. Kress. Illustrations 1991 John D. Dawson. All rights reserved,

including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the
makin9 of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device,
printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any
knowledge retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the
co p yright proprietor. Produced in the U.S.A. by Western Publishing Company, Inc.
Published by Golden Press, New York, N.Y. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:
91-070365. ISBN 0-30724079-7

CONTENTS
THE NATURE OF BIRD BEHAVIOR ................................................... 4
I n stinctive. Learned .

BODY CARE..................................................................................8
Preening. Oiling. Bathing. Dusting. Anting. Bill Wiping. Cool ing Off.

HOW BIRDS SLEEP ...................................................................... 16

FEEDING .................................................................................... 18
FOOD STORAGE ......................................................................... 32
SOCIAL DISPLAYS

.......................................................................

34

Roosts. Foraging. Flocks. Peck Orders. Mobbing. Distraction Di splays.

FAMILY LIFE.................................................................................40
Territories. Courtship and Mating. Building a Nest. Eggs. I ncubation.
Hatching. Core of the Young.

SONGS AND CALLS.....................................................................80

WHAT DO BIRDS HEAR?...............................................................94
BIRD FLIGHT. ................................................................................96
NAVIGATION AND MIGRATION..................................................106
BIRD POPULATIONS...................................................................116
How Long Do Birds Live?

CONSERVATION........................................................................122
WHAT IS BEING DONE?.............................................................128
Legi slation . Organizations. Success Stories. What You Con Do
to Help.

ATTRACTING BIRDS....................................................................138
Improving Habitat. Selecting Plants. Water Supplies. Feeding Birds.
Protecting Birds from Hazards.

MORE INFORMATION....................... . . . .......................................156

Organ i zations. Magazines. Books.

INDEX........................................................................................158

THE NATURE OF BIRD BEHAVIOR

Bi rds a n d h u mans s h a re m a n y be haviors. Bi rds si ng,
co u rt, defend the i r homes, and feed th e i r you n g . L i ke
some humans, most birds fly south in autu m n to bal mier
cli mates . It' s easy to identify with b i rds and to consider
t h e i r behaviors in te r m s o f o u r own . But most b i rd s '
senses of sight, hea ring, orientation, and coordination fa r
exceed those of humans.
Envi ronments shape bi rds to look and behave in ways
that help them survive in their varied habitats. Livi ng bi rds
have received from their ancestors many of their insti nctive
behaviors. Yet not all behavior is inherited. The behavior of
bi rds is a m i xture of i n sti nctive ski l l s and ski l l s learned
throug h experience.
Begging and feeding are instinctive behaviors.
American Robin

Northern Cardinal
Reflections often elicit instinctive territorial defense.

INSTINCTIVE behaviors, such as finding mates, locating

food, avoi d i n g predators, a n d rea r i n g you ng, pe r m i t
quick responses. W h i le h u m a n s genera l ly ponder a new
situation before acti ng, birds usually act in a predictable
manner whenever they see or hear a g iven sti mulu s, such
as a mate or a predator. These instinctive behaviors a re a
quick way to respond to fa m i l i a r situations. For example,
when a male ca rdi nal sees a nother male i n h i s nesti ng
territory, he u s u a l l y cha ses it away. But someti mes the
cardi nal sees his own reflection i n a window and attempts
to chase it! Th is i nappropriate respon se demonstrates that
s o m e b i rds c a n n o t ea s i l y r e a s o n t h e i r way i n n ew
circu msta nces.

LEARNING is the abil ity to acquire new i nformatio n . Birds

that eat a wide variety of foods a re usually the q u i ckest to

take adva ntage of new food sou rces a n d con sequently
m u st be c o n s idered the most i n tel l i gent. For exa mple,
such b i rds as gulls, crows, and ravens have diverse diets.
They u se varied feed i n g h a b its a n d have genera l ized
beaks. These b i rds are usually quicker to learn than a re
those with special ized beaks and feeding habits, such as
woodpeckers and flycatchers.
HABITUATION i s a way of lea rning about new situations
th rough repeated exposure. A plastic snake placed i n a
raspberry patc h , for example, m i g h t sca re the b i rds at
fi rst, but repea ted exposu re to it, without associated
h a r m , w i l l eve n t u a l l y tea c h the b i rd s t h a t th i s is a
harmless situation . If the position of the snake is changed,
the bird s might have to rehabituate to the "snake."
Most birds habituate to human presence as long as they
feel safe. For example, pigeons and sparrows in city parks
a re accustomed to the presence of h u m a n s . Even such
wary birds as gulls and crows will lose their fear of humans
if they a re not harrassed .
PLAY is a form of learn ing since it helps coord i nate motor

and sensory ski lls. Young owls, for example, practice their
pouncing behavior by j u mping on such i n a n imate objects
as seeds and pebbles. Like kittens and puppies, their play
activity helps them i mprove their hunting ski l l s with trial
and-error games. Some adult bird s a l so play. Gulls, terns,
ravens, crows, and eagles, as examples, someti mes d rop
sticks while in flight and then catch them before they h it
the g ro u n d . A d u l t r a ve n s s o m e t i m e s s l i d e d o w n
snowbanks feet fi rst, riding on thei r ta i l s !
6

Opportunistic feeders like these storlings

learn quickly.

Young screech-owl
practices hunting
skill by pouncing
on seeds-learning
while "playing."

BODY CARE
Al l birds have feathers, and th is common feature requ i res
t h a t they spe n d m u c h of thei r t i m e m a i n ta i n i n g t h e i r
plumage. Bi rds have surprisingly s i m i l a r ways o f bath i ng,
o i l i ng, and preen ing their feathers.
PRE E N I N G is the behavior in wh ich a b i rd slides its bea k

over i ndividual feathers in such a way that it connects the

i ndividual barbules ( hooks} of the feather vanes together.
Small b i rds, such as spa rrows, may have 2,000 feathers,
while larger bi rds, such as swa ns, may have as many as
2 5,000 feath e rs . Most fea t h e rs h a ve a c e n t ra l s h a ft
( rach is) and a wide reg ion on either side ca l led a va ne.
Preening restores sepa rated barbules i n the feather va ne
and helps the b i rd to mainta i n the feather su rface.
Uropygial gland produces oil that birds spread on their feathers.

Common Barn-Owl

detail of barbules

Mallard
female
Well-lubricated feathers shed water easily.

OILI N G is the fea ther- m a i n tena nce behavior i n w h i c h

birds squeeze t h e i r uropyg ial { o i l ) gland t o l u bricate their

feathers . This n ipplelike gland is located on the ru mp, just
above the base of the ta i l . By squeezi ng and rubbing the
bea k sideways over the gla nd, a bird can use its beak to
obta i n o i l and spread it onto the feathers wh ile pree n i n g .
T h i s oil lubricates t h e t i n y feather ba rbules and extends
thei r l i fe by h e l p i n g to keep them from beco m i n g too
brittle. Wel l-lu bricated and preened feathers also help to
shed water and g ive the birds a waterproofed plumage.
Water sheds off a duck ' s back {and even a spa rrow ' s
back) m a inly because the feather barbules a re s o neatly
connected that water does not have a chance to soa k into
the plumage. I n some species the oil conta i n s ergosterol,
which converts into vita m i n D when exposed to sunl ight.
When swa l l owed, t h e v i ta m i n D h e l ps p reve n t s u c h
diseases as rickets .
9

BAT H I N G i n water h e l ps to cl ean the p l u m a g e . Some

sea b i rd s , such a s terns, bathe on the s u r fa c e o f the

ocean; others, l ike gul ls, often fly to freshwater ponds and
lakes for bath i n g . Robins and grackles bathe in roadside
puddles, and humm ingbirds someti mes bathe in the water
that collects on large leaves. Where standing water is not
ava i lable, cold- c l i mate b i rd s may bathe in snow, wh i l e
hawks a n d vultu res j ust spread their wings in t h e ra in.
Reg a rdless of a b i rd ' s size, the bath ing behavior is
s i m i l a r. B i rd s typica l ly fi rst su bmerge the i r h ea d , th en
qu ickly ra ise it and beat thei r wings in the water. This is
u s u a l ly fol l owed by vigorous s h a king, feather f l u ffing,
preening, and o i l i n g . B i rdbaths a re an excellent way to
attract b i rd s into you r yard. Many spec ies that do not
rea d i ly c o m e to feed ers, s u c h as c a t b i rd s and even
screech-owls, wil l use birdbaths.
Birds use baths throughout the year to clean their feathers .
. '

Eastern Screech-'Qwl

House Sparrows
Dust bathing helps eliminate feather parasites.

DUSTING is most common a mong birds that l ive in d ry,

open h a b i tats, s u c h a s the Horned La rk, R i n g-necked
P h e a s a n t , a n d s o m e of the h awks a n d owl s . H o u s e
Sparrows, Ruffed Grouse, W i l d Turkeys, wrens, kinglets,
a n d q ua i l a l so freq uently d u st bath e . House Sparrows
seem to enjoy company as they dust bathe. Someti mes a
dozen or more wi l l gather, each scoopi n g out a body
s ized patch of d ust in wh ich it vigorously flutters its wings
a n d spreads its ta i l wh ile pressing its breast deep into the
d ust. Wh i l e lyi n g in the dust, they freq uently peck a n d
scratch with the i r feet. After dusti ng, the b i rd s typically
g ive the i r p l u mage severa l vigorou s shakes to remove
excess dust a n d then scratch their head and preen their
feath e r s . D u s t i n g p r o b a b l y h e l p s to e l i m i n a te s u c h
parasites a s feather l i ce a n d m i tes. Du sti n g m a y a l so
function to remove excess oil, dandruff, and moistu re that
m ight otherwise cause feather matti n g . Most b i rd s that
bathe i n dust usually do not take water baths.
11

SU NBATHI N G is known for at least 1 70 kinds of b i rds.

Sunbathers typica l ly face the su n while lying on a wa rm

su rface, such as a ba re patch of so i l o r s i d ewa l k . I n
typ i c a l s u n n i n g postu re, t h e b i rd l e a n s s i d eways,
exposing one wing and half of its ta i l to d i rect sunsh ine.
S u n n i n g is a q u ick way to wa rm up, but there may be
other reasons why so many bi rds expose themselves to
fu l l su n l i g h t . D i rect su n l i g h t c a uses ski n a n d fea t h e r
pa rasites t o concentrate under t h e wings or t o c l i m b t o the
top of the b i rd's head, where they a re then d islodged by
sc ratc h i ng and preen i n g . Di rect sol a r energy may also
reduce a b i rd's need for food, since some of the su n l ight
provides usefu l energy th rough heat absorptio n . I t is also
b e l i eved that the warmi ng of the o i l prod uced by the
preen ing g land stimu lates formation of vitamins.
ANTI N G is a pec u l iar behavior i n w h i c h b i rds spread

th e i r w i n g s a n d ta i l w h i l e s i tt i n g a top an a n th i l l o r
mou n d . T h i s distu rbs the ants, wh ich then swa rm th rough
the bi rds' feathers. Some b i rds even gra b the biting ants
in their beaks and press them up into or ru b them onto
thei r feathers! The reasons for this u n usual behavior are
unclea r, but it's l ikely that the biting ants help to red uce
the itc h i ng or pa in from new feathers that a re g rowi ng,
and they may a lso repel infestations of feather l ice and
other ectoparasites.
Mild-mannered ants are seldom used for anting. Most
b i rds prefer a n ts that excrete such repu g n a n t fl u ids as
formic acid . Some b i rds use other strong-smel l i n g items
such as raw on ion, orange peel, wasps, beetles, coffee,
moth balls, cigarette butts, and even burning matches as
ant su bstitutes. Over 200 b i rd species from around the
world are known to "ant." These bi rds have used at least
24 different kinds of ants and over 40 substitute materials.
12

Sunning is a quick way

to warm up.

Northern
Oriole
active anting

" Anting" may help birds reduce the number of skin parasites.

BILL WIPING is a common behavior in which b i rds wipe

the i r beaks across a nea rby perch or rou g h s u rface to

r e m o v e e x c e s s f o o d . T h e b e h a v i o r u s u a l l y fo l l ow s
feed i n g , b u t it is s u c h a common behavior that it often
surfaces at u n usual times as a d i splacement behavior, an
i r rel eva n t and o u t- of - c o n text act t h a t o c c u r s d u r i n g
stressful situations. Bird s surprised b y a n intruder a t their
nest, for example, face the d i lemma of either fleeing the
nest site or defend i n g it from the i ntruder. Th i s conflict
often results i n the bird performing a d i splaced behavior
that makes n o sense at the time. Northern Ravens, for
example, will someti mes uproot chunks of g rass and fl ing
them over thei r shoulder i nstead of chasing a n i ntruder
f r o m t h e i r n e s t s . W h e n t h e y a re u n d e r s t re s s ,
d i splacement behaviors in other bird s may take the form
of bath ing, preen ing, nest-building, drinking, or sing i n g .
Sometimes bill wiping functions as a displacement behavior.

Panting permits heat to escape from a bird's moist mouth lining.

PANTI N G is one way birds can cool off. Un like humans

and most mamma ls, birds do not have sweat glands a n d
c a n not perspire t o h e l p cool themselves . I n stead they
expose t h e i r mouth lining to the a i r to release excess
h e a t . H e a t tra n sfer from the m o u th lin i n g is a very
effective w a y o f r e l e a sin g excess h e a t . In v e r y h o t
sit u a tio n s , b i r d s w i l l f u r t h e r d e c re a s e t h e i r b o d y
temperatu re b y fl uttering their th roat. This is a n especially
important behavior for baby birds whose nests may be
located in the tops of trees or in exposed places on the
ground where they cannot retreat to a cooler place.
The m ec h a nism fo r contro l ling p a n ti n g in bird s is
located in the mid b ra i n . I f the brain tem pera t u re in a
pigeon increases by 2 degrees (from 1 0 7 to 1 0 9 degrees
F), its breathing rate will make a dramatic increase from
46 to 150 times per minute. At this higher temperatu re, it
passes three times as much air over its mouth lining and
through its lungs and air sacs.

15

Sleeping Mallard
.,..._.._.
tucks head under
shoulder feathers.

Bluebirds conserve body heat by h uddling.

SLE E PI N G b i rds a re seldom seen beca use they usu a l ly

find out-of-the-way places to rest. Most land birds sleep

in the same habitat in which they nest, but they usu a l ly do
not sleep on the nest u n less they are incu batin g eggs.
Most woodpeckers, for exam p l e, excavate sepa rate
sleeping cavities i n wh ich they spend the night, but some
i n d ividuals prefer to sl eep i n a ba n d o n ed c u p-shaped
nests of robins and other bi rds. Catbi rds, robi ns, doves,
and jays usually roost in dense sh rubs and bushes.
Brown Creepers sleep by themselves, tucked into tree
bark, while blackbi rds and starlings prefer to sleep with
others of their kind i n large groups ca l l ed roosts. Their
winter roosts often contain a mi l l ion bi rds, and some have
been estimated to contain as mony as 1 5 mi l l ion . Sleepi ng
in l a rge roosts offers protec t i o n from s u c h n octu r n a l
predators a s owls.
Shorebirds, such as sandpipers, pelicans, ducks, geese,
a n d g u l l s, usu a l ly sleep on l a n d a t remote si tes-for
_

16

Flexor tendons help lock perching birds ' feet on branches for
sleeping.

insta nce, on islands or points of land. They a re safer there

from predatory mammals. Most water bi rds, such as gul ls,
terns, and ducks, sleep at night while floati ng at sea or on
a pond, lake, or river. Ruffed Grouse may sl eep in a
snowbank, wh ile the Eu ropean Swift sometimes sleeps i n
fl ight. Birds that roost on the ground, such a s t h e Northern
Bobwh ite, usu a l ly roost in a tight c i rcle and press the i r
bod ies close together t o share body heat. Cavity- nesti ng
b i rds, such as c h i ckad ees and b l u e b i rds, a lso h u d d l e
together in tree cavities a n d nest boxes.
Most b i rds h ave a cha racteristic sleeping postu re i n
which they lay their head o n their back a n d tuck their beak
i n to th e i r shou l d e r fea thers. Bi rds that perc h on open
branches lock themselves in place while they sleep. As the
bird squats on its tree-l imb roost while sleeping, the flexor
tendons automatically tighten the toes a round the perc h .
When the bird stands up, the flexor tendons relax, a n d the
bi rd's foot opens.
17

FEEDING BEH AVIORS

T h e bea ks of most b i rds a re spec i a l ized for eati n g a
parti c u l a r k i n d of food, but ca refu l observation shows
most eat a g reat va riety. Competition between spec ies is
avoided by feed ing at different times of the day or n i ght,
at d ifferent places on trees, at d i fferent water depths, or
even by probing at d ifferent depths into m u d .
H AW K I N G i s a m e t h o d o f c a tc h i n g f l y i n g i n se c ts .
Typical ly, a bird perches atop a ta l l tree o r a t the end of a
dead bra nch . It flies out, captu res a flyi n g i n sect, a n d
t h e n retu rns t o t h e sa me perch t o wa it for a nother. Cedar
Waxwings and such flycatchers as kingbi rds and Ol ive
s i d e d F l y c a tc h e rs c a p t u re l a r g e i n s e c ts s u c h a s
d ra g o n fl i es that come w i th i n ra n g e . Flycatc h e rs h ave
l a rg e, flattened beaks with which they snatch and g rip
their prey. Sensitive bristles a t the edges of their bea k
may help them determine when to open it, and a sharp
hook on the tip perm its them to keep a tight g rip.
Kingbirds capture their prey by hawking.

One type of gleaning: perched Black-throated Green Warbler

plucks insects and spiders from branches a nd twigs.

GLEAN I N G i s a type of i n sect-ca ptu r i n g b e h a v i o r i n

which the b i rd picks insects off leaves, stems, tree tru n ks,
and other su rfaces. Most sma l l i n sect-eati n g b i rd s, such
a s warblers, c h i c kadees, and titm ice, g l ea n while they
r e m a i n p e rc h e d . Re d - ey e d V i r e o s a n d s u c h s m a l l
flycatc h e rs a s t h e Lea st, Acad i a n , a n d W i l low s c a n
vegetation, the n f l y o u t a n d g r a b the i r p rey. Ki n g l ets,
Great Crested Flycatchers, and phoebes pick i nsects off
branches or wal l s wh i le hoveri ng. These variations perm it
closely related b i rds to find foods i n the same habitats.

19

Black-and-white
Warbler

White-breasted N uthatch
Woodcock probes deep in soil. Some birds probe
cracks i n tree bark.

PROB I N G is a feeding behavior in which birds reach into

tree ba rk, mud, or soi l in sea rch of insects a nd worms.
S h o r e b i r d s, s u c h as sa n d p i pe rs , d o w i tc h e rs, a n d
Common Snipes, get most o f their food by probing into
mud with their beak for worms and tiny crustacea ns. Each
kind of shorebi rd has either a d i fferent length beak or a
d ifferent ma nner or depth of probi n g .
T h ree m a s t e r p ro b e rs a re Americ a n Wood c o c ks,
Common Sn ipes, and dowitchers, but they live in d ifferent
habitats and thus avoid competition . Woodcocks frequent
overgrown, upland fields. The Common Sn ipe lives in wet,
swampy fields . Dowitc hers i n h a b i t open m u d f l a ts. A l l
probe deep into the soil and mud, a n d they c a n spread the
flexible tip of thei r beak to captu re worms and ether prey
u nderg rou n d . Nuthatches, Brown Creepers, a n d Black
and-white Wa rblers probe cracks and crevices in tree bark.
They avoid competi ng by probing from d i fferent ang les
and at different locations on tree trunks and branches.

20

Woodpeckers

Red-headed

Hairy

Downy
Woodpeckers use beaks
of different lengths to chisel.

CHISELI N G is the usual feed ing behavior of woodpeckers.

Thei r stout, stu rdy beak is wel l adapted for whacki ng at
wood. Most woodpeckers use their beak to open holes
through the ba rk to gain access to boring insects. Ha i rl ike
bristles protect the i r n ostri l s from flyi ng sawd ust a n d
wood chips. A cushioned sku l l prevents headaches.
Like the shorebi rds that have va rious length beaks for
probing at d ifferent depths into mud, woodpeckers have
d i ffe r e n t l e n g th beaks tha t perm i t a c c ess to i n sects
inhabiting various levels in the bark and tree interiors. They
a l so h a v e a v e r y l o n g , c o i l e d to n g u e. D o w n y
Woodpeckers, for example, have the shortest beaks and
make the sha l l owest intrusions. Thei r short beak a l lows
them to feed on very smal l twigs and even weed stalks that
are too sma ll for larger woodpeckers. In contrast, the crow
sized Pileated Woodpecker can chisel ma ny i nches into
t rees a n d c a n f l i n g w o o d c h i ps 3 i n ches l o n g .
Wood peckers depe n d o n the i r hea r i n g t o d e tect the
gnawing sounds of ca rpenter ants and wood-boring beetle
la rvae and the buzzing wings of overwi ntering cluster fl ies.

21

LEAF-TOSSING is a common feed i n g behavior of such

g ro u n d - feed i n g b i rd s a s towh ees, th r a s h e rs, W h i te

throated Spa rrows, Fox Sparrows, and Ruffed Grouse. By
scratc h i n g at loose leaves, these b i rd s expose beetles,
caterpillars, ants, and other h idden i n sects.
In a behavior cal led foot-raking, many kinds of herons,
eg rets, cranes, a n d storks use thei r feet to d i stu rb the
muddy bottom i n order to spook crayfish, tadpoles, small
fish, and other a n i mals into striking range. Wood Storks
sti r the bottom with their pink toes a n d then swing their
open beak through the muddy water to feel for moving fish.
Li kewi se, Snowy Eg rets sti r the bottom with the i r bright
yel low feet, which may help to spook smal l fish i nto striking
range . Foot-sta m p i n g i s a s i m i la r foot action u sed on
muddy so i l by Herri n g Gul l s and some c r a n e s . T h e i r
stamping creates rapid vibrations that cause earthworms to
come to the surface where they become easy prey.
Birds may use their feet to kick oside leoves
or other debris or to make a commotion
that stirs small animals into moving.
Rufous-sided Towhee

Common Nighthawk

rictal
bristles

Birds that sweep for their insect prey usually have sensitive rictal
bristles a nd a large mouth.

SWEEPING is a feed ing tec h n ique in which a fast-flyi ng

b i rd , such as a swa l low, nighthawk, or swift, opens its

beak, captu res its prey, and then swa llows the prey in
m i d-fl ight. These b i rds do not fly a bout looking for food
with the i r mouth wide open . They locate the i r p rey by
sight, then swoop in and open their beak j ust in time to
snap u p the flying insect. B i rds that feed in th is manner
h ave very l a rge mouths and surprisingly sma l l beaks .
Most also have a set of modified rictal bristles that look
more l ike eyelashes than feathers. These create a sensitive
"insect n et" a round the mouth . When an insect touches
the bristles, the b i rd q u ickly snaps it up.
23

DIVI N G bi rds, such as loons, grebes, puffi ns, and certa i n

d u cks, h ave many u n ique ad apta t i o n s . T h ey a re , fo r
example, heavier than su rface-swimming water birds of
the same size. They have solid bones and more massive
bod ies. Without this extra weight, d ivi ng b i rds wou ld be
too buoyant to d ive to great depths. Some penguins even
swa l l ow stones, presuma bly as ba l last to a c h i eve extra
we i g h t a n d easier con tro l u n d e r the water. Cylin d e r
shaped bod ies enha nce streaml i n i ng, a n d propellerlike
legs positioned fa r to the rea r help them i n powe rful
d ives . Some b i rd s even exte n d thei r w i n g s and "fly"
u n d e rwa te r. L a r g e a mo u n ts of fa t a n d d e n se down
insulate them from frigid water.
Some divers reach remarkable depths. Atlantic Puffi ns
may d ive to 200 feet. The Emperor Penguin, the la rgest
d iving bi rd, may dive to 8 75 feet. Most diving bi rds stay
under for less than a minute, but Emperor Penguins can
stay under for up to 18 mi nutes.
C l o s e l y r e l ated s p e c i e s d i v e to
d i fferent depth s , p r e s u m a b l y to
avoid competition for food.

Plunge-d ivi ng is another way of breaking through the

water surface. Buoyant bi rds, such as kingfishers, Brown
Pelicans, gannets, and boobies, plunge into the sea from
heights as great as 1 00 feet.
STOOPI N G is a high-speed aerial pu rsuit performed by
certa i n hawks, espec i a l ly l a rge fa lcons. The Pereg r i n e
Falcon is t h e most accompl ished. It c a n see sma l l birds at
least 3,000 feet away as i t h u n ts by flyi n g over open
h a b i tat. Peregri nes sta rt thei r stoop by pumpi ng th e i r
wings to build u p speed, then pu l l their wings pa rtway to
their sides and plunge downward . Bu ilding up speeds of
at least 1 75 mph, they usually snatch sma l l prey, such as
finches, from the a i r with their long, sharp ta lons. They
stun larger birds by punch ing them, using their feet like a
closed fist, then fol low their prey to the g round.
Peregrine Falcons can reach speeds o f 175 mph while stooping .

DABBLING is a common feed i n g behavior for surface

feed i n g d u cks, geese, and swa n s . In contrast to the i r

d ivi ng-duck relatives, dabb l i n g d u cks a re very buoyant
a n d u s u a l ly feed i n sha llow water where they typically
turn upside down-their legs kicking at the surface a n d
the i r ta i l po i n ted stra i g h t u p wh i l e they rea c h t o the
b o tto m of the m a r s h o r p o n d e d g e in s e a r c h o f
s u b m e rg e d p l a n ts , s m a l l f i s h , ta d po l e s , a n d s u c h
i nvertebrates a s i nsects, snails, a n d worms that hide i n
the m u d . Because their feet a re located towa rd the rear of
their body, d iving d ucks must run across the water to take
wi ng, while dabbl ing ducks can leap d i rectly into the a i r.
Geese sometimes dabble but usually g ra ze on land,
feed i n g on p l a n t s p ro u t s , s p i l l e d g ra i n , a n d s u c h
invertebrates a s earthworms and beetle larvae. I n contrast,
swans use their long necks to stretch to the pond bottom i n
sea rch of f o o d that i s genera l ly beyond the r e a c h of
dabbling ducks. I n th is way, competition is avoided.

Waterfowl avoid competing by feeding in different habitats and on

different foods.

Green-backed Herons sometimes use

bread as bait.

STALKING b i rd s walk slowly a long the grou n d or wade

through shallow water sea rching for their prey. American
Robins a ppea r to be l i sten ing for their quarry, but they
a re actually turning their head to get a better view as they
watch for slight movements that g ive away the location of
the worms. Then, with a sudden jab, they g ra b a n d pull
the worm to the su rface. Herons and plovers sta lk for
food i n d i ffere n t h a b i ta ts b u t feed i n a s i m i l a r way.
Herons walk s l owly through the s h a l l ow water look i n g
down for movement of a n unwary f i s h or frog, or they
may sta n d a n d wa i t. In a s i m i la r way, p l overs pa trol
beaches, j ust as robins stalk a lawn , a lways a lert for the
slightest m ovement. G reen-backed Herons h ave a novel
way of l u r i n g s m a l l fish with i n str i k i n g ra n g e. W h e n
bread or s i m i l a r ba it is ava i lable, they someti mes d rop a
piece on the surface and wait until fish come up for it.

27

Bald Eagles sometimes chase Ospreys, attempting to steal fish.

PIRACY occurs when one bird stea ls food from another.

Successfu l pirates a re usua l ly larger than the b i rds from

w h i c h they stea l . For example, Ba l d Eagles sometimes
c h ase Ospreys a n d make them d rop thei r prey. If the
pi rate is successfu l, it picks up the food (often intercepting
it i n mid a i r) and either eats it or carries it back to its nest.
Pi racy is most common during the nesti ng season when
food dema nds a re g reatest. Herring Gulls try to stea l food
from puffi ns if they get a chance, but puffins dash to their
n est w i t h fish a n d u s u a l l y make a d e l i v e r y w i t h o u t
interference. Frigatebi rds were even named for their habit
of tak i n g food on the w i n g . Like the i n famous frigate
sh ips, frigate b i rds wa i t fo r a n u n suspect i n g v i ctim to
retu rn to its nest ca rryi ng food, then swoop a fter the mea l
with rema rkable grace. They can sometimes tel l if another
b i rd is carrying food by l istening to the sounds it makes!
28

SCAVEN GI N G is the consumption of dead a n ima ls. Gulls,

c rows, rave n s, a n d v u l t u res a re t h e most common
scavengers. They clean up an ima ls kil led along h i ghways
and those that die in the field or along beaches. Likewise,
Ba ld Eagles often feed on fish carrion found along lakes
and rivers-especi a l ly in the winter when waterways are
f r o z e n a n d f i s h i n g f o r l i v e food i s d i f f i c u l t . M o s t
scavengers locate thei r prey b y keen eyesight, b u t Tu rkey
Vu ltu res can find food with thei r unusua l ly good sense of
smel l . They a re so dependent on locating food by smell
that they sometimes ignore ca rrion unless it g ives off an
appropriate odor. In con trast, Black Vu ltu res use the i r
keen eyesight for locati ng ca rrion . I n th is way, t h e two
species find different food and thus avoid competition.
Scavengers clean up roadside kills quickly.

American Crows

COOPERATIVE FEEDING
Someti mes m a n y i n d ivid u a l s of the s a m e or d i fferent
species g roup together i n a j o i n t feed i n g effort. Many
seabirds, such as terns and gannets, feed i n loose g roups
over schools of fish that may be chased to the surface by
even l a rg e r f i s h . F l a s h i n g w i n g s a n d p l u n g e-d i v i n g
a pparently help to signal that food i s at hand .
Feeding flocks of mixed species commonly occur when
schools of fish a re d i scovered; someti mes these g roups
work together and are thus more successful when fish ing.
Anh i ngas, cormorants, and pelicans may improve their
feeding efficiency by forming bands to drive schools of fish
into shallow water where they a re more easily captu red .
White Pelicans herd fish into shallows where they are easily
caught.

Cattle Egrets usually feed with cattle.

Sometimes th ese flocks s h ow o rg a n i zed, coord i n a ted

behavior. Groups of White Pelicans may form an a rc or
semic i rcu l a r pattern and swim towa rd shore, th rash i n g
their wings and herding sma l l fish i n front o f them. I n a
simi l a r way, American Avocets a n d Black-necked Stilts
sometimes fo rm impressive wedge-sh aped format i o n s
containing hundreds o f birds that beat t h e water with their
long, th i n beaks. Th is beating sti rs fish and insects to the
su rface and acts to confuse the prey wh ile increasing the
chances of an individual bird obtaining a meal .
Many birds also benefit by feeding near other a n imals
that serve as "beaters" for them. One study fou n d that
Cattle Eg rets feed ing beh ind cattle capture 3.6 times more
insects than do those that feed by themselves. Other birds,
such as g u l l s a n d c rows, have lea rned tha t worms a n d
g ru bs sti r red up b y tractors become easy mea ls. S u c h
benefits often lead to cooperative feed ing.
31

FOOD STORAGE
Res i d e n t ( n o n m i g ra to r y) b i rd s t h a t w i n te r i n h a rs h
habitats often store (cache) food. Food storing is vital for
ma ny c o l d - c l imate bi rds, suc h as titmice, c h i c ka dees,
nutc ra c kers, a n d jays. In l a te summer a n d fa l l, ma ny
nonmig ratory b i rds sta rt h i d i n g insects, g ra i ns, acorns,
and other foods in tree crevices, cracks i n ba rk, and holes
in the g round.
The energy devoted to storing food is often astounding.
For example, Acorn Woodpeckers dig a snug hole for each
stored acorn and may sometimes stash as many as 50,000
acorns in one tree! Even some predatory birds such as the
Northern Hawk-Owl a n d the Great Gray Owl w i l l
someti mes c a c h e mice o r other food i n h o l low trees.
Sh rikes store food on thorns or ba rbed wi re.
B i rd s t h a t bui l d up winter food c a c h es a re usua l ly
Acorn Woodpeckers sometimes store thousands of acorns.

32

N orthern Shrikes can remember

prey up to eight months later.

capable of digging up their buried treasure even

1t 1s
h idden by severa l inches of snow. One study fou nd that
Clark's Nutcrackers wi ll dig 8 inches through the snow to
u n cover seed c o n es t h a t were b u ried months e a r l i e r.
Likewise, shrikes can remember where they left thei r prey
up to e i g h t mo nths later. Some b i rds, such as C l a rk's
Nutcracker, show altruistic behavior by contributing pine
seeds a n d hazel n u ts to a commu n a l cache near th e i r
nesting area. The following spring, members o f the flock a l l
draw o n this food supply.
Some b i rds sta rt storing for the lean w i n te r months
during the fa ll when food is plentiful, but the food-storing
behavior i n some species, such as ravens, is triggered by
hunger. Hungry ravens are more likely to cache food tha n
are those that a re wel l fed . Si nce even very young ravens
store foo d , it is l i ke l y t h a t t h e c a c h i n g b e h a v i o r i s
insti nctive.
33

SOCIAL DISPLAYS
Even before a bird leaves its egg, it commu n icates with
appropriate behaviors. Some hatc h i ng chicks cause thei r
pa rents to switch from incubati ng to brood i n g behavior
by making sou nds, signa l i n g that they w i l l soon hatch .
After hatching, nestl i ngs exh ibit the proper behaviors i n
order t o be fed and brooded . Later, appropriate soc ial
behaviors are necessa ry when fi nding a mate .
Flocking species, such as blackbirds, waxwings, and
finches, must also interact with flock members. While such
behavi o rs as so l i c i t i n g food from parents a re c l ea rly
i nsti nctive, some species may learn mate selection a n d
m i g r a t i o n ski l l s . Bi rds commu n i cate w i t h e a c h o t h e r
through a complex series o f visual a n d sound displays that
col lectively represent their social behavior.
ROOSTS are places where bi rds sleep. Ma ny birds come
together at night because there is safety in n umbers from
predators and for the added adva ntage of shared body
h e a t . T h e prox i m i ty b i rd s to l e ra te w i t h e a c h o t h e r
depends in large part o n a i r temperatu re . On the coldest
winter nights, ten or more Eastern Bl uebirds w i l l huddle
together inside tree cavities and nest boxes. Likewise, on
cold nights, Inca Doves i n the southwestern Un ited States
are known to sleep i n a fea thery mass severa l layers
d eep . I n a simi l a r response, Common Bushtits usua l ly
perch on branches no closer than 2 inches apa rt, but on
u n u sua l ly cool w i n ter n i g h ts, they h u d d l e s h o u l d e r to
s h o u l d e r. S u c h s o c i a l h u d d l i n g may h a v e o t h er
adva ntages, however, since many tropical species, such
as Prong-bil led Ba rbets and wood-swa llows, a lso h uddle
tog e t h er o n tree bra n c h es even th o u g h t h ey l ive in
habitats that are far from frig i d .

34

Mallards sleep in large rafts on open water.

Some birds that live solitary lives by day roost
in large numbers at

F OR A G I N G F LOC K S o f l a n d b i rd s a re c o m m o n ,

especi a l ly during winter. Mixed flocks conta i n ing several

c h ickadees, titmice, woodpeckers, and nuthatches a re a
common sight in North American forests. Mixed -species
flocks conta i n i ng both nonmi g ra n ts a n d m i g r a n ts a lso
o c c u r in the tropi cs, w h e re seve ra l d ozen b i rds of a
d ozen or more spec ies may move th rou g h t h e fo rest
tog e t h e r. S u c h f l o ck i n g h e lps b i rd s a vo i d predatory
hawks, for ma ny more eyes are watching .
Birds can a lso find more food by feeding in flocks, as
they can spend more time searching for food and less time
watc h i ng for predators. Each spec ies in the mixed flock
feeds on a somewhat different food, and so there is usually
l i tt l e compet i t i o n . Some o r n i th o l o g i sts t h e o r i ze t h a t
blackbi rds, herons, a n d many colon ial water bi rds may
s h a re i n fo rma t i o n a b o u t food supp l i es . Fo r exampl e,
blackbirds, wh ich a re the fi rst to leave thei r roost in the
morn i n g, may be fol l owed by those looking for a new
feed ing place.
Many birds look for food in mixed foraging flocks.

dominant posture

Black-capped
Chickadees

submissive posture

Dominant chickadee usually opens its beak, holds its head

forward, and partly spreads its tai l and wings.

PEC K ORDE RS g ive soc i a l ra nk to b i rds by identify i n g

w h i c h b i rds a re dominant. T h i s soc ial h ierarchy is most
conspicuous among such b i rds as chickens, crows, a n d
shorebi rds t h a t spend most of their time i n flocks. Peck
orders also exist among family members.
S e x a n d a g e, fo r e x a mp l e, a re t h e d o m i n a n t
cha racteristics that defi ne domi na nce i n c h i ckadees a n d
titmice. Chickadees form sma l l winter flocks o f s i x t o ten
bi rds, with one pa i r domi nant. Often there are short chases
between members of the g roup, since the domi nant pa i r
esta b l ishes a h ierarchy i n w h i c h both t h e ma le a n d the
female become dominant over other flock members of their
sex. Dom i n a n ce b r i n g s with i t the benefits of p r i o r i ty
feed ing and watering opportu nities and the warmest spot
in the night roost. Most peck orders are established through
displays in which the dominant bird leans forward with its
beak open wh ile its wings and ta i l are partially spread.

37

Crows chase Great Horned Owls from their territories.

MOB B I N G is a gro u p effort in w h i c h b i rds c h ase a

pre d a tor. W h e n a pred a tor s u c h as a n owl, fox, or
human approaches too close to a n active bird nest, the
intruder may be greeted by alarm calls a nd chased by
ma n y n esti n g b i r d s . O w l s a r e fre q u e n t t a r g e ts for
mobb i n g . Most land birds are relatively defenseless at
dusk and during the night, but birds that chase owls from
their territories during day l i g h t are less l ikely to su ffer
predation from that owl after dark.
Terns are quick to take wing at the approach of a crow,
raven, hawk, or other predator. To ban ish an intruder from
their c o l o n y, d ozens may mou n t a n a ttack by d iv i n g,
screaming, and squirting excrement. Most flying predators
rea d i ly retreat from the sharp-beaked terns. Mobbing is
such a fundamenta l insti nct that birds can sometimes be
fooled into attacking decoy owls and snakes. Most birds,
h owever, soon recog n i ze the d i fferen c e between rea l
threats and imitations.

38

Killdeer lures predator away from nest.

DISTRACTION DISPLAYS can lead predators away from

the n ests a n d you n g of g ro u n d - nest i n g b i rds. Bi rds

varying i n size from the Ostrich to the Black-and-wh ite
Wa rbler sometimes l u re predators away from thei r nests
and you ng by strug g l i n g on the ground with one wing
outstretched and giving pitifu l cries as if the wing were
b roken. Predato rs, i n c l u d i n g h uma ns, cats, dogs, a n d
even snakes, usually sta lk t h e conspicuous adult only to
find that the "crippled" b i rd qu ickly "recovers."
T h i s distraction display at fi rst seems to be a good
example of an intel ligent, purposeful action, but it probably
results from a conflict of behaviors. Parent bi rds possibly
feel two responses: an impu lse to attack the predator to
defend the nest or young, and a desire to flee. The parent
is th rown i n to a fre n zy. Many gen erati o n s of n a tu ra l
selection have favored certain aspects o f the performance.
39

FAMILY LIFE
A l l bi rds lay eggs, and most bu i l d nests. W i th i n th ese
consta n ts, there is rema rka ble va riation in the ways i n
wh ich b i rds rea r their you ng. A t one extreme, Australian
Brush Turkeys lay their eggs in a g reat mou nd of rotti ng
vegeta t i o n , w h i c h wa rms the eggs. When t h e you n g
hatch, they d i g to t h e su rface a n d sta rt l i fe completely
i ndependent of thei r pa rents. At the opposite extreme,
frigatebi rds ca refu l ly incubate the i r single egg for a round
60 days and then feed the i r d ependent you n g ster for
more than a yea r after hatchi ng.
T E R R I T OR I E S a re d e f e n d e d a r eas used for feed i n g ,

sleepi ng, o r the rea ring o f you ng. An ima ls ra n g i ng i n

size from elephants to ti ny ants share the common need
for such private places. In a world crowded with so many
d i fferent kinds of a n ima ls, the need for ample private
space goes a long way toward ma inta i n i n g order. Si nce
this powerful d rive is one of the most widespread anima l
behaviors, it is not su rprisi ng that most b i rds establ ish
and ma inta i n territories in which they attem'p t to exclude
others of thei r species.
Nesting territories help insure adequate food for the
parents and young; protect the young from interference by
other members of their species; provide fami l iarity with
h a b i tat and th us i n c rease fora g i n g effic i ency; reg u l ate
popu lations by l imiting the number of pa i rs that can be
accommodated in a spec ific a rea; red uce l osses from
predation by scatte r i n g nests; identify a s i te to wh i c h
parents c a n retu rn i n su bseq u e n t yea rs, t h u s h e l p i ng
experienced bi rds to nest aga in in sites where they were
previously successfu l; and, final ly, reduce the chances of
having matings "stolen" by intruding males.
40

Male Indigo Buntings

defend their territory
by singing. If song is
ignored, they will
chase an intruder away,
past their territory's
border.

41

SIZES OF NESTIN G TERRITORIES vary depending upon the

q u a l i ty of the nesti ng habitat. Each spec ies has its own

preference for the "ideal" combi nation of food, water,
cover, and nest sites.
When bi rds find q u a l i ty habitat, they usu a l ly set up
r e l a t i v e l y sma l l t e r r i to r i es. Less d e s i rabl e h a b i t a t
necessitates larger territories, which a re more d ifficult to
defend a n d req u i re mo re effort by the resi dent bi rds.
Ovenbi rds, for example, prefer aspen forests i n Ontario,
where they usually have territories covering less than an
acre. In contrast, Ovenbi rds i n mature maple forests usually
defend territories that a re l a rger th a n 4 ac res. La rger
territories may, however, offer a greater va riety of foods
and thus provide backup food suppl ies.
Territory size may also change over the cou rse of the
breeding seaso n. One stu dy in Uta h fou n d that when
Black-capped Ch ickadees were building nests, the males

defended territories avera g i n g 5.8 acres, but the b i rds

u sed o n l y .9 a c res o f the te r r i to r y w h i l e t h ey were
i ncubating their eggs and rearing young. Once the young
left the nest, the families used about 2 acres.
In large areas of uniform habitat, such as forests and
g rassl a n d s, a l l su i ta b l e h a b i ta t is o ften o c c u p i e d by
a djacent territories that form a mosa i c ove r the l a n d .
Likewise, dippers, kingfishers, t h e Lou isiana Waterth rush,
and other birds that nest along streams often defend l i near
territories that follow the stream and extend only a few feet
up the banks. Colonial land bi rds, such as Purple Ma rtins
and Ba nk Swa l lows, typical ly defend only their nest site,
si nce they often feed far from the colony. Colon ial water
bi rds, such as herons, terns, and gulls, a lso nest with in a
few feet of thei r nearest neighbors. Like swallows that feed
far from the colony on patchy food supplies, these water
bi rds often travel mi les away from the nest to obtain food.
Song Spa rrows in a salt marsh establish and defend their own
individual territories.

Scale: 1 inch

1 87 feet

DEFENDI N G TERRITORIES While human territories (home

and country) are general ly defended by customs, physical

barriers, laws, and pol ice force, birds usual ly defend their
territories with song and d isplays of bright feathers. They
ra rely resort to combat.
I n s p r i n g , a d u l t m a l e s of most m i g ratory spec i e s
typica l ly retu rn t o thei r nesti ng h a b i ta t before fema les
a rrive. Red -wi nged Blackb i rds and Song Spa rrows a re
among the ea rliest arrivals. They sta rt singing soon after
retu rn i n g to fami l i a r h a u n ts. The fi rst ma les have thei r
choice of habitats, and they select territories where they are
most likely to attract a mate and rear young. Later arrivals
must occupy ma rginal habitat that may not have as much
food or cover or as many perches.
Early a rrivals can select prime nesting habitat, but they
r u n t h e r i sk o f a r r i v i n g b e f o r e food i s a va i l a b l e.
Woodcocks arriving too early, for example, can not probe
in the frozen soil for earthworms. Likewise, Purple Marti ns
someti mes arrive in the north before there are ample flyi ng
insects to sustain them, and thousands die from h unger.
SON G PLAY S A C E N T RAL R OLE i n t h e d e fe n s e o f

te r r i to r i es. When a ma l e fi rst c l a i ms h i s terri tory, h e

announces h i s i ntent to breed by singing from conspicuous
perches. Some bi rds not o n ly a n nounce the i r terr itorial
cla ims with song, but a lso flash bri l l iant colors. The Red
w i n g e d B l a ck b i rd , fo r exa m p l e, p r o d u c e s a h a r s h
"oka reee" c a l l , then d i splays h i s g a u d y red s h o u l d e r
patches. When h e is not actively defending his territory, h i s
red shoulders are typical ly hidden.
B i r d s on e s ta b l i s h e d te r r i to r i e s u s u a l l y h ave a n
advantage over intruding riva ls. Even i f the riva l i s larger,
stronger, and more colorfu l, it is generally discouraged by
the songs and chases of the resident male.
44

at rest

Red-winged Blackbirds
flutter their wings and
display flashy shoulder
epaulettes to advertise
their presence.

displaying
epaulettes

45

COURTSHI P STATIONS are territories where males d isplay

i n order to attract mates. Unl ike nesti ng territories where

ma les defend thei r space, mates, and nests and a lso find
food for thei r young, males that defend cou rtsh ip stations
on ly use the site to attract and ferti l ize mates. Males with
courtsh ip stations chase intruding males away and perform
elaborate rituals that advertise their presence. Birds such as
woodcocks, pra i rie-c h i ckens, and h umm i n g b i rds defend
courtsh ip stations rather than nesting territories.
American Woodcocks are a good example of a species
that uses cou rtship stations. For thei r sunset dance, male
woodcocks usua l l y sel ect a patc h of very short g rass
surrou nded by a brushy field. Each excited male parades
on h i s cou rti ng territo ry. After prod u c i n g severa l nasal
"peents," he bu rsts into a spiraling fl ight in which he may
climb to 300 feet, then drop like a falling leaf. This wild
display attracts females and discourages other males from
attempting to steal h is cou rting station .
I

,,
1 I
I I
I I
I I
1 I
I I

I
I
I
I
I
I

,,f/
It
I I
-....
...........
\
f
I\
---J-,.--..._

tI,..,

!"

\
\\
\\
\\

Male hummingbirds perform

courtship flights at locations
called courtship stations.

46

(
I

1/

'..::---

J I
I I

Hooded Warblers defend winter territories in the tropics.

WINTER TERRITORIES are the rule for ma ny land birds that

travel to the tropics during winter months. Long-d ista nce
migrants, such as the American Redstart, Hooded Warbler,
a n d N o rt h e r n Wa t e r t h r u s h , m i g ra te from n o r th e r n
deciduous forests i n the United States and winter i n tropica l
forests of Central America. These species sing songs similar
to those used on their nesti ng grounds and will actively
defend thei r territories from intrudi ng members of the i r
speci es. W i n ter territories a re a b o u t the same size as
breeding territories and usually occur i n simi lar habitats.
Wh ile ma les and fema les share their breed ing territory,
each sex defends its own winter territory.
S o m e n o n m i g r a n ts, s u c h a s t h e Red - h e a d e d
Woodpecker a n d the Plain Titmouse, also defend winter
territories. Ca rol ina Wrens typica lly form permanent pai r
bonds, a n d both sexes defend the territory th roughout the
yea r. Fema les watch for predators; the ma l e sings a n d

patrols the borders for intruding Carolina Wrens.

47

MATING
To breed successfu lly, most birds fi rst establ ish a territory
and then proceed to attract a mate of the proper species,
sex, and age. Time is of the essence for both ma le and
female, since most birds l ive only a few yea rs.
BREEDI N G AGE varies greatly from one species to the next,

but in general it is related to l i fe span . Song Spa rrows,

chickadees, finches, and most other backyard birds breed
fo r the fi rst time d u r i n g the fi rst spr i n g fo l lowi ng thei r
h a tc h i n g . T h ey a re o n l y a bout 1 0 or 1 1 months o l d .
Breeding at such a n ea rly a g e is importa nt since these
birds usually live only 2 to 3 years. In contrast, long-l ived
birds, such as puffins {which often live to 20 years} usually
do not breed unti l they are 5 or 6 years old. The Royal
Albatross may wa it until it is 1 1 years old.
Males and fema les usually breed at the same age, but
fema les sometimes breed a yea r ea rlier than do ma les.
With Red - w i n ged B l a c k b i rds and H e r r i n g G u l ls, for
example, males must compete with each other to establ ish
a nesting territory, and older birds often claim most of the
su i ta b l e h a b itat. In contrast, you ng fema les a re rea d i ly
accepted into established territories.
SU NLI GHT PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE in i n itiating the

nesti ng cycle. As day length increases in late winter, the

anterior pitu itary gland produces hormones that trigger the
gonads to produce sex hormones-a n d rogens in males
and estrogens in females.
Bi rds receive some light through their eyes, but they a lso
detect sunlight and changes i n day length through the skin
on top of their hea d . The red wavelength provides the
greatest stimulus to hormone production .
48

Male Red-winged Blackbirds

usually nest for the first time
when they are two years
females when they are
one year old.

Long-lived birds, such as the

Roya l Albatross, may not breed until
they are 1 1 years old.

Male Common Tern offers small fish to prospective mate.

f
Male Roseate Spoonbill offers nesting material.

COURTSHI P RITUALS permit birds to pa i r with a mate of

the same species that is at the same stage i n the breed ing
cyc l e. W h e n a ma l e Comm o n Te rn i s l o ok i n g for a
prospective mate, for example, he offers a sma l l fish. If the
fema le does not flutter her wings in a submissive posture
and swallow the fish, the male loses interest.
Male herons, spoonbil ls, pel icans, and cormorants pass
sticks or seaweed to prospective mates as a cou rtsh ip
ritual. If the female starts building a nest with the gift, the
pa ir wi l l probably proceed through the nesti ng cycle.
Food and nest-material offerings serve to demonstrate
the a b i l i ty of the ma le as a provider a n d may help the
fema le to assess the male's ski l l at finding food, a quality
that w i l l prove vita l once the young have hatched. Such
g i fts a re rem i n ders that i n nea rly all b i rd speci es, the
fema le is the one that actua l ly selects a mate, since she
accepts or rejects the in itial courtsh ip gestures.
50

male

female

Male and female Northern Flickers look almost identical.

BI RDS CAN OFTE N RECOGNIZE TH EIR MATES by subtle

d ifferences i n the size and proportion of beak and head
and by differences i n voca l izations. Species in which the
sexes h ave i d entica l pl umages, such as g a n n ets, g u l ls,
terns, and the Cedar Waxwing, are especially capable of
recogn izing such subtle characteristics.
A study usi ng Northern Fl ickers showed the importance
of these subtle pl umage d i fferences. Ma les and fema les
look almost identical, but the male has a whisker mark on
h i s f a c e, w h i l e t h e fema l e ' s face is u n ma r k e d . T h e
importance o f this mark for mate recogn ition became very
appa rent when resea rchers pa inted black whiskers onto a
fema le and released her near her nest. When the ma le
fo u n d t h i s bewh iskered fema l e back a t t h e i r n est, he
c h a sed her away, presuma b l y c o n fusi n g her with a n
i ntru d i n g ma l e . He d i d not accept the fema le u n t i l the
whisker marks were removed .

51

MON OGAMOU S PA I R BON DS a re t h e u s u a l m a t i n g

arrangement for most birds. I n this pa ir bond, one male

pa i rs with a single female, and the two cooperate to ra ise
young. This arrangement helps to insure that the eggs and
young receive adequate care, food, and protection during
the incubation and ch ick-rearing periods.

POLYGAMOUS PAI R BONDS, in wh ich one ma le or one

female mates with severa l members of the opposite sex, are
the rule for birds nesting in food-rich habitat.
Ma les often fo rm polygynous relationsh ips in which
each ma le mates with severa l fema les. Wh i l e the ma le
defends its territory from other male intruders, each female
incubates her clutch and rea rs the young with l i ttle help
from the ma le. Bobo l i nks, Red-winged Blackbi rds, a n d
Ri ng-necked Pheasants are polygynous.
More unusua l are polyandrous relationsh ips that occur
when a female pa irs with several males. A female Spotted
Sandpiper, for example, lays eggs in severa l nests, and
d ifferent ma les incubate each nest. Polyandrous fema les
maximize production by reducing time spent incubating
eggs and protecting young.
PROMISC UOU S MATI N GS also occ u r i n suc h food - rich

habitats as meadows and marshes. I n these relationsh ips,

males set up courti ng areas in wh ich they attract females
fo r m a t i n g . A fte r ma t i n g , t h e fema l es b u i l d a n est
somewhere n e a r by, i n c u ba te the eggs, and ra i se the
you n g . Woodcocks, hummi ngbi rds, and pra i rie-ch ickens
a re examples of b i rds that mate promiscuously. Fema les '
that rear young followi ng promiscuous mati ngs either have
very sma l l b roods, l i ke t h e h u mm i n g b i r d s, o r h a ve
precocial (well-developed) young that feed themselves, l ike
the pra irie-ch ickens.
52

Northern Cardinals, like most birds, have monogamous pair bands.

Ring-necked Pheasants have polygynous relationships.

Ruby-throated Hummingbirds mate promiscuously.

N E ST H E LPE RS occ u r amo n g ma ny spe c i es, i n c l u d i n g

certa i n k i n g fishers, hawks, jays, ta nagers, a n d wrens.

Helpers a re gen era l ly you n g e r a d u l ts t h a t assist the i r
parents i n rearing nestl ings.
Some colon ial bi rds, such as White-fronted Bee-eaters
of eastern Africa, l ive in groups of 200 b i rds associated
with only 30 to 60 nests. About half the pa irs in the colony
a re a s s i sted by h e l pe rs t h a t a r e u s u a l l y so n s a n d
daughters. Ma ny sol ita ry species, such a s the Southern
House Wren and the Australian Kookaburras, also have
helpers at thei r nest.
Helpers genera l ly do a l l of the usu a l nest-associated
b e h a v i o rs, s u c h as b u i l d i n g n ests, i n c u ba ti n g e g g s,
guarding nestl ings, cleaning the nest, and feed ing young.
With such help, it's not surprising that several studies have
shown that pa i rs with nest helpers can rea r more you ng
than those without helpers. Kookabu rras without helpers,
for example, ra ised an average of 1 . 2 you ng per nest;
pa irs with helpers ra ised 2 . 3 young per nest.
Helping behavior seems to be altru istic in that it is of no
obvious benefit to the helper, but recent studies with bee
eaters have shown that fathers often break up the nests of
thei r one- and two-year-old sons, forcing the offspri ng to
abandon their own nest and help the parents ra ise another
brood. Long-term stud ies have genera l ly shown that most
helpers a re wa iting for an opportunity to breed and that
once they get a cha nce to nest, they soon set up territories
and start rearing their own young.
Wh ile most helpers assist thei r parents, there a re a lso
many examp l es of a d u l ts feed i n g yo u n g of d i fferent
spec ies. Pa rent Ba rn Swa l l ows may, fo r example, feed
fledgling Cliff Swallows. Robins have been known to feed
young grackles. Northern Cardinals that have lost young
have even fed gulping goldfish in a backyard pool!
54

Young White-fronted
Bee-eaters (above)
and Florida Scrub Jays
(below) help parents
rear the next
generation.

BUILDING A NEST
The location, size, and d imensions of a nest reflect the size
of the fami ly and such factors as weather extremes, threats
from predators, and availabil ity of nesti ng materials. The
nest is the focus of family life.
LOCATION has a great influence on the size and shape of
the nest. Beach-nesti ng bi rds, such as the Piping Plover and
the Least Tern, h ide their speckled eggs by simply making a
scrape in bare sand. The females of most ground-nesting
bi rds, such as Bobol inks, ducks, grouse, meadowla rks, and
sparrows, have well-camouflaged, striped backs, a pattern
that h elps h i de the location of the nest. These parents
typical ly sit so tight wh ile incubating that a predator may
pass with i n inches of the nest before the parent flushes.
When threatened by predators, ground-nesting birds may
d ive aggressively or lure the predator away with distraction
displays {p. 39).
Many b i rds a re very picky when selecti ng nest sites.
Cactus Wre n s, for exa m p l e, o r i e n t t h e i r n est i n o n e
direction i n spring to avoid cold winds, in another d i rection
in summer to expose the nest to cooling breezes.
Many spec ies put th e i r nests in locations th at offer
protection from predators. No rthern Mocki n g b i rds, for
example, usual ly nest in thorny shrubs, wh ile birds ranging
in size from chickadees to condors nest in tree cavities. A
few bi rds, such as !<ingfishers, puffi ns, and petrels, d i g
burrows t o avoid predators. Larger species, such as Great
Blue Herons, usual ly build their nests in the tops of trees,
preferably on islands, where they are safest from such tree
cl imbing predators as raccoons. Some tropical birds locate
their nests in the wa l l s of the nests of stinging ants and
wasps!

56

Least Terns dive at predators.

American Woodcock

Ground-nesting birds rely on camouAaged plumage.

Some birds nest in dense, thorny shrubs.

Northern Mockingbird

COLONIAL NESTIN G is the rule for seabirds. While land

birds usua l ly h ave large territories in which they col lect

food to raise their young, seabirds genera l ly feed fa r from
their nests and only defend the immediate nest site from
neigh bors in the colony. Bank Swallows and other colonial
land birds that feed far from their nests select predator-safe
habitats such as burrows in stream banks.
Colon ial seabirds crowd together in part because safe
nesting a reas a re often sca rce, but colonia l nesting also
makes it easier to avoid predators since the whole colony
watches for and chases them.
Colonial nesting also provides g roup stimu lation and
syn c h rony { events happen i n g a t the same time) . In a
colony, synchrony is important because it permits most of
the eggs and young to be produced within a narrow time
frame. This has the effect of swamping predators with large
amounts of potentia l prey within a sma l l period of time.
Some eggs and young a re usual ly taken by predators, but
Bank Swallows are among the few land birds that nest in colonies .

......

Common Terns ore safer nesting in large colonies.

the losses are less when most of the eggs and young are
produced over a short period. Colon ial nesters a lso share
information about the location of food supplies.
Colon ial nesti ng does have disadvantages, however, for
it creates stiff competition for nest sites with i n the colony.
Often some members are forced to nest in marginal sites.
Others may not be able to nest because of a sca rci ty of
nesti ng sites, and sometimes it is difficult for bi rds to obtain
ample nesting materials.
Other disadva ntages include neighboring parents that
sometimes attack young that wander outside of their own
small nest site, as well as the increased risk of disease and
parasi tes due to the c rowded conditions. Fo r sea bi rds,
however, the benefits of colon ial nesti ng far outweigh the
problems, and 93 percent of them nest in colonies.
59

Blue-gray Gnatcatchers attach lichens ta their nests.

NESTING MATERIALS tel l a great deal a bout bird habits.

Most land birds build the foundation of their nest from such
coarse materials as sticks, bark, or plant fibers. Then they
l i ne the interior with down feathers, fine g rasses, pla nt
down, an imal hair, or other soft material .
One study found that 78 percent o f land-bird nests are
l i n ed w i t h mamma l h a i r. Green l eaves a re a n ot h e r
frequently used l i n i ng. These may provide moisture during
i n cubation and decrease the number of mites and other
parasitic insects in the nest.
Some woodland birds, such as hummi ngbi rds, the Blue
g ra y G n a tc a tc h e r, a n d t h e E a st e r n Wo o d - Pewee,
camouflage the exterior of thei r nests with la rge, leafy
lichens secured with spider webs.
Birds that l ive near humans often i ncorporate plastics in
their nests . Cormora nts, for example, collect sections of
lobster line and buoys, wh ich they add to seaweed and
60

Bald Eagles may add to the same nest for 35 years.

other floating debris. In a simi lar way, many species use

cellophane, candy wrappers, cigarette filters, letters, and
plastics of va rious sizes, shapes, and colors. The Great
Crested Flycatcher and other species that typically i nclude
the shed skins of snakes in their nests seem especially fond
of cellophane and other transparent plastics. One Carolina
Wren's nest was composed mostly of hairpins!
B i rd n ests a re a tri b u te to a v i a n in d u stry. H o use
Spa rrows' nests, for example, may contain as ma ny as
1 ,280 pieces of grass and feathers, and each item may
represent an individual delivery. Barn Swa llows may make
1 ,200 trips in order to deliver enough mud for their nests.
Most birds build new nests each year, but some large
birds, l ike eag les and Ospreys, keep adding to their nests
every yea r. Ba ld Eag les b u i l d the la rgest nests in North
America, some reaching d imensions of 20 feet deep and
9.5 feet wide.
61

BIRDS BUILD THEIR NESTS by using their beak, feet, and

breast. For most bi rds the beak is the ma i n tool. It is used to

break off branches or to pick up nesti ng material that is
then carried to the nest. Some bi rds use t h e i r beak to
weave materials into intricate forms, l ike the sackl ike nests
of o r i o les a n d the masterfu l l y woven nests of weaver
fi nches.
American Robins use their breast, l egs, and beak to
help fash ion the interior of their mud-cup nest. When a
female bui lds a new nest over a previous year's nest, she
carries new mud {sometimes from distances a quarter of a
mile away) and plasters th is inside the old nest cup. Then
she brings in grasses and drops them into the bottom of the
nest. She sits in the nest, pressing her breast forward, while
kicki ng backwa rd with her feet and using her beak to tuck
the grasses into the mud to form a soft grass l i n ing.
African weavers construct elaborate nesting chambers.

Bu rrowing birds, such as puffi ns, petrels, and Burrowing

Owls, fi rst pec k a t the so i l and then use t h e i r feet to
excavate the i r deep burrows. Large bi rds, such as eagles
and Ospreys, ca rry large branches i n thei r feet, but feet
are not nearly as important as beaks in nest building.
The length of time it takes to build a nest varies with the
nest' s size and complexity. Golden Eagles may req u i re two
months to build a nest, but si nce they reuse the nest with
only m i nor patc h i n g each yea r, it may last the i r l i feti me.
Orope n d o l a s, l a rg e trop i c a l members of th e b l a c kb i rd
fam i ly, spend three to fou r weeks building thei r 3-foot- long,
pou c h l i ke n est. In con tra st, s m a l l l a n d b i rds, s u c h a s
Northern Cardinals, Gray Catbi rds, and Northern Orioles,
c a n u s u a l l y c o m p l ete t h e i r n e s t i n l e s s t h a n a week.
Mockingbirds a re especially fast at nest-building and can
often complete their nest i n only one or two days.
Manx Shearwater digs burrow.

Chimney Swift glues

twigs together with
sticky saliva.

63

EGGS
B i rds typica l ly lay on ly a few eggs. They incubate the eggs
and then feed and protect the you ng. Th i s is in contrast to
such egg layers as codfish, which may lay as many as 1 0
m i l l ion eggs that a re left at the mercy of the sea, or sea
turtles, wh ich may lay 1 00 eggs and then abandon them in
a beach-sand nest.
FORMATION OF EGGS beg i n s i n
a b i rd ' s ova ry. U n l i ke m o s t
v e r te b r a t e s ( a n i m a l s t h a t h a v e
backbones), only t h e left ovary is
functional i n b i rd s . The loss of the
right ova ry i s probably associated
with we i g h t reduction for f l i g h t .
T h e ovary of a two-week-old Red
wi nged Blackbird al ready conta i n s
a b o u t 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 o ii c y t e s , t h e
microscopic cells that develop into
eggs. D u r i n g the Red -wi n g ' s
l i fe t i m e , o n l y a b o u t 5 0 o f these
w i l l m a t u r e to form e g g s . T h e
others a re reabsorbed.
As day length i n c reases, the size
of the reproductive system greatly
i n c reases i n both the male and the
female. Courts h i p with a male and
t h e l o n g e r days o f s p r i n g a n d
early summer sti mu late females to
p r o d u c e h i g h e r leve l s of the
h o r m o n e estrog e n . T h i s triggers
o v u l a t i o n- t h e r u p t u r i n g o f an
ovum (yol k ) from the ovary a n d
t h e beg i n n i ng of i t s descent down
the oviduct. It then takes about 24
h o u rs for the yolk to accumulate
a l b u men (egg white) and a shel l .
Ferti l i zation o c c u r s before the
a l b u men a n d shell a re added to
the ovum . A sperm un ites with an

64

ovu m soon alter it enters the cup

shaped i nfund i b u l u m at the top of
the long, convoluted oviduct.
The next and longest section of
the oviduct is the magn u m . In most
s ma l l - a n d m ed i u m - s i zed b i rd s ,
t h e e g g stays i n t h e mag n u m for
a b o u t t h ree h o u r s . D u r i n g th i s
time, most o f the a l b u men i s
a d d e d . The a l b u m e n c o n s i sts of
a b o u t 88 p e r c e n t w a t e r, 1 0
percent a m i n o a c i d s , a n d trace
amounts of m i nera l s . I t keeps the
embryo from drying out and helps
to cushion the yol k.
In the i s th m u s , the deve l o p i n g
e g g receives t h e i n ne r a n d oute r
s h e l l membranes.
The h a rd outer shell is added i n
t h e uterus, where t h e e g g spends
its final 21 hours.
F o r most s p ec i e s , b a c k g r o u n d
color and m a r k i n g s a re deposited
d u r i n g the l a st few h o u r s in the
u te r u s . The m a i n factor d e t e r
m i n i n g whether a n e g g w i l l h ave
s p e c k l e s , s t r e a k s , or s q u i g g l e
markings seems to b e the motion
of the egg a s it contacts pigment
g l a n d s in the u te r u s . P i g m e n t is
often concentrated i n a ring at the
widest part of the egg .

Female Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

'A---- ovary
-- infundibulum

testis

kidney

oviduct
isthmus

ureter
vas deferens
cloaca

uterus
vagina

non breeding
condition

breeding
condition

The size of the reproductive organs increases

dramatically as day length increases.

65

MOST BIRDS lAY THEIR EGGS early in the morning, after

the shell has formed at night while the birds are quiet or
sleeping. Some birds, such as the Ovenbird and the Cedar
Waxw i n g , typ i ca l ly l a y th e i r eggs befo re s u n r i s e . In
contrast, some gulls and pheasants lay their eggs in the
afternoon or evening.
Small perch ing birds, woodpeckers, and many ducks
and geese usual ly lay one egg each day until their clutch is
complete. Such larger birds as swans, herons, storks, and
the Ostrich may take two days to form a new egg .
Once a n e g g i s fu l ly formed , the laying takes place
rather quickly. Brown-headed Cowbi rds and other brood
parasitic birds that lay their eggs in other birds' nests, for
exa m p le, can lay the i r eggs in only a few seconds . A
Northern Bobwhite, however, takes as long as ten minutes
to lay an egg. Geese, turkeys, and other large birds may
labor for an hour or longer to lay an egg.
In all b i rds, the painted end of the egg usually emerges
first.
E G G C OL OR i s b e l i eved to b e a r e l a t i v e l y recent
d e ve l o p m ent. An c estra l b i rd s m i l l ions o f yea rs ago
probably had white eggs, as do modern reptiles. The wide
va riety of egg colors in today' s b i rd s may be a i d s in
preventing predation or in distinguishing eggs from those
of neighbors.
Among l iving b i rds, wh ite eggs a re l i m ited to cavity
nesting birds, to herons, doves, hummingbirds, nighthawks,
and others that begin incubation i m mediately after their
eggs a re laid, and to ducks, geese, and others that cover
their eggs with down each time they leave.
The Common Murre, a seabird that nests in c rowded
colonies but makes no nest, can recognize its own eggs by
their characteristic pattern of squiggles. If the eggs from

66

two fem a l es a re exch anged, neither w i l l i n c u bate the

mismatched eggs but instead begin immediately searching
for their own.
In contrast, experiments have shown that many species,
such as Herring Gulls, wil l incubate wooden eggs of varied
sizes, colors, and shapes. Herring Gulls will even attempt
to incubate rectangular or prism-shaped eggs, then reject
them. This suggests that "feel " is as important as color.
Egg colors usually serve an adaptive function. The markings on
Common Murre eggs below help each bird identify its own eggs.

MacGillivray's
Warbler

r.:::::

&:;;c
ker
\

Gray Catbird

E G G SIZE of no living b i rd equals the h uge eggs of the

now-extinct Elephant Bird of Madagascar. These big birds,

w h i c h stood up to 1 0 feet ta l l , were exte r m i n a ted by
pri m itive h u ma n s, but s h e l l rem na nts h ave been fou n d
m ea s u r i n g 1 3 . 5 i n c h e s l o n g a n d 9 . 5 i n c h e s i n
diameter-large enough to hold about two gallons. Th i s
enormous egg contrasts d ramatica l ly with t h e 0.5- inch-long
eg g s of the t i n y Verva i n H u m m i n g b i rd, w h i c h l ives i n
Jama ica . The Elephant B i rd ' s egg, which weighed about
1 8 pou nds, was large enough to hold as many as 50,000
Vervai n Hummingbird eggs !
Among l iving birds, the record for the largest egg goes
to the Ostrich : a bout 6.8 inches long and 5 . 4 i n ches i n
d i a meter. Among flyi ng b i rds, t h e Wa nderi n g Albatross
l a y s t h e l a rg e s t : 5 . 7 i n c h e s l o n g a n d 3 . 5 i n c h e s i n
d i a m eter. E g g s o f the Ca l i forn i a C o n d o r a re a c l ose
second : 4.3 inches long and 2.6 inches i n diameter.
B i rd s that h ave l o n g i n c u bati o n periods a n d hatch
precocial, or wel l-developed, nestl ings, such a s chickens,
ducks, and shorebi rds, typical ly have larger eggs than do
such b i rds as crows and herons that, in proportion to their
s i ze, lay s m a l l egg s . T hei r less-developed, o r a l tri c i a l ,
young spend a longer time in the nest.

68

largest and smallest known bird eggs

Brown Pelican

Pelica ns, cormorants, and boobies incu bate their eggs under the
warm webs of their feet.

BROOD PATCHES a re bare a reas on a bird ' s belly that a re

pressed a g a i n st t h e e g g s fo r i n c u ba t i o n . D u r i n g t h e
breed i n g sea s o n , b i rd s m o l t t h e down ove r the b rood
patc h , a n d the blood vessels under the skin i n th i s a rea
become swollen. The wa rm blood c i rculated close to the
skin of the patch keeps the egg or eggs warm.
I n most land birds, only the female i ncubates the eggs,
and the male does not develop a brood patch. In most
shorebi rds and seabirds, males share the incubation task,
and so both male and female develop one or more brood
patc h e s . I f the m a l e does a l l of the i n c u bati n g , a s i n
Spotted Sandpi pers, only the ma les develop brood patches.
I ncreasing day length triggers a rise in hormone levels.
The hormones i n turn trigger the molting of belly down to
expose the brood patch and the u n derlyi n g s k i n tha t i s
flushed with wa rm blood vessels. I n contrast, ducks a n d
geese d o not molt their down but pluck i t out a n d use i t a s
a nest l i n i n g to keep their eggs wa rm. Some water birds,
l i ke g a n n ets a n d pel i c a n s , d o not s a c r i f i c e t h e wa rm
protection of their belly down but i n stead incu bate the i r
eggs u n d e r the webs of the i r feet, th rough wh ich blood
passes much as it does through a brood patch.

69

SIZE OF THE CLUTCH, or the number of eggs in a bird ' s

nest, depends largely upon the amount and availabil ity of

food that the parent has for form ing the eggs and then
feeding the young. Gannets, puffi ns, petrels, a lbatrosses,
and other seabirds that feed far from their nesting islands
lay only one egg each year. In general, these parents have
a h igh success rate in rearing their single young.
Quail, grouse, and ducks, in contrast, may lay ten or
more eg g s , a n d th e i r precoc i a l yo u n g beg i n feed i n g
themselves soon after hatching. For these birds, the role of
the parent s h i fts from that of food provider to that of
guardian, providing protection from the weather and from
predators. Because these birds do not nest in areas secure
from predators as do seabirds that nest on remote islands,
a h igher percentage of young are lost to predators. The net
production from their many-egg clutches may be no higher
than that of island-nesting seabirds that lay only one egg .
The number o f eggs birds typica l ly lay in each clutch
represents an attempt to produce the maxi mum number of
young possible without decreasing the hea lth conditions of
either the young or the parents. Birds that lay only one egg
u s u a l ly l ive l o n g e r than do b i rd s that prod uce l a rge
cl utches. Some storm- petrels and puffi ns, as exa mples,
often l ive for more than 20 years. Though they lay only one
egg each year, they make up for th is low production by
producing young over many yea rs and rea ring them i n
protected burrows on remote islands.
Some species lay more eggs in years when food is more
abundant. Hawks and owls, for example, generally lay a
greater number in years of high rodent populations. This
trend i s especially noticeable in Snowy Owls that nest in
the fa r north where there a re l a rge fluctuations i n the
n u mbers of lemmings, the small rodents that a re the i r
principal food . I n years o f pea k l em m i n g popu lations,

70

Ruffed Grouse lay large clutches.

Snowy Owls may lay twice as many eggs as in years when

the lemming popu lation is average. When the lem m i n g
population is at a low, the owls may not breed .
The length of the breeding season a lso i n fluences the
n u m be r of eggs l a i d . For exa mple, res i d e n t or s h o rt
d istance migrant land birds, such as American Robins and
Mourning Doves, have two or more clutches each year .
Domestic chickens a re wel l known for thei r a b i l ity to
continue laying eggs as long as the eggs are removed soon
after they a re laid. Th is is cal led indeterminant laying, and
it is a common trait of many wild birds. Flickers have laid
as many as 71 eggs i n 73 days i n trying to build a clutch
of 4 eggs.
Most b i rds, i n cl u d i n g such va ried species a s d oves,
shorebi rds, and eagles, do not have the abil ity to produce
eggs continuously. They are called determ i nate layers, and
if part of the clutch is removed, they wil l usual ly continue to
incubate the remaining egg or eggs without rebu ilding the
clutch . If an enti re clutch is removed early i n the season,
determinate layers wil l generally lay a replacement clutch
in a new nest built elsewhere in their nesting territory. If the
eggs a re lost late i n the season, determinate layers usually
abandon their nesting efforts for that season.
71

1 9 days old

At time of laying

Lengthwise Sections of Domestic Chicken Eggs

INCUBATION in birds is similar to pregnancy in mammals.

I n both, th i s i s a time when development of the you ng

depends total ly upon the parents, who provide wa rmth and
protection for their g rowing young. In mammals, food and
wastes a re transported by the mother' s blood, but i n bi rds,
the food is prepackaged in the form of the egg yol k. When
a parent bird tu rns an egg, the chalaza suspends the yol k
i n t h e center of t h e egg. Body wastes from t h e g rowi ng
embryo a re accu m u lated as uric acid i n the a l l a ntoi s, a
large " bladder" at the egg ' s pointed end. Carbon dioxide,
a product of embryo respi ration, passes th roug h the shell
membranes and shel l .
Usual ly both sexes incubate the eggs. Exceptions include
those where one sex is conspicuously colored and the other
72

Northern Cardinal male feeds its mate on the nest.

h a s c a m o u f l a g e d p l u m a g e. I n s e x u a l l y d i m o r p h i c
s o n g b i rd s, t h e m a l e s p e n d s m o re t i m e d e fe n d i n g t h e
territory, wh ile t h e female b u i l d s t h e nest.
Brightly colored male songbi rds, such as tanagers and
wa rble rs, ra rely sit on nests, but th ey often feed th e i r
somber-colored mates wh ile they incubate. This enables the
female to rema i n on the nest and perm its more constant
incubation. Such mate-feed ing also serves to prepa re the
male for the pending task of collecti ng food for the young,
and it also helps to reinforce the pa i r-bonding.
Among seabirds, the male usual ly shares equal ly i n the
i ncubati ng task. For seabird s that feed nea r the i r nesti ng
isla nds, such as the Double-crested Cormora nt, the parents
may exchange places on the nest every one to th ree hours.
For sea b i rd s that feed fa r from th e i r n esti n g colo n i es,
i ncubation stints a re much longer. Dark-rumped Petrels, as
an example, i ncubate their egg for about 1 2 days before
switching places with their mate.
73

EGG TEMPERATURE is controlled by the parents arranging

their incubation stints so that the eggs are a lways tended .

As a n extre m e c a s e , E mpero r Pe n g u i n s a re a b l e to
maintai n their eggs at 93 degrees F for eight or n ine weeks
in the rigors of the Antarctic. The male accomplishes this by
balancing the egg on top of h i s feet a n d pressing it up
against his brood patch. He may transfer the egg from one
foot to the other and even shuffle about i n the colony, but
he cannot let the egg slip off his foot while i ncubating.
At a n opposite extreme, developing embryos of the little
Fork-tai led Storm-petrel can tolerate cooling to 50 degrees
F for as long as 28 days while the parents a re away.
Embryos of the Common Murre, chickens, and probably
many other birds make a variety of sounds inside the egg,
but they have one particular sound that a lerts the parents
to resume incubation when the embryos become too cold.
E G G - T U R N I N G m a y a l so h e l p
control egg tem perature. Mallard s
t u r n thei r e g g s every 40 m i n u tes.
A m e r i c a n R e d s ta r t s a n d o t h e r
s m a l l b i rd s t u r n t h e i r e g g s more
f re q u e n tl y . The tu r n i n g a l s o
prevents the embryo from sticking
to the shell membrane.

OV E R H E AT I N G OF EGGS i s a
problem for b i rd s n e sti ng in hot,
o p e n p l a c e s . S o m e t ro p i c a l
sea b i rd s w ill stand over thei r eggs
to shade them. Killdeers sometimes
cool th e i r e g g s b y f i r s t wett i n g
t h e i r b r e a s t lea t h e r s a n d t h e n
dripping the water onto the eggs.

Kentucky Warbler

Ground-nesters have shorter incubation

periods than cavity-nesters.

INCUBATION TIME depends upon the security of the nest

site. Seabirds that nest on remote islands and particularly
those that nest in u nderg round bu rrows h ave very long
i ncubation periods. Storm-petrels, for example, incubate
their eggs for 38 to 56 days. Albatrosses hold the record,
incubating their eggs for 81 days! As a general rule, the
larger the bird, the longer its incubation period.
Land bird s show a tendency for short incubation when
thei r nests a re vulnerable to predators. Thus, b i rd s that
build open-topped nests on the ground have the shortest
incu bation periods. In N orth Ameri c a , c a v i ty-nesting
species have an average incubation period of nearly 1 4
days as opposed to open-nesting land birds, which have
an average incubation period of 1 2 days. The parasitic
Brown-headed Cowbi rd ' s egg has an incubation of only
1 1 days. Thi s g ives the young cowbi rd an edge over the
nestlings with which it shares its foster home.

75

CARE OF YOUNG
HATCHING occu rs when the young b i rd pierces its shell
with its egg tooth, a horny g rowth at the tip of i ts b i l l .
Young birds also have a strong muscle o n the back o f their
neck. Cal led the hatc h i n g m u scle, it g ives them added
power for brea k i n g through the shel l . Th i s action, p l u s
struggling and kicking, eventually frees t h e b i rd from its
shel l . B i rds that hatch in open nests, like most sparrows and
quail, can break out of thei r eg g in a few minutes or within
a day, but c revice-nesting bi rds, such as the Wi nter Wren,
may take two or more days to brea k out.
BROODING i s a tra n s ition period in w h i c h the parents
keep the young wa rm, as they did i n i ncubation . Young
b i r d s t h a t d ev e l o p d ow n y p l u m a g e s s o o n a ft e r
h a tc h i n g - g ro u s e , p h e a s a n ts , a n d s h o re b i rd s a re
exa mples-ca n mai nta i n the i r own tem perature with i n a
few days, b u t b i rd s t h a t a re n a ked a t h a tc h i n g , l i ke
chickadees and phoebes, cannot mainta i n their own body
tem perature u ntil they a re nine or ten days old.
FEEDING THE YOUNG i s genera l ly the respo n s i b i l i ty of
both parents. Yet precocial young, such a s K i l ldeer and
grouse, can start picking up food items of their own with i n
hours o f hatching. Altricial young a re dependent upon thei r
parents to p rovide food . Such young usually encou rage
parents to feed by open ing their mouth wide wh ile at the
sa m e t i m e q u ive r i n g the i r w i n g s a n d utte r i n g pecu l i a r
begging calls. The mouth lining o f young a ltricial birds i s
usually brightly colored and often conta i ns bright "ta rgets"
that e l i c i t a feed i n g response from t h e p a re n t s . These
targets and the color of the mouth l in ing fade as the young
mature and become independent.

egg tooth

Views from inside and outside egg

Rufous-sided Towhee
(western)

Most young nestlings have feeding

targets in their brightly colored mouth.

KEEPING THE NEST CLEAN helps reduce the danger from

p redators a n d provides a healthy envi ronment for the

growing ch icks. Young predatory birds, such as hawks and
eagles, move back to the edge of their nest, raise their tail,
bend forward, and shoot their excrement over the side of
the nest. In a similar way, the young of birds that nest in.
barns, caves, sea cliffs, and similar predator-safe habitats
also squ i rt their droppings over the side of the nest.
Most b i rds go to g reat lengths to remove excrement
from the nest to keep the site clean and more difficult for
predators to locate. Excrement of most small land birds is
neatly sealed i n a membrane known as a fecal sac. Many
small land birds gently pull the fecal sac from their young.
Eastern Bluebirds usually recycle nutrients in the excrement
by swal lowing the fecal sacs unti l the young are about six
days old. After that age, the parents carry the sacs 20 to
50 yards away from the nest and drop them.
Bluebirds keep nest clean by
removi ng fecal sacs from young
and disposing of them.

78

Yellow-rumped Warbler

Most song birds fee d their young for at least a week after Red

g.

WHEN YOUNG LEAVE the nest, they a re usual ly as large

as t h e i r pa rents . Occa s i o n a l ly, if they h a ve h a d l i ttle

exercise and plenty of food wh ile in the nest, young birds
may be even h eavier than their parents. Most land birds,
such as sparrows and warblers, stay with their parents for
at least a week after fledging, or leaving the nest. During
this time they a re occasionally fed while they practice their
own feed i n g s k i l l s . The yo u n g o f S n ow Geese a n d
Whooping Cranes stay with their parents through their first
winter m i g ration, but many other water b i rd s , such a s
cormorants, gannets, herons, a n d puffins, fledge without
t h e i r p a r e n t s a n d m u s t f i n d a m p l e food a n d a vo i d
predators by themselves.
Predatory b i rds such as certain hawks, owls, and terns
feed the i r youn g for severa l months a fter fledg i n g . Th i s
g ives the young a n opportunity to learn hunting skills while
the parents supplement their meals. Frigatebi rds may feed
their single youngster for more than a year after it leaves
the nest. Their habit of stea l i ng food from other seabird s is
a difficult feeding technique that requ i res considerable skil l .
79

SONGS AND C ALLS

B i rds produce a remarkable variety of beautiful song s a s
wel l a s pecu l i a r buzzes, whistles, a n d c h i p s . Most b i rd s
sing i n t h e ea rly morn ing, b u t some sing th roug hout the
day. Others do not start performing u nti l n ight.
BIRD SON G is a complex series of mu ltiple notes produced

in a recogn izable pattern . When and how often b i rds sing

i s control led by hormones. Th is l inks the main fu nction of
song to the breed ing season .
B i rd song fu nctions m a i n ly to esta b l i sh and defend a
n esti n g terri tory. For many speci es , song a l so helps to
attract a mate. In many species only the males sing, and so
the female may use a m a l e ' s song as a measu re of h i s
experience. Th is may influence h e r choice o f a mate.
Bobolink's high-pitched song has great carrying power over open
habitats.

Blackbu r n i a n Wa rbler ' s

song carries over forest
canopy.

Forest birds, such as the Winter

Wren, make their presence known
with complex, beautiful songs.

HABITATS I N FLU E N C E the natu re of b i rd song. B i rd s of

open cou n trys ides u s u a l ly h ave h i g h - p i tc h ed songs o r
buzzy sounds, accompan ied b y d ra matic visual displays.
Horned La rks, Bobo l i n ks, meadowla rks, a n d woodcocks
sing their high-pitched courtsh i p songs in midair.
In contrast, forest bi rds, such as the Ruffed Grouse and
owls, usua l ly have low- pitched sounds that h ave g reater
c a rryi n g power th ro u g h d e n s e vegeta t i o n . L i kew i se,
bitterns, ra ils, and other marsh birds that cannot perform
visual d isplays due to the crowded marsh vegetation a l so
have low-pitched voices.
Forest warblers, such as Blackburnian, Cape May, and
Bay- b rea sted, h a ve h i g h - p i tc h ed s o n g s t h a t seem to
contrad ict the rule that forest birds usually have complex,
lower-frequency songs, but these wa rbler voices a re useful
for singing across the top of the forest canopy.

81

MALE SON GBIRDS do most of the singing. I n the ma jority

of species, males use song to establish the nesti ng territory

and attract a mate. Wh ile ma les sing and actively defend
the territory from intrudi ng males, females do most of the
incubation . In some spec ies, however, females a l so s i n g .
For exa m p l e, fema le Northern Moc k i n g b i rd s, Northern
Card i na ls, Northern Orioles, Rose-breasted Grosbea ks,
B l a c k - h ea d ed G rosbea ks, P i n e G rosbea ks, a n d House
Finches all sing songs that a re as intricate as male songs.
Females of other species, l i ke Song Sparrows, someti mes
sing i n winter, but they leave all of the singing to the male
once the breed ing season sta rts.
Female songs may be especia l ly helpfu l in a lerti ng other
fema les that the territory is occupied . Some studies have
shown that female Northern Orioles will only chase other
female orioles from thei r territory. Li kewi se, male orioles
usually only chase other males.
82

American Robin

Brightness of sunlight determines time birds start singing.

THE DA I LY PATTE R N OF B I R D SON GS sta rts on e a r l y

spring morn ings when a pred ictable sequence o f songsters

beg i n s the dawn chorus. Ea rly in the breed i n g season,
before the territory is well establi shed and a mate attract
ed, many songb i rds sta rt singing as the sun rises and keep
s i n g i n g until d u s k. As the nesti n g season adva nces a n d
such responsib i l ities as incubation and feed ing ch icks take
more time, the n umber of hours spent singing decli nes.
Bird song i s usual ly most apparent i n ea rly morn ing. It
typically dec l i n es by noon, then picks up aga i n at dusk.
Thrushes, such as the American Robin, Wood Thrush, and
Veery, are notable dusk songsters. The midday slump cor
respon d s with h i g h e r tem peratu res and g reater w i n d s,
which interfere with ca rryi ng d istance.
S u n l i g h t determ i n es the exact time a species sta rts to
si ng. On overcast days, for example, birds typica lly sta rt
singing a fu ll hour later than they do on sunny morn ings.
83

SEASON CHAN GES i n fluence the amount of s i n g i ng, the

length of the singing season, and the completeness of bird

song. Experien ced song b i rds s i n g th e i r most c o m p l ete
songs early in the breed ing season when they are stalking
and defending territories. The greatest frequency of songs
occurs just prior to egg-laying. Males that do not attract
mates will sing longer into the spring.
Ma le songbirds conti nue to sing through the incubation
period, but the frequency of singing dec l i nes during incu
bation and may stop completely when the eggs hatch. If a
pa i r re-nests after the fi rst brood fledges, the frequency of
song usua l ly increases, followed by a decrease as the birds
pass th rough the incubation and nestl ing period. I n mid to
late summer, a fter nesting, most adult songb i rds molt their
feathers and sing very little or not at a l l. As days shorten in
the fa l l a n d day length approximates the shorter spring
days, bird song may once again increase.
Male Common Yellowthroats sing less frequently after young hatch.

Many species produce whisper songs in severe weather.

WEATHER AFFECTS SI N GI N G Birds do not l i ke to sing i n

either ra i n or strong w i n d s . U nusua l ly cool weather may

also reduce the amount of song or delay the time of day
when birds start singing. I n a similar way, intense heat at
midday causes birds to seek shelter i n shady places until
temperatu res i mprove. In contrast, humid weather may trig
ger vigorous singing and activity.
When it ra i n s, some birds sing a whisper song that can
be heard only at a d istance of 20 yards or less. Th is quiet
rendition is similar to the typical, or primary, songs and is
often produced by both males and females when they a re
in concea led places such as interiors of sh rubs and trees,
where they seek shelter during weather extremes. I ncubat
ing birds may sing th is song wh ile sitti ng on eggs. Whisper
songs a re known from American Goldfinch, Rose-breasted
Grosbeak, Gray Catbi rd, Warbl ing Vi reo, B rown Th rasher,
and many other songbirds.
85

CALLS While bird song is associated with territorial defense

and the reproductive cycle, calls help birds to communicate

a bout food and predators and with other members of their
flock. Songs are complex, often musical; calls a re usual ly
short, nonmusical chips, chi rps, squea ks, and squeals.
DISTRESS CALLS are someti mes g iven when a bird is cap
tured by a cat, hawk, or other predator. These loud squeals
may serve to distract the predator long enough to let the
b i rd esca pe. D i stress ca l l s a l so attract othe r songbi rds,
which may sta rt mobbing the predator. When parent birds
hear d i stress c a l l s from other b i rds, they often respond
regard less of the species giving the cal l.
Distress call attracts other birds, which may mob a predator.

86

Birds harass a predator with scolding calls.

ALARM CALLS a re g iven by both young a n d adult b i rds

when they sight a predator. When a b i rd captu red by a
predator screa ms its distress call, the birds witnessing the
event g ive excited chirp-and-sq ueak alarm cal ls. Such cal l s
a re similar i n most l a n d birds, making it easy for them to
share information about predators. Such cal l s a re typically
short and h ave a wide freq uency range, w h i c h m a kes
locating the b i rds d i fficult. I n addition to the excited c h i rps
and squea ks, some b i rds g ive a scold ing h i ss sound that
attracts other b i rds, which may mob the predator.
RALLY CALLS a re given by a flock member a fter the g roup

is dispersed by a predator. Northern Bobwh ites, for exam

ple, l ive i n flocks o f about 2 0 birds. When th reatened b y a
predator, they scatter i n a l l d i rections, but the covey can
quickly reassemble when one of the b i rds g ives the ra l ly
call ( " ka-loi - kee?-ka-loi-kee? " ) , a signal that the predator is
no longer i n the vici nity.
87

FLOCK CALLS help to mainta i n order in large b i rd assem

blages. During the nonbreed ing season, for example, sev

era l m i l l ion blackbi rds may sleep in a single huge roost.
The sou nds in such roosts are deafen ing, but they probably
help to maintai n individual space a round a sma l l section of
a perch. The squabbling sounds help to remind neighbors
to respect each ind ividua l ' s roosting space. In a s i m i l a r
way, shore b i rd s make h ig h - p i tched twittering sou nds as
they feed i n great numbers on beaches and mudflats. These
sounds encourage other shorebirds to keep out of an indi
vidua l ' s private feed ing space.
FLI GHT CALLS a re high-pitched chips g iven during migra
tion. T h ey a re espec i a l ly a pparent among such n i g h t
migrants as warblers a n d thrushes, although many ducks
and geese a l so give fl ight calls. Such ca l l s a re g iven by
flock members with i n migrati ng flocks. They probably help
birds to keep in contact with their neighbors wh ile i n fl ight
a n d may decrease the chance of col l i sions with nea rby
members of the flock.
INDIVIDUAL RECOGNITION permits mated birds to coordi

nate their breed ing behavior. It also al lows young birds to

recogn ize their parents' voices, which a lerts them to feed
ings and dangers from predators. Pa i red Northern Ravens
use specific calls to signal their mates-a behavior similar
to our use of names. Such ca lls are apparently ra re a mong
bi rds, and only deta i led studies can tease out such commu
n ication. I nd ividual recogn ition is also i m porta nt between
parents and offspri ng. When gulls retu rn to the nest with
food for their young, they give a special call that signals
the pa rents' own young to come forward for the feeding.
Wood Duck ch icks learn their mothers' voice wh ile they a re
sti l l in the egg.
88

Migrant birds maintain order in Aocks by giving brief, high-pitched

call notes.

Feeding territories among Semipalmated Sandpipers are maintained

by a constant chatter of feeding calls.

HOW BIRDS SING AN D CALL

H u m a n s a n d other m a m m a l s prod uce voca l sou n d s by
passing a i r over voca l chords in the larynx, an enlarged
a rea located at the upper reaches of the trachea (wi nd
pipe). I n contrast, birds produce their varied vocal sounds
from the syri nx, wh ich is located at the lower end of the
trachea, where the bronchi from each lung join. B i rds that
lack the u n i q u e syr i nx, l i ke Tu rkey Vu ltu res, a re nea rly
silent, g iving only an occasional h iss.
The boxl i ke syrinx holds elastic, resonating membra nes
and functions l i ke a resonating chamber. The shape of the
syrinx is mod i fi ed by m u scles that can stretch it in any
d i rection to help mod i fy the sou nd. These muscles deter
mine the complexity of the song, and as a genera l rule, the
more muscles attached to the syrinx, the more elaborate the
song. Pigeons, for example, have only one set of syri ngeal
muscles; more skilled songsters may have as many as n i ne
sets of muscles.
Birds with the greatest carrying power, such as Whoop
ing Cranes and Tru mpeter Swans, have large windpipes.
The Whooping Cra n e ' s 5-foot windpipe is mostly coi l ed
inside the breastbone. A long windpipe acts as an a i r res
ona tor to p roduce low- pitched sou n d s. B i rd s with short
windpipes usua l ly have high-pitched songs.
Some of the great bird songsters have two or more sets
of vibra t i n g membranes located i n s i d e a n d outside the
syri nx. Not all bird sounds origi nate i n the syri nx, however.
Woodcocks, for example, have stiffened and narrow outer
wing feathers. When wind passes th rough these feathers
on the male's courtship fl ight ascent, they produce a pleas
ant, h i g h -pitched twittering sou nd. S n i pes use slotted ta i l
feathers to make noise, wh ile Ruffed Grouse compress a i r
agai n st their chest with their wings.
90

tracheal rings

bronchi

Bird vocalizations are produced in the syrinx as membranes vibrate.

Whooping Crane

Birds with long wi n d p i pes

produce the loudest sounds.

Some birds produce nonvocal sounds. Common Snipe in courtship

flight lets wind stream through its tail feathers, making an eerie,
throbbing sound.

91

DO B IRDS LEARN THEIR SON GS OR I NHERIT THEM? Some

b i rds develop songs and ca lls at the proper age without

learn ing from pa rents or neighbors. Roosters start crowing
and bobwh ites give their loud territorial ca l l s when they
reach breed ing age-even if they are reared in i solation.
In a s i m i l a r way, you ng Alder a n d W i l low flycatc h ers
rea red i n i solation will develop their songs i n a normal way
when they a re old enough to s i n g . Completely i n herited
songs a re rare in most songbirds, but even the most elabo
rate songsters have genetical ly determined cal l notes.
Most b i rds with complex songs, such as th rushes, wrens,
spa rrows, and fi nches, have a basic innate song pattern
that is also g reatly influenced by learn i n g . Young finches
and thrushes rea red i n i solation wi l l develop a genera l
song pattern, b u t it w i l l not have d i stinct ph rases. Young
males will not develop songs l i ke their father' s unless they
grow up hearing their father' s or other males' songs.
DIALECTS are unique to birds and
h u m a n s . G e o g ra p h i ca l b a r r i e r s
s u c h a s m o u n ta i n s , r i v e r s , a n d
grasslands isolate b i rd populations
f r o m e a c h o t h e r. T h i s l e o d s to
d i stinct d i alects si nce young males
h e a r o n l y the s o n g s from t h e i r
la t h e r a n d t h e r e i s l i tt l e m i x i n g
b etwee n po p u l a t i o n s . I f W h i te
th roated Spa rrows a re reared i n
i so l a t i o n f r o m the i r pa rents a n d
h e a r tape recordings from d i stinct
popu lations, they w i l l learn these
" fore i g n " dialects and reta i n them
throughout the i r l i fe .
Birds that have been isolated long
e n o u g h d e v e l o p s u c h d i ff e r e n t
d i a l ects t h a t t h e y may not even
recogn ize each other as belonging
to the same species. Male Northern
Card i n a l s vigorously defend thei r

92

territory if they hear a playback of

th e i r o w n v o i c e or t h a t of a
neighboring mole. Cardinals in
O n ta r i o r a r e l y re s p o n d to
record i n g s o f t h o s e from O h i o ,
however, a n d c o m p l etely i g n ore
those from Texas.

VOCAL MIMICS i m i tate other b i rds

and o v a r i ety of s o u n d s in t h e i r
environment. Mockingbirds o r e the
best-known m i mics, but E u ropean
S ta r l i n g s , B l u e J a y s , C o m m o n
Crows, Brown Thrashers, a n d many
other species a l so mimic a few bird
sounds.
Moc k i n g b i rd s have i m i tated a s
m a n y as 55 species in o n e hou r ! In
addition to the cal l s of songbi rds,
the i r i m i tations i n c l ude screa m i n g
eagles, c rowing roosters, a n d even

Young males typically learn to sing like their fathers.

the d r u m m i n g of woodpeckers on
metal roofs. They also i m i tate such
non-bird sounds a s creaking wheel
barrows, postmen ' s w h i stles, a n d
b a r k i n g d o g s . E l e c t ro n i c c o m
parisons show that these imitations
a re so a c c u rate they c a n n o t be
d i s t i n g u i s h ed f r o m t h e a c t u a l
sounds being imitated .
I M I TAT I O N S , s u c h a s t h o s e o f
m o c k i n g b i rd s a n d o t h e r v o c a l
m i m i c s , o re o n l y o n e wa y to
ach ieve a varied vocal reperto i re .
S o m e spec i e s a c h i eve vari ety b y
p rod u c i n g many d i stinct ph rases
and m i x i n g t h e m in d i ff e r e n t
s eq u e n c e s . I n t h i s w a y , M a r s h
W re n s c a n s i n g 2 1 0 d i ff e r e n t
p h r a s e s i n 4 5 m i n u te s . B rawn

T h r a s h e r s , c l o s e r e l a t i v e s of
mockingbirds, hold the record lor
va r i e d p h ra s e s . T h e y c a n s i n g
2,000 different ph rases i n a n hour!
Varied songs seem to intim idate
neighboring males more effectively
t h a n do l e s s - va r i e d s o n g s . A p
parently t h e l i ste n i n g attention o f
n e a r b y m a l e s i s g re a t e s t w h e n
songs pou r forth with variety.
I n many spec i e s , m a l e s ac
c u m u l ate m o r e s o n g s w i t h a g e .
Thus a variety o f songs shows the
age and experience of the m a l e .
Since experienced males a r e more
capable of defendi n g their territory
and providing food for the female
and the you ng, females probably
benefit by selecti ng males with the
largest song reperto i re.

93

WH AT DO BIRDS HEAR?
Most bird song falls with in 2,000 to 4,000 cycles per sec
ond (cps). Th i s i s slightly h i g her tha n the ra nge used in
h u man conversation. As a g roup, b i rds can hear sounds
from .05 to 2 9,000 cps, w h i l e normal h u m a n h e a r i n g
extends o n l y from 5 0 to 1 6,000 cps. There is m u c h va ria
tion from one b i rd to the next, however, and a l so some
n o ta b l e exc e pt i o n s . P i g e o n s, fo r exa m p le, c a n h e a r
extremely low freq uencies o f 0.05 cps, with a n u pper
range of 7,500 cps. I n contrast, the European Chaffi nch
can hear sounds with in the range of 200 to 29,000 cps.
Face of Common Barn-Owl showing asymmetry of ear openings.
Parabolic-shaped facial discs concentrate sound at the ear openings.
opening of external ear

facial
disc

left

94

right

Envi ro n m e n ta l factors often a ffect a b i rd ' s h e a r i n g

range. Great Horned Owls, as an example, often l ive i n
forests and have a n extremely deep ca l l o f o n l y 6 0 cps.
Th i s low freq u e n cy h a s g reat ca rryi n g power th ro u g h
dense vegetation. Yet Great Horned Owls c a n a l so hea r
sounds as h i g h as 7,000 cps, a n d Long-ea red Owls can
hear sounds as high as 1 8,000 cps. These upper levels a re
proba bly u sefu l beca use the owl s feed on m i ce, whi ch
make high-pitched sou nds.
Com mon Barn-Owls a re espec i a l ly adept at locati n g
thei r prey b y sound. Their disc-shaped face and t h e asym
metrica l position of their ears help them locate and captu re
prey in tota l da rkness. The disc-shaped face, much l i ke a
parabola, concentrates sound into the asymmetrical ly pos i
tioned ea rs. T h e s e help t h e owl t o locate p rey because
sound reaches the two ears at slightly d i fferent times.
Most b i rds can receive sound s i g n a l s th roug hout the
body as wel l a s through their ea rs. Sensitive feathers on the
face, body, wings, and legs detect fa int vibrations that help
them fi nd prey and avoid predators. These sound detectors
are a lways tu rned on, ready to alert even sleeping birds of
approach i ng danger. Birds can also sepa rate sou nds that
arrive in rapid succession about ten times better than can
humans, a talent that perm its them to d i stinguish between
very similar sounds.

Human
Mallard
Great Horned Owl
Long-eared Owl
Hairy Woodpecker
Pigeon
European Starling
European Chaffinch

HEARING RANGES
Lower Limit (cps)

Upper Limit (cps)

16
300
60
1 00
34
200
1 00
200

20,000
8,000
7,000
1 8,000
1 8,400
7,500
1 6,000
29,000

95

BIRD FLIGHT
Nearly all birds can fly, and they master the sky with a
grace and efficiency that humble human efforts. Much of
the success of birds in the a i r is due to thei r ma rvelous and
un ique feathers . Stud ies of feathers and bird fl ight have
made g reat contributions to our abil ities to explore the a i r.
B I R D S H AVE M A N Y K I N D S OF
FEATHERS. The l o n g f l i g h t feathers
of the wings and toi l are essential to
b i rd Flight. I n order of the i r length
and position on the wing, from the
t i p b a c k to t h e b o d y, the w i n g
feathers, a l s o known a s remiges,
a re called primaries, secondaries,
a n d te r t i a l s . The w i n g and ta i l
l e a t h e r s , c a l l e d r e c t r i c e s , a re
examples of contour feathers . They
are the most visible type of leather.
All of the surface leathers that cover
the head, body, and legs are a l so
c o n t o u r leath e r s . T h e s e have i n
common a central shalt, o r rachis,
a nd a firm vane on either side of
t h e s h a f t . C o n to u r lea t h e r s a r e
moved by a s e r i e s of m u sc l e s
attached to the leather foll icle.
S e m i p l u me s a re f l u ffy lea t h e r s
with a d i s t i n c t r a c h i s but a
completely downy v a n e . These
numerous, sma l l white feathers a re
h idden beneath the body conto u r
leathers. They fill in t h e form o f the
b i rd a n d a l s o prov i d e i n s u l ation
and buoyancy, espec ially lor water
b i rds.
Down feath ers a re sma l l , fl u ffy
feathers found u n d e r the conto u r
fe a t h e r s o n t h e b o d y . T h ey
sometimes lack a rach is. Their main
f u n c t i o n is i n s u l a t i o n , w h i c h

96

exp l a i n s why they a re espec i a l l y

wel l developed in water b i rds.
F i l o p l u m e s a re l o n g , s l e n d e r
feathers that consist m a i n ly o f the
long rachis. While some liloplumes
have a s m a l l v a n e a t t h e i r t i p ,
others are completely h a i r l i ke and
ofte n exte n d beyon d the conto u r
feathers, especially on the neck and
upper back. They function primarily
to transfer vi brations to the skin.
Powd e r lea t h e r s a re m o s t
pronounced i n hero n s and certain
hawks . They barely resemble other
feather types. Only rarely do they
have a feath e r q u i l l , or c a l a m u s ,
and even w h e n it exi sts, i t i s very
smal l . In some species, the calamus
barely protrudes through the s k i n .
Con stant shedding from t h e powder
feathers g ives a powdery blush to
the plumage of certa i n birds.
Bristles grow almost exclusively on
the head and neck. They resemble
f i l o p l u m e s , b u t t h e y c a n be
disti nguished by their lack of barbs
at the feather tip. B r i stles that ore
located at the base of the bill, as in
flycatchers and warblers, help b i rds
detect the presence of Aying insects.
The facial bristles of owl s, jays, and
crows may enhance thei r sense of
touch, as do the eyelash bri stles of
roadrunners and the Ostrich.

Primaries

Secondaries

Contour Feather

down
feather

semiplume

bristle

97

T H E N U M B E R OF FEAT H E R S o n
even a s m a l l b i rd is i mpressive. Tiny
Ruby-th roated H u m m i n g b i rds have
nearly 1 ,000 feathers, while such
l a rge birds as Tu ndra Swa ns may
h a v e as m a n y as 2 5 , 0 0 0 . I n
p roportion to thei r body we i g h t ,
sma l l b i rds have even more feathers
than do large b i rds, for they have a
g re a t e r n e e d to c o n se r v e b o d y
heat. B i r d s that l ive i n cold cli mates
usually have more feathers in winter
than i n s u m m e r. House Sparrows,
for exa m p l e , have a b o u t 3 , 2 0 0
fea t h e r s i n s u m m e r a n d a b o u t
3,600 in winter.

BIRDS MOLT worn feathers on a

regular cycle and replace them with
n e w f e a th e r s . S i n c e f e a t h e r s
comprise 4 to 1 2 percent o f a b i rd ' s

b o d y w e i g h t, i t t a k e s a g re a t
a m o u n t o f e n e r g y to g ro w a
replacement set. Timing of the molt
must therefore occ u r at a season
when food demands are low and
food is abundant. For th i s reason,
most b i rd s m o l t t h e i r body a n d
Flight feathers i n the fa l l alter the
nesting season when i n sects a n d
fruits are abundant b u t before they
beg i n thei r dema n d i n g southwa rd
m i g ra t i o n . S o m e b i rd s , s u c h a s
ducks a n d warblers, acq u i re a d rab
body plumage in the fal l , then molt
a second time and replace th is with
b r i g h t feathers before the s p r i n g
courts h i p seaso n . S o m e spa rrows,
wrens, and ptarmigans may molt all
of their feathers two or three times
d u r i n g the yea r due to excessive
feather wear.

Birds molt their flight feathers in a predictable sequence. Most

songbirds replace one primary at a time in each wing, starting at
the wrist a n d then movi ng out towa rd the wing tip. After the
primaries are replaced, the secondaries start molting in a pai red
manner, starting at both ends of the forearm and moving toward the
center.

primaries
secondaries

98

FLI GHT PROBABLY ORI GI NATED a mong the ancestors of

modern b i rd s when tree-dwe l l i n g repti les began leap i ng
from branch to branch. Such movements probably fi rst led
to soaring fl ight that developed later into flapping fl ight.
Tree-cl imbing ancestra l birds with feathers could fly faster
and more dependably tha n could non-feathered repti les.
Th is helped the ancestral birds both i n avoid i ng predators
and i n finding food.
Archaeopteryx, the oldest known bird , dates to a bout
1 40 m i l l ion years ago. Its skeleton shows its close relation
ship to a sma l l d i nosa u r-except that it has feathers. It
probably had a carti lagi nous keel on its breastbone, and
this supported modest breast muscles. These did not perm it
it to make long m i g rations, but Archaeopteryx probably
could fly th rough the trees using flapping fl ight.
Skeleton of Archaeopteryx

/7'

Artist's concept of how Archaeopteryx

looked when olive

PRINCIPLES OF GLIDING FLIGHT are similar i n birds and

a i rplanes. The body and wings of both a i rplanes and b i rds
show strea m l i n i ng, which permits the wing to cut throug h
t h e a i r with a minimum of drag.
When b i rd or a i rplane wings cut through the a i r, the
action creates unequal pressu re. Air must travel farther and
hence faster over the cu rved upper side of the wing. This
results i n lower pressure since the a i r molecules a re spread
farther apa rt above the wing than below, where a i r speeds
by the flat or concaved lower wing su rface. Air molecu les
movi ng more slowly under the wing stay closer together,
resulting in h igher pressu re. The d i fference in pressure cre
ates l i ft. Th is effect is exaggerated in bird s that have very
convex upper wings and a strong concave shape to the
underwing. Such highly cambered wings g ive many small
forest birds the abil ity to gain elevation quickly.
Lift i s fu rther increased when the lea d i ng edge of the
wing is tilted upward, thus increasing the angle of attack.
When the angle of attack reaches about 1 5 degrees to the
di rection of the wing ' s motion in a i r, the a irstream passing
over the wing becomes turbu lent, lift decreases, and a stall
develops. Lift disappears at th is stalling angle.
B i rd s that req u i re great l i ft, l i ke chickadees and other
forest b i rds, i n c rease thei r sta l l i n g a n g l e by fo rc i n g a
stream of a i r through severa l fingerl i ke feathers cal led the
a l u la. These protrude from the wri st, creati n g wing slots
that d i rect a stream of a i r close over the upper su rface of
the wi ng, and effectively reduce turbulence.
La rge b i rds, l i ke eag les and vultu res, have wing slots
between the i r p r i m a ry feathers. A i r that s l i ps o u t from
u nder the tra i l i ng edge of the wing tends to swi rl upward
and interferes with a i r movi ng over the wing. Th i s turbu
lence c reates d rag and destroys l i ft. Such tu rbu lence is
especially g reat nea r the wing tip, where it i s cal led the tip

1 00

vortex. The extremely long wings of some seabi rds, such as

albatrosses, reduce th i s problem by moving the tip vortex
far from the body.
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the length of the wing to its
width . Long and na rrow wings, l i ke those of a lbatrosses,
have an aspect ratio of 1 8 : 1 {for every inch of wing width,
there a re 1 8 i nches of length) . Such wings a re so efficient
that for every 40 grams of vertical l i ft, there i s only 1 g ra m
o f resistance to forward motion .
1 . Air moves faster over
the c u rved upper w i n g ,
c o m p a r a t i v e l y s l ow e r
under the wing. This
difference causes greater
pressure from below and
results in lift.

2 . A s a n g l e o f attack
i ncreases,
l i ft
also
i n c reases, b u t too steep
an a n g l e m a y c a u s e a
stall because of excessive
turbulence.

iow angle of attack

3 . Wing-slotti ng c reated
by the alula and primaries
reduce turbulence over the
wing.

1 01

Albatrosses are maslers of dynamic soaring, capable of gliding 50

or 60 feet while losing only 3 feet of elevation.

Turkey Vultures ride a thermal, glide to find another, spiral up, and
continue onward.

FLI GHT STYLES VARY. Whether b i rds g l ide, soa r, or flap

depends u pon such factors as wing and body size and

shape, ava i lable winds, habitat characteristics {such as for
est, ocean , or meadow) , perches, and predators.
Gliding is a common fl ight style for sma l l to med i u m
sized ocean birds such as gulls a n d shea rwaters. Gliding
requ i res no forwa rd propulsion and depends solely on the
bird ' s body weight to overcome a i r resistance. When glid
ing, birds simply extend their wings and let gravity carry
them forward .
Soa ring b i rds can gain altitude without flapping the i r
wings. Some accomplish th i s by static soaring, i n which
they climb on rising a i r currents known as therma ls. Alba
tross wings a re too long and na rrow for static soa ri ng.
I n stead , they practice dynamic soaring, in wh ich they climb
on layered a i r currents that a re moving at d ifferent speeds.
1 02

Flapping flight permits birds to become airborne.

Soa ring b i rds, such as storks, vu ltu res, a n d pel ica n s ,

must b e a b l e to withstand severe windstorms during the i r
l o n g migration s. Soa ring land b i rds, s u c h a s hawks a n d
eag les, stay a loft b y r i d i n g thermals, wh ich a re h ot- a i r
col u m n s that rise off mounta i n s or from fa rm fields, a i r
ports, parking lots, or other flat areas. In thunderstorms, a i r
may rise i n therma ls at the rate o f 2 0 mph.
Soaring b i rds, l i ke pel icans, storks, and vultu res, typi
cally have large, broad wings that permit them t o r i d e the
thermals. These birds also have conspicuous wing-slotti ng
that increases lift.
All b i rds that fly do at least some flapping fl ight. Even
the best gliding and soa ring b i rds must gain elevation by
flapping their wings. It is sti ll unclear how birds use flap
ping to launch themselves i nto the air. B i rds that depend on
flapping have large, keeled breastbones that support their
fl ight muscles. Such muscles may comprise 1 5 to 25 per
cent of a bird ' s body weight.
1 03

BIRDS DO NOT LEARN HOW TO FLY from the i r parents.

Severa l researchers have demonstrated that bird fl ight is a n

insti nctive behavior that emerges at the proper a g e without
pa renta l i n put. In one experiment, you n g pigeons were
hand-reared inside narrow tubes that prevented the birds
from open ing the i r wings. After the you n g pigeons had
grown all of their fl ight feathers, they were removed from
the tubes and tossed into the a i r to see if they could fly. Not
only did they take off in strong fl ight, but they flew just as
well as pigeons of the same age that had been reared by
parents.
Wh ile the outcome of the experiment might seem a sur
pri se, many cavity- nesti ng bi rds, such as Tree Swa l lows
and bl uebi rds, g row up in crowded conditions that para l lel
the confi nement of the tube experi ment. When young cavi
ty-nesti ng birds fledge from their nest for the fi rst time, they
have had little chance to exercise their wings, but they can
soon fly as wel l as their parents.
Young cavity-nesting
birds usually fly on
their first attempt.

Tree Swallows

1 04

Young Bald Eagles exercise their wings for several weeks.

Some bu rrow- nesti ng sea b i rds, such as puffi n s , sta rt

exercising their wings during the last week i n their burrow
and often come outside at night, when they a re safe from
predation by gulls, to exercise before head ing to sea. Li ke
wise, large bird s of prey, such as eagles and the Osprey,
will exercise thei r wings on the nest with considerable flap
pi ng.
The ability to have a successfu l fi rst flight i s especially
important for cliff-nesti ng birds, such as eagles, Pra i rie Fal
cons, and kittiwakes. These birds nest i n s u c h preca rious
habitats that a "crash " on their fi rst fl ight wou ld probably
make it their last fl ight.
Young b i rd s m u st perfect the i r flyi ng ski l l s soon a fter
leavi ng the nest so they can start fi nding their own food.
Some parents fatten their young with enough extra food to
permit them a few days or weeks to perfect these skills.
1 05

NAVIGATION AND MIGRATION

Each fal l at least two th i rds of the birds in North America
m a ke a m i g ration of at least severa l h u n d red m i les. Of
these, at least 1 00 species leave North America to winter
i n tropical habitats south of the United States.
BI RDS MI GRATE to find ample food to power their rapid

metabolism and to mai nta i n their high body temperatures.

Migration occu rs among most b i rd s that l ive i n northern
latitudes because food becomes sca rce du ring winter.
Nearly all birds migrate from northern forests and tun
d ra h a b i tats in w i n te r. Only 20 o u t o f 2 1 5 b reed i n g
species, for example, spend the winter i n Mich igan. And
o n ly bark-feed ing bi rds, such as n uthatches, chickadees,
S u m m e r and winter areas used by m i g ratory wood warblers,
showing the much larger area occupied in summer.

1 06

breeding

wintering

year-round

and woodpeckers, and seed -eati ng b i rds, such as cross

b i l ls, siskins, and g rosbea ks, typica l ly winter in northern
forests, where there is usually snow cover.
After b i rds complete their perilous journey to southern
habitats, why do they bother to return north in the spri ng?
Why risk the u ncerta i nties of storms, predators, and acci
dents that they face when they leave the bal my tropics?
The answer to th is question l ies i n the fact that northern
habitats during spring and su mmer have an abundance of
food in co m p a r i son to trop i c a l h a b i ta ts. When s p r i n g
thaws u nlock the northern lakes a n d forests, these habitats
come a l ive with large numbers of insects, such as blackflies
and mosquitoes, on which both young and adult birds can
feed . During the long days of northern summers, migrant
birds can rear more young than in the south.
Summer and winter areas used by eastern and western flycatchers,
showing how they divide both their summer and winter ranges.

1 07

Most migra nts s how h i g h l y predictable m i g ration ti m i n g . C l iff

Swallows at San Juan Capi stra no Mission a re fa mous for their
punctual return.

MIGRATION FACTS
T H E T I M I N G OF M I G RATI O N i s

NIGHT MIGRATION is the rule for

l i n ked to the length o f day. A s day

length i ncreases with the advancing
sprin g, birds develop a noctu rnal
restl e s s n e s s c a l l e d " z u g u n r u h e . "
I n c r e a s e d e x p o s u re t o d a y l i g h t
l e a d s bath m a l e s a n d fema les to
higher hormone levels that trigger
the u rg e to m i g ra t e . M i g ra t i o n
becomes a predictable event. C l i ff
Swa l lows of San J u a n Capi strano
Mi ssion in southern California and
Tu rkey Vu l t u res of H i n kl ey, O h i o ,
a re noted for thei r punctual spring
a rrivals. The spring arrivals of many
backyard b i rd s such a s American
Rob in s and Red-winged Blackbirds
a re equally punctual .

most small, i nsect-eating b i rds, such

as warblers, vireos, flycatchers, and
t h r u s h e s . Some m i g ra nts use star
patterns for orientati o n , but si nce
t h e y a l s o m i g ra t e on o v e r c a s t
nights, there may b e other reasons
for nocturnal migration. Safety from
p re d a to r s , s u c h as fa l c o n s , a n d
water c o n s e rvation a r e p ro b a b l y
tw o of t h e m a i n reasons so m a n y
migrants travel at n i g h t . In t h e cool
n i g h t hours, b i rd s lose less water
from evaporation , enabling them to
fly farther without stopping. During
migration season, l isten at night for
the c h i rps and c a l l notes of n i g h t
migrants.

1 08

Many land birds migrate southeast from Cape Cod over Bermuda in
a direction that would eventually take them to Africa. Trade winds,
however, blow them back toward their winter homes.
M I GRAT I O N ALT I T U D E S v a r y
g reatly between species and from
one n i g h t to the n ext, but stu d i e s
show most small birds migrate j u st
b e l ow a m i l e i n a l ti t u d e . S p r i n g
m i g ra n ts typ i c a l ly f l y h i g h e r than
fal l migrants.
Rada r stu d i e s have a l so shown
t h a t m i g ra n ts f l y h i g h e r l a te at
n i g h t . T h ree to fo u r h o u r s after
d u s k, m a n y m i g r a n ts over Cape
Cod, Massachusetts, flew 1 ,500 to
2 ,500 Feet above the ground. Later
at n i ght, the same radar showed
t h a t m i g ra n ts f l e w at 5 , 000 to
9,000 feet. On some n ights, b i rds
migrated nearly 3 . 5 m i les high!

SPEED OF MIGRATION varies with

the seasons. Spring m i g ra nts rush
to b r e e d i n g t e r r i to r i e s . A u t u m n
migration goes more slowly.
R o b i n s a re r e l a t i v e l y s l ow
migrants, averag ing about 37 mi les
per day. Some s p ec i e s s h ow a n
increasing speed a s they approach
t h e i r s u m m e r te r r i to ry. B l a c k po l l
Warblers, for example, cover about
31 miles per day over most of the i r
j o u rney f r o m B ra z i l to C a n a d i a n
forests, b u t may clack 200 m i les per
day on the home stretc h . With a
strong ta i l w i n d , l a rge waterfowl
and wadi n g b i rds may travel 500
to 1 ,000 miles in 24 hours.

1 09

HOMIN G ABILITY permits birds to travel to remote corners

of the world and then return to fa miliar nesti ng areas. The

homing ability of many birds is so wel l-developed that if
they a re blown far off cou rse in storms or taken in experi
ments to regions far from their usual travels, they can often
find their way home across unfamiliar territory.
A Manx Shearwater, for example, was removed from its
bu rrow in Wales and flown 3,200 miles to Massach usetts,
where it was released. Travel i ng a route it had never expe
rienced before, it retu rned to its burrow in Wa les 1 2.5
days later!
Some land birds can perform equally impressive hom
ing. One resea rcher fou nd that White-crowned Spa rrows
moved from Cal i fornia to Maryland cou ld fi nd the i r way
home, a distance of 2,800 miles, with i n a year.
Many young birds, such as ducks and shorebi rds, per
form their fi rst migration without assistance from their parYoung Red Knots migrate without their parents.

Young puffins remember their way home after several years at sea.

ents. The urge to migrate during their fi rst winter takes such
b i rd s from n o rthern b reed i n g pon d s on treeless tu n d ra
habitat to tropical beaches and lagoons they have never
visited previously. Such remarkable movements prove many
young birds have a genetic map that permits them to travel
between breed ing and winteri ng homes without any help
or experience.
Research with Atlantic Puffi n s i n Ma i n e a n d Col l a red
F lyca tc h e rs in Germany h a s s h own that n estl i n g b i rd s
h a n d - rea red a t release s i tes d i sta n t from th e i r orig i n a l
home w i l l " i mprint" to the release site. They apparently
reta i n a mental map that perm its them to retu rn to the
i mpri nted site several years later when they a re old enough
to breed.
Not all birds show such notable homing ski l l s. Non m i
g ratory b i rd s, such a s titm ice a n d certa i n wrens, often
show little homing ability.
111

METHODS OF NAVI GATION VARY between species a n d

perhaps even between i ndividuals with i n t h e s a m e species.

U n rave l i n g migration mysteries depends on d iscovering
h ow b i rd s navigate between thei r summer and w i n ter
homes. No one method i s used by all species.
VISUAL LANDMARKS ore t h e mast
obvious way of navigati n g . When
v i ewed from t h e a i r, c o a s t l i n e s ,
rivers, and mounta i n ranges make
up obvious patterns, most of which
run i n a narthsouth direction. Such
l a n d m a rks may be espec i a l l y
i m po r ta n t I a hawks that m i g rate
d u r i n g dayl ight and use r i s i n g
thermals from valleys and deflected
winds off mounta i n s Ia propel their
soa ring flight. Li kewi se, waterfowl
often fly along coastli nes and rivers
where they l a n d to rest and feed
d u ring migration . In a similar way,
seab i rd s may use changes in water
calor to i n d i cate water depth, or
su rface changes to i n d icate edges

of ocean streams and cu rrents. To

d a te , h ow e v e r, t h e r e i s I i t t l e
experimental evidence t o show that
m i grants use any of these v i s u a l
landmarks.
Although visual l andmarks seem
good g u i d i n g posts, it' s apparent
that b i rd s m u st a l so h a v e o t h e r
navigation s k i l l s , s i nce they often
m i g rate at e l evati o n s well a bove
cloud cover and even thick fog does
not prevent them from finding their
way h o m e . L i kew i s e , most s m a l l
b i rds m i g rate at night when visual
landmarks o re probably difficult to
see. For some b i rds, landmarks are
part of a complex and redu ndant
mix of navigation techn i q ues.

S now Geese may use familiar visual landmarks as they migrate

down the Atlantic coast of the United States.

The sun is a predictable guidepost for bird navigation. It rises in the

east and sets in the west, moving at the rate of about 15 degrees
per hour.
THE SUN IS A LIKELY COMPASS for
migrants because of its reliable and
rhythm i c regula rity of rising i n the
east and setting i n the west. Star
l i ngs placed i n side c i rc u l a r cages,
lor e x a m p l e , w i l l f l u tt e r in t h e
appropriate d i rection for migration
on sunny days but become confused
on cloudy days .
O r i e n ta t i o n u s i n g the s u n as a
compas s a l so req u i res that b i rd s
h a v e a sen s i tive b i o l o g i c a l c l o c k
keyed t o t h e seasonal a m o u n t o f
l i g h t . T h e c l o c k i s n e c e s s a ry
because the sun moves through the
s ky at the rate of 1 5 degrees per
hour. B i rds would have to adjust for
th is movement if they were attempt
i n g to fly in a stra i g h t l i n e w h i l e

u s i n g t h e sun as a compass .While

some b i rd s a p p a r e n t l y do u s e a
solar compass, it is clearly not thei r
only navigation too l . The sun com
pass only helps b i rds to orient them
selves when there is no cloud cover;
it is useless to the majority of b i rds
that migrate at night.
The sun undoubtedly helps some
b i rds find their d i rection, but the sun
compass alone cannot expla i n how
b i r d s f i n d th e i r way h o m e f r o m
strange locations or h o w they com
p e n s a t e if t h e y a re b l o w n o f f
course. Obviously other navigation
a l clues such a s sta r patterns and
m a g n e t i s m a re a l s o i m p o r t a n t ,
espec i a l l y for n i g h t m i g rants. T h e
total explanation remains elusive.

113

STAR PATTERNS may serve as u seful

THE EARTH ' S M A G N E T I C F I E LD

o r i e n ta t i o n poi nts for s u c h n i g h t

migrants a s warblers and finches.
Experiments i n planetariums point
to the i m porta nce of sta r patterns
f o r n o c t u r n a l m i g ra n ts . W h i te
throated Sparrows captured during
the spring migration and placed in
a p l a n e ta r i u m u n d e r t h e u s u a l
spring star patterns (the North Star
in its proper location for spri n g ) ,
typ i c a l l y fl u tt e r i n a n o r t h e r l y
d i rectio n . W h e n t h e p l a n eta r i u m
s k y s h owed t h e N o rth S t a r i n a
southerly d i recti o n , however, the
sparrows attempted to fly south .
S o m e resea r c h e r s be l i eve t h a t
noctu rnal m i g rants u s e a "gestalt"
configuration of stars as d i rectional
aids. The group of stars that rotate
around the North Star o re probably
the most i mportant.

varies in strength , angle of dip, and

di rection ( polarity) from one latitude
to the n e x t . R e s e a r c h e r s h o v e
demon strated t h a t homing pigeons
ore very sensitive to this magnetic
fiel d . A tiny c rysta l of m a g n etite
between their skull and bra i n may
even serve as a compass.
E x p e r i m e n t s h o v e s h own t h a t
w h e n a m a g n et i s a tta c h e d to a
homing pigeon ' s head it cannot find
its way home. A non magnetic brass
bar has no effect.
Research shows that R i n g - b i l l ed
G u l l s , I n d igo B u n t i n g s , E u ropean
Robins, a n d Swo i n so n ' s Thrushes
are all sensitive to earth ' s magnetic
fiel d . Magnetic a i d s exp l a i n how
b i rds con find the i r way on cloudy
n i g h t s , in d e n s e fo g , or o v e r
trackless expan ses o f ocean .

tracks on
blotting paper

Bird studies in planetariums often

use the " Emlen funnel" ta measure
di rection of nocturnal restlessness.
Birds flutter up sides of a blotterpaper funnel, leaving tracks.

114

drawings show
orientation

. ,... \
. U.
) (
'

( -. 0.

SOUND AND SMELL cues may a l so

be i mpo rta nt to b i rd n a v i g a t i o n .
P i g e o n s c a n h ea r s o u n d s at a
f r e q u e n cy a s l o w a s 0 . 0 5 c p s ,
w h i c h i s fa r b e l ow t h e h u m a n
hearing range. These i n frasounds
a re p r o d u c e d b y s u c h n a t u r a l
features as wind striking mounta i n
ranges, surf pou nding on beaches,
and thunderstorms. Some birds can
p ro b a b l y h e a r s u c h s o u n d s f o r
h undreds o f m i l e s .
Leac h ' s Storm- Petrels have a keen
sense of smel l . These noctu r n a l
b i rds d i g earthen bu rrows o r nest i n
rock crevices o n ocea n i c i s l a n d s .
T h e y c a n retu r n to t h e i r n e s t i n g
i slands i n dense fog on i n ky black
n i g hts, apparently performing th is
r e m a r k a b l e n a v i g a t i o n f e a t by
smel l i ng the i r nesti ng island. They
a l s o recog n i z e th e i r own n e s t i n g
b urrow b y its d i stinctive odor.

NAVIGATION AIDS often i nteract,

depending on c i rc u m stances. B i rds
n eed a variety of backup systems
b e c a u s e t h e y m u s t cross v a r i e d
terra i n s and go through changing
weather conditions.
A pigeon flying home on a sunny
day, for example, might use its sun
c o m p a s s to s e l e c t a g e n e r a l
d i recti o n , b u t i f c l o u d s rol l i n , i t
might shift to its magnetic compass.
If the pigeon encou nters magnetic
a n o m a l i e s , s u c h as l o c a l i ro n
deposits, it might b e forced to take
a major deto u r u n t i l its m a g n etic
compass gives dependable signals.
Some may use a sense of smell to
correct t h e i r p o s i ti o n , b u t on the
home stretch rely on visual cues to
find their fam i l i a r roost.

Pigeons can hear extremely low

frequency infrasounds and may
u s e t h e m to l o c a te s u c h
landforms a s mountains.

Leac h ' s Storm-Petrels approach

t h e i r nesting i s l a n d s from a n
u pwind direction . T h e pungent
scent from their bu rrow guides
them home.

1 15

B I R D P O P U LAT I O N S T h e re a re
a p p roxi mately 5 b i l l i o n b i rd s i n
North America during most o f the
year, and th i s number increases to
about 6 b i l l ion i m medi ately
fol lowing the nesting season. There
may be approxi mately 1 00 b i l l ion
b i rd s an earth, which is about 25
t i m e s mare b i rd s t h a n p eo p l e .
Although some species a re gravely
t h r e a t e n e d d u e to h a b i ta t l o s s ,
po l l u t i o n , o r oth e r c a u s e s , m o s t
populations mainta i n the i r numbers
with remarkable stabil ity.

MOST YOU N G B I R D S DO NOT

SURVIVE t h e fi rst few months of life.
If the majority of young su rvived,
overcrowd i n g and competition for
food and nesting places would be
severe. A deta i led study of nesting
S o n g S p a r rows h a s s h own t h a t
about 2 5 percent o f every 1 0 0 eggs
a re lost to storms o r to predators
before they hatch. Of the remaining

74 nestl ings, only 52 leave the nest,

and 80 percent of these die during
the first year. Only 1 0 adults remain
to b reed the fol lowi n g yea r. T h i s
study a l so found that 43 percent of
on e-yea r-olds d i e d u r i n g t h e i r
second year. This leaves j u st 6 b i rds
from the 1 00 eggs to reproduce a
second time.

HOW LONG DO B I R D S LIVE? If

b i rds survive the fi rst few yea rs of
l i fe , they may l iv e to s u rp r i s i n g
a g e s . C h i c k a d e e s ( w h i c h a re
n o n m i g r a to r y ) u s u a l l y l i ve o n l y
three years, b u t once they pass th is
age, they may l ive to s i x or more
years. Li kewise, resident b i rds of the
t r o p i c s , s u c h as ta n a g e r s a n d
tropical thrushes, may l ive twice as
long as migrants. In contrast, long
d i stance m i g rants, such a s North
American warblers, usually l ive only
a few yea rs. La rger b i rd s tend to
l ive longer.

MAXIMUM KNOWN AGES OF BANDED WILD BIRDS

SPECIES

AGE (YEARS)

Yellow-eyed Penguin
Red-throated Loan
Layson Albatross
Short-tailed Shearwater
Brown Pelican
Double-crested Cormorant
Great Frigatebird
White Stork
Trumpeter Swan
Canada Goose
Mallard
Blue Jay

1 16

18
23
42
30
31
23
34
26
24
23
29
15

SPECIES

AGE (YEARS)

Evening Grosbeak
Golden Eagle
Osprey
Peregrine Falcon
Wild Turkey
American Coot
American Oystercatcher
White-breasted Nuthatch
Purple Martin
Herring Gull
Arctic Tern
Atlantic Puffin

13
25
32
14
12
19
36
9
8
32
34
21

1 00 eggs of Song Sparrows

74 live nestlings

2 1ive to be 4
years old
Fate of 1 00 Song Sparrow Eggs

SPECIES

AGE (YEARS)

Common Barn-Owl
Eastern Phoebe
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Red-bellied Woodpecker
Barn Swallow
American Crow
Summer Tanager
European Jay
Black-capped Chickadee
House Wren
American Robin

18
9
5
20
16
14
6
16
12
7
1 1

SPECIES

AGE (YEARS)

European Robin
Black-and-white Warbler
European Starling
Red-winged Blackbird
Purple Grackle
Scarlet Tanager
House Sparrow
Northern Cardinal
Dark-eyed Junco
White-crowned Sparrow
Song Sparrow

1 1
1 1
20
14
16
9
10
13
1 1
13
10

1 17

PREDATORS, such as hawks, sna kes, a n d foxes, help to

keep bird popu lations stable, but predators have relatively

little effect when compa red to losses from sta rvation, acci
dents, i nclement weather, d i sease, a n d para s i tes. Such
large predatory birds as gul ls, eagles, and certa i n hawks
and owls have few predators except humans.
You ng, inexperienced birds that have j ust left the nest
are the most vul nerable to predators because fledgl i ngs are
neither as fast nor as wa ry as adults.
Predators i n fl uence every feature of a b i rd ' s appear
a nce and behavior, but the i nfluence of predators is espe
c i a l ly a p p a re n t a t the nest. For exa m p l e, b i rd s avo i d
predators at their nests by either h i d i n g the location o f the
nest or by placing the nest in an i naccessible location, such
as a tree cavity, cliff face, or deep burrow. If the eggs are
exposed to view, they a re usual ly speckled with markings
that help them blend into their habitat. Li kewi se, you n g
b i rds rea red i n predator-exposed habitats genera l ly have
cryptic marki ngs, which are lacking i n related species nest
ing in predator-free habitats.
Kittiwake chick,
conspicuously marked
Cryptically colored Herring Gull chick

1 18

C a v i ty - nesti n g b i r d s often
com pete for nest sites. The
a g g re s s ive House S p a r row
usually c l a i m s the best site,
leaving native species without
a nesting place.

COMPETITORS red uce pop u lations of s i m i l a r species by

competi ng for food and nesti ng places. Th is effect is usua l ly

m i n imal for s i m i l a r species that have coexisted for many
generations, but it can be severe for species whose ranges
have recently overlapped. S i m i l a r species that overlap in
range and h a b itat usua l ly h ave sufficient d i fferences i n
feed ing habits and i n nesti ng a rrangements, a n d t h u s com
petition i s red uced. Yet many spec ies actively com pete,
espec i a l ly for nesti ng places. The l i m ited n u m ber of tree
cavities, for example, usually l i m its the popu lation of cavi
ty-nesti ng birds, such as bluebirds, House Wrens, and Tree
Swa llows. Si nce nesti ng places are scarce for these species,
a population decline for one cavity-nester can produce a
popu lation increase in another.
Competition for nesting places is especially acute when
i ntrod uced species such a s the House Spa rrow a n d the
E u ropea n Sta r l i n g compete for cavities with native b i rds
such as blueb i rds and Tree Swa l lows. The native b i rds have
not developed appropriate competitive adaptations.
119

Sandhill Cranes

Sudden hailstorms can knock large birds from the sky.

DISEASES AND PARASITES a re common i n wi ld-bird popu

lations, but because birds often show no symptoms, the d is
ease or pa ra s i te condition i s d i fficu lt to detect. A close
exa m i nation of b i rd feathers usual ly shows some feather
l ice and m ites . These a re harmless i n small numbers, but
large numbers can be fata l . Birds may a l so carry various
viruses and protozoa i n their blood . Avian malaria is prob
ably the most common blood disease, with mortality rates
as high as 90 percent.
Diseases can someti mes be a major factor lowering bird
popu l ations, espec i a l ly when b i rd s a re c rowded during
t i m e s of food s hortage or d ro u g h t . I n a n o u tb rea k of
botulism, for example, the bacteri um Clostridium botulinum
killed 250,000 ducks at Great Salt Lake in 1 93 2 . Li kewise,
the mold Aspergillus kil led 2,000 Canada Geese at a Mis
souri wildlife refuge in 1 966, and a flagellated protozoan,
Trichomonas gallinae, l ed to the death of a bout 25,000
Mou rn i ng Doves in Alabama in 1 95 1 .

1 20

WEATH ER A N D ACCI DENTS can devastate b i rd popu la

tions. Migratory birds a re especially vulnerable to such d is

asters, s ince unpredictable winds and storms can interrupt
migration and force birds i nto habitats where they have lit
tle chance of surviva l. Hai lstorms are especially destructive.
For example, two hailstorms i n Alberta, Canada, i n July of
1 95 3 k i l led over 1 48,000 wate rfowl. Li kewi se, a 30minute hailstorm i n New Mexico killed 1 ,000 Lesser Sand
h i l l Cranes. B i rds that migrate over large lakes and ocean s
a re espec i a l ly vul nerable. A severe spri n g storm i n the
Aleutia n Islands lasting five days killed more than 1 00,000
murres.
Early spring migrants are experts at finding insects even
i n cold weather, but late-spring snowstorms can destroy
populations of most i nsect-eating migrants, such as Scarlet
Ta nagers a n d Purple Ma rti n s. Such storms often lead to
widespread starvation when cold temperatures numb flying
insects and delay the hatch ing of i nsect broods.
Late-spring snowstorms can devastate insect-eating m igrants.

Scarlet Tanager

CONSERVATION
The n umber and va riety of birds that l ive in a given a rea
can i n d i cate the hea lth of the hab i tat. Th i s relatio n s h i p
holds because birds requ i re large amounts o f nutrient- rich
food, and such food supplies exist only i n healthy habitats.
If an a rea becomes deg raded by toxic wa stes from o i l
spills, pesticides, acid ra in, o r other forms o f a i r, water, o r
land pollution, the absence o f birds w i l l b e o n e o f the fi rst
warnings that the habitat is also unsafe for humans.
HABITAT LOSS is the most destructive blow humans level at

birds. All birds need food, water, nesting sites, and shelter.
In add ition, each species has its own l ist of specific habitat
requ i rements. Some bi rds, such as Europea n Starlings, are
very adaptable and can l ive in a wide variety of habitats,
but most species a re much more selective. If a habitat is
bulldozed, drai ned, eroded, or poi soned, the variety of
plants and a n i mals will decline.
W E T LA N D S o re t h e m a r s h e s ,
p o n d s , swa m p s , e s tu a r i e s , a n d
other shol lowwoter reg ions along
our coasts and inland waters. Shal
low water i s especially productive,
s i n c e a b u n d a n t s u n l i g h t perm i ts
v e g e ta t i o n to fl o u r i s h , a n d t h i s
feeds a myriad o f animals o n which
b i rds feed.
T h e r e w e r e a b o u t 92 m i l l i o n
acres o f wetlands remaining i n the
lower 48 states in 1 990. Although
th is represents only 5 percent of the
country ' s land a rea, a th i rd of all
the b i rd s in North America occur in
wetl a n d a r e a s . Yet wetl a n d s ore
being converted to farmland, hous
ing developments, and parking lots

1 22

at the rate of about 500,000 acres

every year.

FARMLAN D con be excellent b i rd

habitat. Modern fa rming practices
favo r i n g l a rge, s i n g l e - c rop fa rms
i nstead of small, m u l ti -crop family
fo r m s h o v e , h o w e v e r, r e m oved
much previously good upland habi
ta t. S m a l l fa r m s often m a i n ta i n
hedgerows t o sepa rate p roperty
l i nes and preserve wet a reas and
woodlots. These features have dis
appeared in many area s .
A b u n d a n t use of pesticides and
herbicides offers temporary c rop
production benefits but reduces the
variety of insects and weed seeds.

Tropical forests are disappearing throughout the world at a rapid

rate as roving farmers burn ancient forests, farm for a few years,
and then abandon the depleted land to repeat the cycle elsewhere.
TEMPE RATE FORESTS near u rban

TROPICAL FORESTS are the wi nter

a rea s are rapidly fa l l i g to house

our expa n d i n g po p u l at i o n . N ew
subdivisions, shopping centers,
power l i nes, roads, and h i ghways
remove forested habitats and frog
ment oncelarge woodlands.
Several recent studies have shown
that b i rds nesting in the interior of
such forests often d i sappear as the
size of the wood l a n d decreases.
Such species as the Scarlet Tanager,
Ove n b i rd , R e d eyed V i reo, a n d
Barred Owl requ i re a complete for
est structure with many layers for
singing, nesti ng, and feeding.

home for 1 07 species of migratory

l a n d b i rd s from N o rth A m e r i c a .
They cover only about 7 percent of
the earth ' s su rface, but a re home to
about 50 percent of all plants and
animals.
Tro p i c a l f o r e s t s are b e i n g
d e g r a d e d a t t h e r a te o f a b o u t
62,000 square m i les each year, an
a rea t h e size o f We st V i rg i n i a .
Tropical-forest con servation i s vita l
t o protect t h e winter homes of North
American m i g ra n ts and the many
resident plants and animals and to
preserve these species-rich forests.

1 23

HABITAT QUALITY insures that a protected habitat is not

degraded in subtle ways. Protecting wetlands by posting

them as wildlife sanctuaries, for example, accomplishes l it
tle if toxic chemicals drained from surrounding lands cause
the water qual ity to deteriorate. The loss of complete habi
tats, such as in drained wetlands and logged forests, has
a n i m m ed i a te and d ra m a t i c i m pact o n w i l d l i f e . S l ow
degradation of habitats by poisoni ng or c l imate change
can have a n effect at a reg ional or even global sca le.
WATER POLLUTION o c c u r s when
ferti l izers a n d pesticides run i nto
rivers and marshes. Li kewise, irri
gation water may accumulate natu
ral elements such a s selenium that
con poison wildlife. Each year 543
b i l l ion pounds of tox i c waste ore
generated i n the U n i ted States from
the manufactu re of such items as
p o i n t s , p l a st i c s , a n d h o u s e h o l d
chemica l s . Of th i s amou nt, about
1 3 5 b i l l io n pounds ore released
i nto rivers, lakes, and streams.

LEAD POISONING r e s u l t s w h e n
b i rds swal l ow lead, s u c h a s shot
g u n p e l l ets or f i s h i n g w e i g h t s .
These pellets o re usually picked u p
b y ducks a n d geese along with the
g rovel u sed to c r u s h seed s . They
o re responsible for the deaths of on
esti m a ted 1 .6 m i l l i o n waterfowl
every y e a r. C o n d o r s , v u l t u r e s ,
eagles, and other land b i rds that
s c a v e n g e o n g a m e a n i ma l s o re
a l so p o i s o n e d . Steel s h o t i s o n
alternative to lead shot, now i llega l .

Same wetlands have up t o 1 20,000 lead pellets p e r acre.

1 24

Layson Albatross

Plastics dumped at sea are often consumed by seabirds.

PLASTICS, such as plastic bags, are
often swallowed by albatrosses, sea
turtles, fish, and marine mammals,
which may m i stake them lor jelly
fish . Ingested plastics may block the
digestive tract, give a false feel ing
of satiation, or cause ulcers.
MONOFI LAM E N T F I S H I N G L I N E
from anglers entangles m a n y fish
eati n g b i rd s that break l i nes and
later ta n g l e the l i n e around the i r
w i n g s o r a r o u n d a tree o r other
snag. Pel icans, herons, gulls, and
te r n s a re e s p ec i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e .
Monofilament fishing nets also take
a h u g e i n c i d e n t a l c a t c h of s e a
b i rds. Diving seabirds, s u c h as mur
res and puffi ns, can not see the net,
they become enta ngled, and some
drown .

OVERFISHED stocks of marine fishes

can have d e v a s ta t i n g effects on
seabird populations. Efficient, mod
ern methods of captu r i n g fish can
crop 50 to 70 percent of ava ilable
fish for human con sumption, leav
ing l ittle for fish-eating birds.

OIL tankers lose about 2 to 5 m i llion

tons of oil at sea every year. Most
of th is is not lost in the super spills
that make newspaper headl ines, but
rather through the routi ne rinsing of
storage ta n k s w h i l e s h i ps a re at
sea . Oil k i l l s sea b i rd s by matti n g
t h e feathers a n d by brea k i n g t h e
fea t h e r w a t e r p r oo f i n g . W h e n
sea b i rds attempt t o clean o i l from
their feathers, they may i ngest some
of the o i l , which leads to stomach
ulcers.

1 25

CLIMATE CHAN GE resulti ng from human activities threatens

to h ave a profound impact on a l l plants and a n i ma l s . If

predictions about climate change prove accurate, most bird
populations w i l l suffer. B i rds a re very sen sitive to ra pid
changes i n food supplies and specific habitats.
W H E N FOSSIL F U E LS, such a s
gasoline and coal, are burned, they
release carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) . Th is
rises in the atmosphere and creates
a s h i e l d that b l o c k s some of the
sun ' s heat close to the earth, much
l i ke g l a s s tra p s heat i n a g reen
h o u s e . P r e d i c t i o n s are t h a t th i s
g ree n h o u se effect may r a i s e the
earth ' s temperature by an average
of at least 1 0 degrees F with i n the
next 1 00 yea r s . W h i l e about 75
percent of t h i s C0 2 comes from
a u to e x h a u s t and power p l a n ts,
burning trop i c a l ra i n forests a re
also a major source. Burning
forests bring about a double loss i n
air quality, since living trees cleanse
the air of C0 2 . If pred ictions are
correct, vast n u mbers of northern
trees will die and southern trees will
not be able to " move northwa rd "
la st e n o u g h to keep pace. Most
birds wil l probably not be able to
adapt to such rapid changes.

SEA LEVELS HAVE ALREADY RISEN

4 to 6 inches during this past centu
ry, and the amount of increase will
accelerate with global warm i n g .
Sea levels rise because warm water
expa n d s a n d b e c a u s e p o l a r i c e
caps m e l t . T h i s flood i n g w i l l n o t
o n l y impact major coastal cities but
also vastly affect the present di stri-

1 26

bution of p rec i o u s wetl a n d s a n d

n e s t i n g i s l a n d s u s e d by c o a s t a l
birds. By t h e end of t h e next centu
ry, the oceans may have risen by 6
feet, enough to flood many coastal
cities and wetlands.

OZONE DE PLETION i n the strato

s p h e re resu l ts w h e n h u m a n - p ro
d u c e d c h e m i c a l s d r i ft i n to t h e
stratosphere a n d destroy the pro
tective layer of ozone that shelters
the earth from sea r i n g u l travio l et
r a d i a t i o n . C h l orofl u o ro c a r b o n s
(CFCs) are especially destructive to
ozone. CFCs are used as refrigera
tor and a i r-conditioner coolants, in
spray-can prope lla nts, and i n the
manufacture of loa m p i l l ows and
s t y r o fo a m c u p s . W h e n a C F C
molecule breaks loose from earth , it
slowly drifts upward to the strata
sphere, where ultraviolet radiation
shatters the molecule and releases
c h l o r i n e . One atom of c h l o r i n e
destroys about 1 00,000 molecules
of ozone . Th i s effect has al ready
led to a global loss of 3 to 5 per
cent of the earth ' s ozone.
In Antarctica, up to 50 percent of
the strato s p h e r i c ozone is lost i n
some yea rs. Without the protective
ozone, ultraviolet radiation will kill
a b u n d a n t p l a n kton l i v i n g at the
ocea n su rface. Plan kton forms the

As C0 2 concentrations increase in the ahnosphere, more heat from

the sun is trapped close to the earth. This greenhouse effect leads to
global warming.
base far m a r i n e ecosyste m s a n d
provides most o f t h e new oxygen in
the atmosphere.

ACID PRECIPITATION results when

coal and oil a re burned at power
pla nts and factories. S u l p h u r and
n itrogen are converted i n the atmo
sphere to acids that fa l l with ra i n ,
snow, and fog onto vegetation a n d
l a kes a s fa r a s h u n d reds of m i les
d o w n w i n d from the p o l l u t i o n
source. Many trees i n northeastern
U n i ted States a n d C a n a d a have

al ready been weakened by higher

soi l acidity. Acid p reci pitation a l so
c a u ses the r e l e a s e of p o i s o n o u s
metals from soi l s . T h e loss o f trees i n
forests degraded by acid precipita
tion means less food for caterpillars
a n d other leaf-eati n g i n sects that
nourish many of the northern war
blers and other forest b i rd s . F i s h
eati n g b i r d s , s u c h a s l o o n s a n d
m e r g a n s e r s , a re a l s o a f f e c t e d
because t h e a c i d i c water i n m a n y
northern l a kes h a s k i l l ed fish a n d
crustaceans on w h i c h they feed .

1 27

WHAT IS BEING DONE

to help wild birds? Wh i le the p rob

lems fac i n g w i l d l i fe ( a n d the q u a l i ty of h u m a n l i fe) a re
i mmense, there is abundant evidence that we can find solu
tions t o environ mental problems. Prior to 1 900, for exam
ple, there were few protective laws or wildlife sanctua ries,
and most birds were hunted extensively for food and feath
ers. Even such songbirds as rob ins, wa rblers, and h u m
mingbirds were frequently used t o decorate hats, and most
wild species were readi ly ava i lable at food ma rkets. The
o u t ra g e of c o n c e r n ed peo p l e, h oweve r, stopped th i s
slaughter.
Th is g rassroots awaken ing has continued to g row and
has the potentia l to solve the conservation problems that
cu rrently th reaten wild bi rds. People c a n solve envi ronmen
tal problems as well as create them. Here a re some encour
aging examples.
WILDLI FE LEGISLATION now pro
tects a l l b i rd s in North America
except the i n trod u c e d E u ropean
Starling, House Sparrow, and Rock
Dove. A Convention for the Protec
tion of Migratory B i rds was signed
in 1 9 1 6 by the U n i ted States and
E n g l a n d ( re p resen t i n g C a n a d a ) .
Th i s marked the beg i n n i n g of feder
al reg u l ation of g a m e b i rd s a n d
proh ibited t h e hu nting of all other
b i rds. The federal government later
s i g n e d s i m i l a r b i rd - p rote c t i o n
treaties with Mexico in 1 936, with
Japan in 1 972, and with the Soviet
U n i o n in 1 97 6 . These laws now
protect 8 1 6 species of North Amer
i c a n b i rd s on th e i r s u m m e r a n d
winter ranges. It is i llegal to possess
t h e s e s p e c i e s o r t h e i r fea t h e r s ,
parts, eggs, or nests without special
federal and state permits.

1 28

SPECIFIC LEGAL ACTIONS by the

federal government are working to
help wild birds. In 1 972, for exam
ple, the E n v i ro n m e n ta l P rotection
Agency outlawed the use of DDT in
the U n i ted States. Th i s i n secticide
had led to population decl ines of
the Osprey, Bald Eagle, Peregrine
Falcon, and many songb i rds. Since
the outlawi ng of DDT, most Osprey
and Bald Eagle populations have
shown sign ificant increases.
In a s i m i l a r effort to h e l p w i l d
b i rd s , the U . S . F i s h a n d Wi l d l i fe
Service adopted a plan to phase
out the use of poisonous lead shot
used by hunters and to replace th is
lead shot with nontoxic steel shot.
The pha seout, w h i c h sta rted with
the 1 9 8 7- 1 9 8 8 h u n t i n g s e a s o n ,
was scheduled fo r completion i n
1 99 1 .

AT I O A L
W DL F E
RE FUGE
"--..

National
The
W i l d l ife R e f u g e
system manages
8 8 m i l lion a c res
of wildlife habitat
in
425
u n i ts
t h r o u g h o u t the
United States.
NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGES had
their beginning i n 1 903 when Presi
dent Theodore Roosevelt i ssued an
executive order that protected Pel i
can Island off the east coast of Flori
do a s " a prese rve and breed i ng
ground for native b i rds . " Roosevelt
c re a t e d 52 a d d i t i o n a l r e f u g e s
before leav i n g office i n 1 909 . I n
1 9 2 9 , fo l l o w i n g a d e c a d e o f
d r o u g h t a n d d e c l i n i n g w i l d l i fe ,
Congress passed the Migratory B i rd
Con servation Act a u t h o r i z i n g the
creation of m i g ratory-bird refuges.

___)
The National W i l d l ife Refuge Sys
tem has grown to i nclude 425 u n its
encompassing 88 m i l l ion acres, 77
m i l l ion i n Alaska.
The N a t i o n a l W i l d l i fe R e f u g e s
offer breed ing, m i g ration, and w i n
te r i n g h a b i ta t to m a ny k i n d s o f
w i l d l ife. S i nce m o s t refuges were
esta b l i s h ed to p rotect m i g ratory
w a t e r fow l , s u c h as d u c k s a n d
geese, they also protect habitat lor
other water b i rd s such as herons,
i b i s , c r a n e s , a n d ra i l s . M a n y
refuges welcome human visitors.

1 29

PRIVATE CONSERVATION ORGANIZATIONS p lay a vita l

role in protecting wild bi rds. Even before the federal and

state governments began efforts to protect bird s with legis
lation a n d w i l d l i fe sa nctua ries, concerned peopl e were
organ izing g roups dedicated to protecting wild birds and
their habitats. Private conservation organ izations serve as
watchdogs over state and federa l agencies and p romote
legislation and programs that benefit wild l i fe and natu ral
habitats. They a l so identify conservation issues and encour
age members to u rge elected representatives to vote for
pro-envi ronment legislation. In North America, a bout 25
organ izations a re primarily concerned with bird conserva
tion . I n add ition, several hundred g roups a re concerned
with conservation of natu ral resources. Described here a re
fou r of the largest, most active groups. (Also see p. 1 56 . )
NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCI ETY
conducts scientific studies of b i rd
conservation i s s u e s and actively
promotes con servation legislation
a n d e d u c a ti o n . The s o c i ety h a s
more than 500,000 members orga
nized i nto more than 500 chapters
throughout North America. It keeps
its members i nformed about envi
r o n m e n ta l i s s u e s by p u b l i s h i n g
A udubon, A merican B irds, a n d
Audubon Activist. It also has a not
u ra l - h i story p rogram for schoo l s
called "Audubon Adventures. "
Founded i n the early 1 900s, i t
led the bottle to end the slaughter
of b i rds for the m i l l i nery (feather)
trade. Today it protects 70 wildlife
s a n c t u a r i e s , m o s t of w h i c h ore
i m portant breeding a reas for colo
n i a l water b i rds, and i t operates
resident Envi ron mental Education
C a m p s and Centers for c h i l d ren

1 30

and adults. For more i n formation

contact National Audubon Society,
950 Third Avenue, New York, NY
1 0022.

WORLD W I L D L I F E F U N D - U . S .
works worldwide to protect endan
gered wildl ife and wildlands, espe
cially in the tropical forests. World
Wildl ife Fund has helped establish
1 80 n a t i o n a l p a r k s a n d n a t u re
reserves, supports scientific investi
g a t i o n s , m o n i to r s i n te r n a t i o n a l
trade i n wild l i fe, a n d assi sts local
g r o u p s in con servation projects.
World Wildlife Fund-U . S . publ ish
es o monthly membership newslet
ter Focus. The o rg a n i zation was
formed i n 1 96 1 and has a b o u t
300,000 members. Contact World
W i l d l i f e F u n d-U . S . , 1 2 5 0 2 4 t h
S t r e e t , NW, Wa s h i n g t o n , D C
20037.

NATIONAL WILDLIFE FEDERATION

THE NATURE CONSERVANCY is a n

educates people about the need for

wise use and proper management
of natural resources. It accomplishes
this through a wide variety of publ i
cations, including Notional Wildlife,
International Wildlife, and two chil
d ren's magazines, Ranger Rick and
Your Big Backyard. It also publishes
an annual Conservation Directory,
a comprehensive l i st of conservation
organizati o n s a n d envi ronmental
leaders. In addition, NWF sponsors
wee k - l o n g Con servation S u m m its
that focus on the natural h istory and
conservation of various regions. It
a l so l i ti gates e nv i ro n m e ntal d i s
putes. Organ ized i n 1 93 6 , NWF
has 4,800,000 members, with affil
i a te orga n i za t i o n s i n every state
a n d a n e tw o r k of 1 3 r e g i o n a l
offices. Contact National Wildl i fe
Federation, 1 4 1 2 1 6th Street, NW,
Wa s h i n g to n , DC 2 0 0 3 6 - 2 2 6 6 .

international membership organ iza

tion d e d i cated to a c q u i r i n g l a n d
w i th u n u su a l natu r a l featu r e s o r
exceptionally h i g h biological d iver
sity. Its m i ssion is to find, protect,
and mainta i n the best examples of
ecological commun ities, ecosystems,
and endangered species throughout
the world. S i nce it was founded in
1 95 1 , it has been respo n s i b l e for
the protection of nearly 3.5 m i l l ion
a c res in 50 states, Canada, Latin
America, and the Caribbea n . Some
lands a re transferred for manage
ment to other organ izations, but its
system of some 1 ,000 preserves i s
the largest privately owned nature
preserve system in the world. It pub
l i s h e s Th e Nature Conservancy
magazine for its 343,000 members.
C ontact The Nature Con servan cy,
S u ite 800, 1 800 N . Kent Street,
Arlington, VA 22209.

1 31

WILDLIFE SUCCESS STORIES offer hope that with enough

pla n n i ng, financial support, and persistence, some species

can be rescued even from imm inent extinction.
TRUMPETER SWANS have a wingspan of up to 8 feet and

hold the record as the heaviest flyi ng bird i n North Ameri

ca. They were once widespread and abundant i n Canada
and northern United States, but overhunting for food and
for their dense feathers {used i n comforters a n d powder
puffs) nearly led to thei r extinction. By 1 932, only 69 Trum
peter Swans su rvived i n the lower U.S. on several isolated
l a kes near Yellowstone National Park. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service protected these survivors and moved some
to other a reas with i n their h i storic range. These actions led
to a d ra m atic recovery. The Tru mpeter Swa n popu lation
has now increased to about 5,000 birds. For more infor
mation contact The Trumpeter Swan Society, 3800 County
Road 24, Maple Pla i n , MN 55379.
WHOOP I N G C RA N E S n u m bered approxi m a tely 700 i n

1 870, b u t intense hunting a n d the d ra i n ing o f wetlands

a long their migratory route nearly led to their extinction. By
1 94 1 , only 1 5 birds su rvived i n the wild. Si nce that low
point, protection from h u nting a n d an egg-tra n sfer pro
gram have greatly improved their prospects for su rvival. By
1 98 5 , t h e re were 28 pa i rs n esti n g a t Wood B u f fa l o
National Park i n Alberta, Canada. These adults a n d thei r
you n g n u m b e red 1 20 i n 1 988. I n a d d i t i o n , a n o t h e r
Whooping Crane popu lation, conta i n ing about 3 0 t o 3 5
birds i n 1 986, was started at Grays Lake National Wi ldlife
Refuge in southeastern Idaho. Sand h i l l Cranes served as
foster parents. For more i n formation write I nternational
Crane Foundation, E- 1 1 376 Shady Lane Road , Baraboo,
WI 539 1 3-9778.
1 32

Young Whooping Crane with foster-parent Sandhill C ranes

Hunting and the draining of wetlands caused the Whooping Crane
population to plummet to only 1 5 by 1 94 1 - An egg-transfer program
in which Sandhill Cranes serve as foster parents has led to a second
wild population in the Rockies-

1 33

PEREGRINE FALCON populations were decimated i n most

parts of North America by the widespread use of DDT a n d

similar pesticides after World War II. The poisons caused
the birds' egg shells to become thin so that the eggs were
usually crushed by the incubating parents.
The ba n n i n g of DDT i n 1 972 resulted i n normal egg
shells i n some areas, but elsewhere shells remain thi n . This
suggests that some Peregrines are stil l picking up DDT on
their winter range. Brazil , for example, used 30,000 metric
tons of DDT in 1 984. Captive rearing programs, in which
b i rd s a re h atched i n captivity and then "hacked" from
exposed platforms where they receive food through a h id
den chute, h ave proved very successfu l . By 1 990, there
were 84 pairs established on territories from North Caroli
na to Maine. Contact The Peregrine Fund, Inc., 5666 West
Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID 83709.

Decoys have helped to lure adult puffins back to Eastern Egg Rock.

ATLANTIC PUFFINS were hunted along the Ma ine coast for

food and feathers in the late 1 800s, which nearly led to

their extinction in this region . The National Audubon Soci
ety a n d the C a n a d i a n W i ld l i fe Service a re work i n g to
restore puffins to some of their historic nesting islands off
the Maine coast. Between 1 973 and 1 98 1 these organ iza
tions transplanted 734 two-week-old puffins from the large
colony o n Great I s l a n d , Newfoundland, to Eastern Egg
Rock, a former nesting colony off mid-coast Maine. These
chicks were hand-reared in a rtificial burrows, banded, and
then released . Five pairs returned to breed at the island i n
1 98 1 , and the colony h a d grown to 1 5 pairs b y 1 990.
N a ti o n a l A u d u b o n h a s u sed s i m i l a r tec h n i q u es to
restore colonies of terns and storm-petrels to the Ma i n e
coast. Write Project Puffin, National Audubon Society, 1 59
Sapsucker Woods Road, Ithaca, New York 1 4850.
1 35

WHAT YOU CAN DO The problems that face b i rd s a n d

other wildlife are largely a result o f h u m a n l i festyles a n d

rapid population growth.
While new technologies have brought us a more com
fortable and productive l i fe, they have also given us such
unforeseen problems as acid precipitation and the g reen
house effect, wh ich th reaten all life on earth. Here a re some
actions you can fol low to help assure futu re generations a
chance to enjoy the birds we know today:
Join a conservation organization to stay informed about
issues ( see pp.1 30-1 31 and 1 56).
Wri te letters to you r elected representatives to m a ke
you r opinions on conservation issues known.
Be a conservation-wise consumer. As an example, avoid
fast-food beef that was produced i n tropical countries, for
th i s is often a product of pastures where ra i n forests were
bu rned. Also, th ink efficiency. Each light you turn off in a
room red uces o i l pol l u tion i n the sea s , a c i d ra i n , a n d
g reen house ga ses. Buy products packaged i n recyclable
paper or plastic. Recycle paper, cans, g lass, and plastic.
Start a backya rd compost heap. Small d a i ly actions can
collectively make a huge difference.
Partici pate i n such b i rd - m o n i toring p rog ra m s as the
Ch ristmas Bird Count, wherein observers census the num
ber of b i rd s with i n a 1 5- m i le-d iameter c i rcle each yea r.
Changes with i n the census a rea and with i n reg ions can tell
u s about the health of wild-bird popu lations. For deta i ls,
contact the National Audubon Society, 950 Third Avenue,
New York, NY 1 0022. Also, participate i n Project Feeder
watch, in which observers count the number and variety of
birds at their feeders and report th is information so we can
learn more about reg ional and national popu lation trends.
Contact Cornel l Laboratory of Ornithology, 1 59 Sapsucker
Woods Road, Ithaca, NY 1 4850.
1 36

Tel l friends a bout the fun they can have watching bi rds.
E n co u rage those who i g n o re th e i r dependence on the
earth 's a i r, water, and soi l to recogn ize that bird conserva
tion is not o n l y a n eth ical obl igation but a l so a sound
investment.
Plant trees i n you r yard. Trees cool you r home d u ring
summer and block c h il l ing winds during winter. They can
g reatly reduce energy demands for a i r-cond ition ing and
heating and thus reduce g reen house gases. They a lso recir
culate water to the atmosphere, remove ca rbon d ioxide
from the a i r, and provide essentia l food and shelter for
bi rds.

Participants in the Audubon Society' s Christmas Bird Count count the

birds within their 1 5-mile-diameter circle.

ATIRACTING BIRDS
IMPROVI NG BIRD HABITAT The n u mber a n d variety of
birds that l ive in backyards and community parks can be
greatly enhanced by selecting and planting trees, shrubs,
vines, and ground covers favorable to wild birds.
E D G E S attract a g reater va riety of b i rds, for edges a re

places where birds can benefit from two or more habitats.

The edge between a hedgerow a n d a n open lawn , for
example, is very attractive to birds. Each habitat has bene
fits. The lawn can provide seeds from such plants as crab
grass, sheep sorrel, and clover; the hedge can provide nest
sites, cover from predators, protection from harsh weather,
a n d such fru its as crabapple a n d rose h ips. Edges a lso
provide more insect food.
Edges between any two habitats benefit more birds.

1 38

American Robin

Landscapers hoping to attract birds should layer their property i n

both horizontal a n d vertical directions.

LAYER YOU R PLANTINGS in both vertical and horizontal

d i rections. Habitats form layers where they meet, and these
junctions ore especially attractive to birds. Yards that hove
a close-cropped lawn in thei r center and then sequential
habitats extending to the property edges, such as wildflow
er patches, g ro un d - covering vines, sma l l s h rubs, l a rge
shrubs, smal l trees, and Iorge trees, offer varied habitats
and on abundance of rich edges. Similarly, vertical layer
ing con g reatly enhance the space under large trees. Just
as many layers of forest vegetation encourage d iverse bird
faunas in tropical forests, woodlots and isolated tol l trees
con be e n h a n ced for b i rd s by planting l a y ers of b i rd
attracting trees, shrubs, and vi nes. Birds seldom spend a l l
of their time i n o n e layer. Chipping Sparrows, for example,
sing from the ta l lest canopy perches, nest in low, thorny
shrubs, and feed in short gross.

1 39

SELECT PLANTS that provide one or more of the fol lowing

i n order to attract b i rds: food, cover, nesti ng materia l, a

nesting place, or singing perches. Consider such trees and
shrubs as flowering dogwood, mounta i n -ash, red ced a r,
honeysuckles, and hol lies, which are both pleasing to the
eye and have g reat value to birds. Try to select a mix of
shrubs that provides food th roughout the year. Such fru iting
trees a s c rabapples and hawthorns have s m a l l, colorfu l
fruits that stay o n the tree through the wi nter and into the
next spri ng.
When selecti ng plantings for wildlife, avoid exotic, or
nonnative, trees and sh rubs. Exotics may not su rvive i n
you r cli mate, a n d some are s o aggressive that they smother
native plants. Fast-growing exotic sh rubs, such as oriental
bittersweet and Japanese honeysuckle, regula rly outcom
pete native plants for l iving space.
See the references l isted on page 1 57 for specific sug
gestions for your reg ion. Also, consult you r local a rbore
tum, nature center, and plant nursery to see wh ich plants
are recommended for attracting wildlife.
SLOPI N G GROU N D wi l l attract more ground-feeding b i rds
to you r property. Just as birds that l ive in sh rubs and trees
prefer areas where habitats or layers come together, such
ground-feed ing birds as wrens, towhees, and certai n spar
rows prefer to feed where they find changes in the slope of
the g ro u n d. I n n a tu ra l h a b i tats, these b i rd s often feed
under fa llen trees, among tangled roots, and at the edges
of streams. When possible, work to preserve a more varied
ground cover and include changes of slope, such as rock
faces, rock piles, and logs.
Varied ground cover and changes of slope are aHractive to different
birds.

1 40

SACRIFICE SOME LAWN for alternative g ro u n d c overs .

On ly a few birds, such as g rackles, robins, and flickers,
feed on dose-cropped lawns. When insectic ides and herbi
cides a re used to mainta in the manicured lawn effect, the
lawns may be a serious hazard to the few species that do
use them. A sma l l patch of lawn does have a useful place
in a wi ldlife plan, however, since some species wil l use it,
and it can be looked over to view the more productive
shru bs and trees beyond .
Many ground-feeding birds, such as towhees, catbirds,
and thrashers, prefer patches of leaf litter i n wh ich they can
kick and pick in their tireless search for i nsects and worms.
To c reate leaf- l i tter a reas u nder trees a n d s h ru bs, rake
leaves into these areas and let them decompose in order to
attract excellent bird food such as earthworms, sowbugs,
and beetles.
Low-growing perennial plants provide a useful alterna
tive to g rass. Ground covers, such as bearberry, crowberry,
pa rtridgeberry, a n d cotoneaster, have everg reen leaves
and fru its that a re attractive to birds. Even patches of lawn
that go to seed are more attractive to birds tha n a re close
cropped lawns.
WATER SUPPLIES wil l also increase the number and variety

of birds that visit your yard . This is especially important i n

a r i d regions or in northern habitats i n winter when open
water is scarce. Electric heaters designed espec i a l ly for
keeping water from freezing in bird feeders a re ava ilable
at farm- and feeder-supply shops. You r success i n attract
ing birds to water wil l be greatest if you can arrange for
movement in the water. This is best done by fashioning a
d ripping hose or bucket over the birdbath . Birdbaths are
most attractive to birds when placed on or i n the ground
with the water less than 2 inches deep.
1 42

Bearberry

Bird-aHracting ground-cover
plants for semishady areas

Water supplies with dripping or running

water a re highly aHractive to birds.

1 43

FE EDING BIRDS
Each year a round 1 2 m i l l ion Americans offer approximate
ly a th i rd of a m i l l ion tons of bi rdseed to backya rd birds.
Assessing the importance of these foods to wild bird s is dif
ficult. Weather, the ava i la b i l i ty of wild food s, a n d other
factors affect the wel l-being of bi rds.
Black-ca pped Chickadees that visit b i rd feeders have
h igher su rviva l rates d u r i n g the h a rshest winte r months
than do nearby popu lations that forage only i n the forest. It
i s l i kely that many other b i rds that frequent feeders also
benefit from copious a mou nts of h i g h - q u a l i ty food. The
abundance of birds frequenting feeding areas, contrasted
to the relative sca rcity of b i rds in adjacent th i c kets and
woods, attests to how well birds adapt to feeders.
Yet bird feeders are a recent phenomena. Cornucopias
of seed a re a novelty to wild birds that have adapted over
many generations to the harsh realities of rigorous winters.
Black-capped Chickadees, for exa mple, con serve energy
on frigid winter nights by slipping into a torpid condition
d u r i n g w h i c h th e i r body tem pe ratu re d rops from 1 05
degrees F during the day to only about 85 degrees F.
Beca u se w i nter b i rd s h ave both p h ys i o log i c a l a n d
behaviora l adaptations for su rviving rigorous winters, it is
l i kely that most species wou ld do just fi ne without feedi ng.
Heal thy b i rd s wo u l d probably eat m o re w i l d food s or
migrate to more food- rich areas. The idea of a wel fare
b i rd population, survivi ng only because of human generos
ity, is inaccurate. Most birds supplement food from feeders
by eating weed seeds and insects. The best reason to feed
b i rds is that it is fun and educationa l . Bird feeders enable
children to study birds and allow those who must stay at
home to keep i n touch with the outdoors by observi n g
birds.
144

Bird feeding is fun and

e d u c a ti o n a l , but m o s t
birds a re probably not
d e p e n d e n t o n feed ers
and can find ample food
in the wild.

American
Goldfinch

White-breasted
Nuthatch

Black-ca pped C h i c k
adees trap a i r in their
feathers by fluffing up
on cold winter days to
increase the insulation
,--- effect.

1 45

PROVIDE VARIED FOODS to attract the greatest variety of

birds. Seeds, suet, d ried fru it, fresh fruit, peanut butter, and
even mealworms ( beetle larvae ava i lable at pet stores) will
each attract d ifferent b i rds. Place the food s i n sepa rate
feeders positioned at d i fferent elevations a n d d i sta nces
from you r house to reduce crowding and competition with
such aggressive species as jays, grackles, and starlings.
BIRDSEEDS a re the simplest th ing to feed birds. These are
easy to sto re a n d packed with energy. Yet eac h b i rd
species h a s d i stinct preferences for spec ific seed s . For
example, sunflower seed is so popular that chickadees, tit
m ice, and other sunflower-seed lovers will kick most other
seed out of the feeder just to pick out the sunflower seed .
Once the rejected seed falls to the ground, it may be cov
ered by snow or soaked by rain and turn to mush. These
wet seeds may harbor disease during warmer months. It is
best to offer pure seed in d ifferent feeders, rather than buy
ing m ixes in which a l l of the seeds are tossed together.
PREFERRED SEEDS a re more expensive, but they a re the
best bargai n since there will be less waste. Sunflower seeds
are eaten by at least 40 species, including jays, nuthatches,
c h i ckadees, titm i ce, g rosbeaks, goldfi n c h es, a n d other
finches. Black oil seed is more attractive to small birds such
as chickadees since it is smallest and easier to open . Wh ite
mil let is the preferred seed of most sparrows and juncos.
These birds have smal l beaks that are not well adapted for
cracking sunflower seeds . Cracked corn is a favorite of
jays, g rackles, doves, and the Red - bell ied Wood pecker.
Always keep it d ry as it soaks up water qu ickly and deteri
orates. N iger (th istle) seed, a very expensive seed imported
from India, N igeria, and Ethiopia, is especially attractive to
redpolls, finches, and the Pine Siski n .

1 46

coffee can for

sunflower seeds

Homemade Grain Feeders

should
be located at
different heights
and distances
from a house to
avoid crowding
and competition.

I deally, each seed s hould be in a

separate feeder to avo i d waste,
a nd feeders should be watertight.

1 47

SUET i s a favorite food for birds that natura l ly pick insects

and the i r eggs from tree bark and crevices. Perhaps the
color and oily texture of the suet remind the b i rds of their
insect meals. Solid chunks of beef fat a re best.
Commercial suet holders a re ava i lable, but it is just as
effective to put the suet i n a mesh onion or g ra pefru it bag
or to drill holes into a log and then pound the suet into the
holes, cracks, and crevices. Suet can also be melted into a
liquid form and then resol idi fied. Try pouring it into feed
ing logs or creating other suet molds. Avoid feed ing birds
suet i n the summer; the greasy suet can mat feathers and
decrease their waterproofing characteristics. For a warm
weather suet substitute, mix 1 cup of peanut butter, 4 cups
of cornmeal, and 1 cup each of shorten i ng and white flour.
Th is m ixtu re is highly attractive to bi rds.
FRESH FRUIT, such as oranges, grapefru its, and bananas,

may attract orioles and tanagers to your yard. Dried fru it,
such a s cu rrants and ra i s i n s, a re a l so eagerly eaten by
such b i rds as robi n s, waxwings, mockingbird s, catbi rds,
and bluebi rds that rarely eat seeds or suet at feeders.
MEALWORMS are the la rvae of darkl ing beetles. They are
easy to rear and a re an excellent source of food for i nsect
eating birds. Even such seed-eating b i rds as the Northern
Cardinal feed their young on insects and will readily take
mealworms.
Obtai n several dozen mealworms from a local pet shop
and put them into an aquarium or a gallon-sized g lass jar.
Fill th i s halfway with a m ixture of bran and bread crumbs
or crackers. Provide a few apple sl ices for moistu re, and
then cover with paper. Soon, with i n a month or two, the
colony should conta in hundreds of mea lworms. Place these
in a baking pan and set it near your bird feeder.

1 48

Northern (Bullock's)
Oriole

Rufous-sided Towhee

Orioles enjoy fresh fruit, insect eoters like meolworms, and hum
mingbirds are attracted to sugar-water feeders.

SU GAR-WATER FEEDERS attract birds that normal ly feed on

flower nectar, fru it, or tree sap. At least 53 species of North

American bird s will drink sugar water. These include ori
oles, wrens, woodpeckers, chickadees, and several kinds of
warblers, but it i s especially attractive to h u m m i ng b i rds. To
create a sugar-water m ix, combine granular wh ite sugar or
brown sugar with water at equal ( 1 : 1 ) proportions. Then
boi l th is m ixture to retard fermentation. After boi l i ng, d i lute
the m ixtu re to a 1 :4 solution by adding th ree additional
parts water. Extra sugar water can be kept i n a pitcher i n
you r refrigerator, b u t b e sure to rinse unused s u g a r water
from feeders every few days so that the m ixture doesn ' t cul
ture molds that m ay kill b i rd s . Once b i rd s sta rt visiting
feeders, the sugar-water m ix can be fu rther d i luted to 1 :6
to conserve on sugar and further reduce the chance of fer
mentation. A few d rops of red food coloring ma kes the
m ixtu re more visible.
1 49

SELECT F E E D E R S that a re weather tight for d ispen s i n g

foods. T h i s should b e the pri mary consideration for both

homemade and commercial feeders. If the roof of the feed
er leaks, then mold can grow i nside the feeder. Feeders
with metal parts, such as perches and wire baskets for suet,
do not i n jure birds. Since birds have dry, horny scales over
their toes, their feet will not freeze on contact with subzero
metals. likewise, birds' eyes a re protected by a nictitating
membrane, and their reflexes are so quick that thei r eyes
are a lmost a lways safe from touch ing meta l .
B I R D FOOD S H O U LD B E STO R E D i n d ry, g a lva n ized
garbage cans. Metal cans decrease the chances of rodents
chewing through plastic conta iners. Large amounts of seed
should not be stored over the sum mer months because
moths and beetles often lay eggs in the seed . N iger seed
should be stored in a cold area during the summer because
the oil in the seed may become rancid when hot and birds
wil l then reject the seed .
Homemade Suet Feeders

pinecone
wire
mesh

1 50

half a

l rI)

Homemade Suet Feeders

-----

-r
1 2"

" stove
bolt

--L
/

\4"
) hardware
cloth

" stove bolt

haif a
soup can

1 51

BIRD FEEDI N G CAN CREATE HAZARDS for bird s s ince it

attracts them close to houses where they may col l ide with
windows and where they are more vu lnerable to house cats
a n d dogs. Al so, feed i n g ten d s to concen trate b i rd s i n
unusually high numbers and thus exposes them to d i seases
a n d predation prob lems tha t they wou ld not othe rwi se
expenence.
WIN DOW COLLISIONS occur when b i rds a re frig htened
from a feeder and qu ickly scatter in all d i rections. If they
see an open passage of light through two windows that a re
aligned, they may fly d irectly into the window, or they may
be fooled by m irror reflections of open landscapes on the
glass. Someti mes pa rticular birds repeatedly h i t the same
window, even dozens of times on the same day. If th i s
occurs i n t h e spring or early summer, it' s probably because
the bird sees its own reflection i n the glass and is attempt
ing to persuade th is reflection to leave!
The best solution for any of these problems is fi rst to
move the location of the feeder. Th is may reduce the num
ber of window stri kes. If necessary, you can hang stream
ers in front of the windows or, as a last resort, even dangle
pie pans. A more aesthetic alternative is to paste silhouettes
of falcons on the window; these may encourage b i rds to
use alternative passages. ( " Bi rd- saver" s i l houettes of fa l
cons a re ava i lable from the (row's Nest Bookshop, Cornell
Laboratory of Orn ithology, 1 59 Sapsucker Woods Road,
Ithaca, NY 1 4850.)
Window col l i sions do not usually kill bi rds, but they may
be stun ned for a few m i nutes, during which time they a re
very vu lnerable to house cats and dogs. If you hea r a thud
outside you r window and find a stunned bird, place it tem
pora rily in a dark box where it will be safe. If it is a mi nor
accident, the bird should recuperate with i n an hour.

1 52

Falcon silhouette can help prevent window collisions.

DISEASES a re sometimes spread between b i rd s at feeders,

but these d iseases rarely spread to humans. Because food
is concentrated at feeders and is easier for b i rds to obta i n
there than it i s i n most w i l d situations, s i c k b i rds sometimes
show u p and rema i n a t feeders rather tha n m i g ra t i n g .
Problems u s u a l ly occu r i n t h e s p r i n g or s u m mer months
w h e n w a r m e r te m p e r a t u r e s p e r m i t s u c h m o l d s a s
Aspergillus fumigatus to g row i n the damp, spil led g ra i n
that h a s accumu lated u nder feeders.
Ground-feed ing bi rds, such as cardinals, g rackles, and
blackbi rds, and such small birds as finches a re vu l nerable
to Salmonella infections. Bacteria i n th i s g roup o re spread
by birds eating seeds conta m i nated with the d roppings of
other b i rds. I n fected b i rds can then carry the bacteria to
other feeders. To m i n i m ize the chances of s a l monellosis
sprea d i n g between feeders, avoid feed i n g b i rd s o n the
g round a s the seed may become conta m i nated by d rop
p i n g s from i n fected b i rds. Feeders should be scrubbed
i nside and out with a weak ( l : 20) ch lorox solution at least
once each year.

1 53

H AWKS are often attracted to feeders because of the con

centration there of smal l birds. Sharp-shi nned and Coop

er' s hawks a re the most common hawk visitors . They often
perch in a nearby tree and then make a dash for one of
the flock. If they capture a bird, the remainder of the flock
wil l scatter and then may be more hesitant about an i m me
diate return to the feeder. If a hawk persists, simply stop
putting out food for the smaller birds. The hawk will soon
move on to hunt elsewhere.
NUISANCE MAMMALS, such as squ irrels, cats, and rats,

can plague feeders. Each requ i res a different strategy to

minimize their impact on small birds. If you have a house
cat, keep it inside. Cats are very destructive to wild birds,
and even placing bells a round their neck w i l l not make
them harm less. Feral cats should be caught with l ive traps,
such as the Havahart traps ava i lable at most h ardware
stores, and then taken to pet shelters. Put feeders at least
1 0 feet away from shrubbery so that cats wil l not lunge out
at unsuspecting birds. Hanging feeders help to reduce the
chances of a surprise attack from a cat.
By keepi n g b i rdseed off the gro u n d , there a re a l so
fewer problems with rats and mice. If rat and mice prob
lems persist (evidenced by rats popping in and out of a
labyrinth of tunnels under feedersL the rats can be con
trolled by pouring an anticoagu lant poison, such as War
farin or Talon, into the burrow entrances. Place the bait as
far back into the tunnel as possible to reduce the chance of
birds picking it up by accident.
The best way to discourage squirrels is to put the feed
ers in open places where the squi rrels cannot jump down
onto them . Put each feeder on a separate pole and sus
pend a squirrel guard or hang a 4-inch-diameter, 1 8-inch
long section of PVC pipe under the feeder.
1 54

Sharp-shinned Hawk

Hawks sometimes
aHack birds at
feeders.

If a feral or neighbor' s cat

haunts your bird feeder, trap it
with a Havahart trap and take
it to the local animal shelter
or return it to your neighbor.
Titmouse

Squirrels can be deterred by

aHaching a special squirrel
guard over the feeder's sup
port pole.

1 55

ORGANIZATIONS TH AT CAN HELP

American Ornithologists' Union, I nc . , National Museum of Natura l H istory,
Smithsonian Institution, Washi ngton, DC 20560
The Canadian Wildlife Federation, 1 673 Carl ing Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario
K2A 3 Z l Canada
Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, 1 59 Sapsucker Woods Road, Ithaca,
NY 1 4850
Ducks Unlimited, Inc., One Waterfowl Way, Long Grove, I L 60047
International Council for Bird Preservation, 80 1 Penn sylvania Avenue, SE,
Washi ngton, DC 20003
League of Conservation Voters, 320 4th Street, N E , Wa s h i n g to n , DC
20002
Manomet Bird Observatory, P.O. Box 936, Manomet, MA 02345
National Audubon Society, 950 Th i rd Avenue, New York, NY 1 0022
National Wildlife Federation, 1 4 1 2 1 6th Street, NW, Was h i n gton , DC
20036-2266
Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 1 22 E . 42nd Street, New York,
NY 1 0 1 68
North American Bluebird Society, P.O. Box 6295, Silver Spring, MD 20906
North American Loon Fund, R . R . 4, Box 240C, Mered ith, NH 03253
Rai nforest Allia nce, 295 Madi son Avenue, S u ite 1 804, New York, NY
1 00 1 7
The Nature Conservancy, Su ite 800, 1 800 N. Kent Street, Arli ngton , VA
22209
The Sierra Club, 730 Pol k Street, Son Franci sco, CA 94 1 09
Wildlife Conservation International, New York Zoological Society, Bronx,
NY 1 0460-9973
The World Wildlife Fund, 1 250 24th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037
MAGAZINES
American Birds (quarterly). 950 Th i rd Aven ue, New York, NY 1 0022
Audubon Magazine (bimonthly) . 950 Third Avenue, New York, NY 1 0022
Bird Watcher's Digest (bimonthly). P.O. Box 1 1 0, Marietta, OH 45750
Birder's World (bimonthly). 720 E. 8th Street, Holland, Ml 49424
Birding (bimonthly) . American B i rd i ng Association, I n c . , P.O. Box 6599,
Colorado Springs, CO 80934
The Living Bird Quarterly (quarterly). Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology,
1 59 Sapsucker Woods Rood, Ithaca , NY 1 4850
WildBird (monthly). Fancy Publications, Inc., 3 Bu rroughs, Irving, CA 927 1 8

1 56

BOOKS ABOUT BIRDS

FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Peterson, R . T. A Field Guide to the Birds of Eastern and Central North
America, 4th eel. 1 980. A Field Guide to Western Birds, 3 rd ed. 1 990.
Both Boston: Houghton Miffl i n . Peterson system uses arrows pointing to
key field marks. Deta i led range maps in back of book.
Robbins, C . S., B. Bruun, and H . S. Zim. Birds of North America: A Guide
to Field Identification, rev. ed. New York: Golden Press, 1 98 3 . Identifies
all b i rds of North America i n one volume; range maps face illustrations.
Scott, S . L., ed . A Guide to the Birds of North America, 2nd ed . Washing
ton , DC : National Geographic Society, 1 987. Includes both eastern and
western b i rds. More illustrations of Right and various postures than i n
other guides. Range maps opposite text.

BIRD BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

E h r l i c h , P. , D . S . Dobki n , and D . Wheye. The Natural History of North
American Birds. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1 98 8 . I ncl udes entries on
the number of eggs, length of incubation, and other specifics about nat
ural h istory.
Stokes, D. W. A Guide to the Behavior of Common Birds. 1 979. A Guide to
Bird Behavior, Vol . I I by D. W. Stokes and L. Q. Stokes. 1 983. A Guide
to Bird Behavior, Vol . I l l by D. W. Stokes and L. Q. Stokes. 1 989. All
Boston: Little, Brown and Co. In field-gu ide format.
Terres, J. K. The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1 980. One vol ume ( 1 , 1 09 pages) i n
encyclopedia treatment. Abundant photos.
Welty, J . , and L. Bapti sta . The Life of Birds, 4th ed . New York: Saunders Col
lege Publishing, 1 98 8 . Introductory college text on general ornithology.

BIRDWATCHING AND ATTRACTING BIRDS

Den n i s , J. V. A Complete Guide to Bird Feeding. N ew York: Al fred A.
Knopf, I n c . , 1 975. Ways to attract a variety of b i rds.
Kress, S . W. The Audubon Society Guide to Attracting Birds. New York:
Charles Scribner ' s Sons, 1 985. A comprehensive guide to landscaping,
feeding, and building nest boxes for b i rds.
Kress, S . W. The Audubon Society Handbook for Attracting Birds. New
York: Charles Scribner ' s Sons, 1 98 1 . How to identi fy, observe, record,
and photograph b i rds.
Terres, J. K. Songbirds in Your Garden, 3rd ed. New York: Hawthorn Books,
Inc., 1 977. Housing, feeding, and landscaping lor birds.

1 57

INDEX
Accidents, 121
Acid precipitation, 127
Ages of birds, 116, 117
Alarm call, 38, 87
Albatross(es), 70, 75, 102
Layson, 125
Royal, 48, 49
Wandering, 68
Albumen, 64, 72
Altricial young, 68, 76
Anhinga(s), 30
Anng, 12, 13

Archaeopteryx, 99
Aspergillus, 120, 153

Catbird, Gray, 16, 63, 85,

138, 142, 148

Cats, 154

Chaffinch, European, 94,

95

Chickadee(s), 17, 19, 32,

36, 37, 48, 56, 76,

100, 116, 146, 149
Black-capped, 37, 42,
144, 145, 155
Chicken(s), domestic, 71,
72 (egg )

Christmas B i rd C ount,
136, 137

AHracting birds, 138

Avocet, American, 31

Clostridium botulinum,

Barbel, Prong-billed, 34
Borbules, 8
Barn -Owl, Common, 8 ,

Clutch, size of, 70

Colonies, 58
Competition, 18, 20, 24,

Bathing, 10
Bee-eater, White-fronted,

Condor, Californi a , 56,

94, 95

54, 55

Bill wiping, 14
Birdbaths, 10, 142
BiHern(s), 81
Blackbird(s), 16, 34, 36,
88, 153

R e d - w i n ged, 4 4 , 4 5 ,

4 8 , 4 9 , 52, 64
Bluebird(s), 16, 17, 104,
148
Eastern, 34, 78, 119
Bobolink, 52, 56, 80
Bobwhite(s), 17, 66, 87
Body care, 8
Boobies, 25, 69
Botulism, 120
Breeding age, 48
Bristles, 18
rictal, 23
Brooding, 76
Brood patches, 69
Bunting, Indigo, 41, 114
Bushtit, Common, 34

Calls, 80, 86-93

Carbon dioxide, 126, 127
Cardinal, Northern, 5, 53,
54, 63, 73, 82, 92,
148, 153

1 58

Climate, changes, 126

120

59, 119

68, 124

Conservation, 122
activities, 136
organizations, 130
Cooling, 15
Cormorans), 30, 50, 60,
69, 79

Double-crested, 73
Courtship rituals, 50
stations, 46
Cowbird, Brown-headed,

66, 75
Crane(s), 22

Sandhill , 1 2 1 , 1 3 2 ,
133,

Whooping, 79, 90, 91,

132, 133

Creeper, Brown, 16, 20

Crow(s), 13, 29, 37, 38,
92

DabblinJJ, 26
Dandruff, 11
DDT, 1 28, 134
Dipper{s), 43
Diseases, 120, 153
Displacement behavior, 14
Distraction displays, 39
Diving, 24
Dominance, 37

Dove(s), 16, 66, 71, 146

Inca, 34
Mourning, 71, 120
Dowitcher(s), 20
Duck( s ) , 9, 16 , 1 7 , 2 4 ,

2 6 , 56, 66, 6 9 , 70,

88, 98, 124

Dusting, 11

Eagle(s), 63, 71, 78, 100,

118, 124

Bald, 28, 29, 61, 105

Golden, 63
Ectoparasites, 12
Eggs, 64-75
Egg tooth, 76, 77
Egret, CaHie, 31
Snowy, 22
Elephant Bird (egg), 68
Embryo, 72
Emlen funnel, 114
Ergosterol, 9
Estrogen, 64
F a lcon, Peregrine, 2 5 ,
134

Prairie, 25
Family life, 40
Farmland, 122
Feathers , 8, 9, 95, 96101, 145

Feeders 144, 147, 149,

150

Feeding behaviors, 18-33,

73, 76, 77, 88

Feeding birds, 1 44-151

hazands of, 152, 153
Finch(es), 34, 48, 82, 92,
114, 146, 153

Fledging, 79
Flexor tendon, 17
Flicker(s), 51, 71, 142
Flight, 96-105
Flocking, 34, 36
Flocks, foraging, 36
Flycatcher{s), 107
Acadian, 19
Alder, 92
Collared, 111
Great-crested, 19, 61
least, 19
Olive-sided, 18

Flycatcher(sl (continued):
Willow, 1 9
Food, storage of, 32, 150
Foot-raking, 22
Foot-stamping, 22
Forests, 1 23
Fossil fuels, 126
Frigatebird(s), 28, 40, 79
GonnesL 25, 30, 5 1 , 69,
70, 71, 79

Gleaning, 19
Gnatcatcher, Blue-gray, 60
Goldfinch(esL 146
American, 85, 1 45
Goose (Geese ) . 16, 26,
66, 69, 88, 1 24

Canada, 26, 120

Snow, 79, 1 12
Grackle(sL 1 0, 54, 142,

1 46, 1 53
Grebe(sL 24
Grosbeak(sL 1 46
Black-headed, 82
Pine, 82
Rose-breasted, 82, 85
Grouse, 56, 70, 76
Ruffed, 1 1 , 1 7, 22, 7 1 ,
81, 90
Guillemot, Black, 24
Gull(s), 6, 10, 1 6, 1 7, 29,
31' 43, 5 1 ' 66, 8 8 ,
102, 1 1 8 , 125
H e rring, 2 2 , 2 8 , 4 8 ,
67, 1 1 8
Ring-billed, 114

Habitat, improving, 138

loss of, 122
quality of, 124
Habituation, 6
Hallux, 1 7
Hatching, 76
Hawk(sL 10, 38, 54, 70,
78, 112, 118, 154

Cooper's, 154
Sharp-shinned, 1 54
Hawking, 18
Hawk-Owl, Northern, 32
Hearing, 94-95, 1 1 5
Heat conservation, 1 6
Heron(sL 27, 36, 43, 50,
66, 79, 1 25

Great Blue, 15, 56

Green-backed, 27

Homing, ability of. 1 1 0

Hormones, 48, 64, 69, 80
Huddling, 1 6, 1 7, 34
Hummingbird(sL 10, 46,
52, 66, 128, 149

Allen's, 46
Ruby-throated, 53, 98,
149

Vervain, 68 (egg)
Incubation, 68, 69, 72-75
Instinctive behavior, 5
Jay(sL 16, 32, 54, 1 46
Blue, 92
Florida, Scrub, 55
Junco(sL 146, 1 55
Killdeer, 39, 74, 76
Kingbird(sL 18
Kingfisher(sL 43, 54, 56
KinglesL 19
Kiniwake(sL 105, 118
Knot, Red, 1 1 0
Kookaburra, 54
lark, Horned, 1 1
lead poisoning, 124
leaf liner, 1 42
leaf-tossing, 22
learning, 6
legislation, wildlife, 128
lice, 11, 12
loon(sL 24
longevity, 116
Malaria, avian, 120
Mallard, 9, 1 6, 26, 35,
74, 95

Martin, P u rple, 43, 4 4 ,

121

Mating, 48-53
Meadowlark(sL 56
Migration, 88, 1 06109
Mimics, vocal, 92
Mites, 11
Mobbing, 38, 86, 87
Mockingbird(sL 56, 57,
63, 82, 92, 148

Molting, 98
Murre(sL 24, 66, 67, 74,
121

Navi ation, 1 1 2- 1 15
Nest elpers, 54-55

Nests, 56-63, 78
Nighthawk, Common, 23
Nutcracker(s). 32, 33
Nuthatch ( e s ) . 2 0 , 3 6 ,
145, 146

Oil gland, 9
Oiling, 9
Oil spills, 125
O r i o le ( s ) . 1 3 , 6 3 , 8 2 ,
1 48 , 149

Oropendola, 63
Ospr , 28, 63, 105
Ostric , 39, 66, 68, 96
Ovenbird, 42, 66, 123
Owl(s), 16, 70
Barred, 123
Burrowing, 63
Great Gray, 32
Great Horned, 38, 95
Long-eared, 95
Snowy, 70
Ozone depletion, 126

Pair bonds, 52
Panting, 15
Parasites, 11, 12, 120
Peck order, 37
Pelican(sL 1 6, 30, 50, 69,
102, 103, 125

Brown, 25, 69
White, 30, 31
Penguin(sL 24, 74
Petrel(sL 56, 63, 70, 73
PheasansL 66, 76
Ring-necked, 1 1 , 52,
53

Phoebe(s), 19, 76
Pigeon(sL 1 5, 90, 94, 95,
1 1 4, 1 1 5

Piracy, 28
Plants, 139, 1 40
Plastics, 125
Play, 6
Plover{sL 27, 56
Plunge-diving, 25
Pollution, water, 124
Population, bird, 1 16
Prairiechicken(s), 46, 52
Precocial young, 52, 68,
70, 76

Predators, 36, 38, 56, 58,

118

Preening, 8, 1 2
Probing, 20

1 59

Protozoa, 120
Ptormigon(s), 98
Puffin(s), 56, 63, 70, 79,

Stalking, 27
Starling(s), 7, 1 6, 146
European, 92, 95, 119,

Atlantic, 24 , 111, 135

Stilt, Block-necked, 31
Stooping, 25
Stork(s), 22, 66, 102, 103
Storm- P etrel ( s ) , 7 0 , 7 4 ,

105

Quail, 70, 76, 77 (egg)

Rachis, 8, 96, 97
Roil(s), 81
Rots, 154
Roven(s), 6, 14, 29, 33,
38, 8 8

Rozorbill, 2 4
Redstart, American, 47,
74

Refuges, 129
Reproductive systems, 64,
65

Rickets, 9
Roodrunner(s), 96
Robin(s), 10, 16, 54, 63,

109, 128, 142, 148

American, 4, 13, 62,
71, 83, 138
European, 114
Roosts, 16, 17, 34

Solmonello,

153

Sondpiper(s), 16
Semipolmated, 89
Spoed, 69
Scavenging, 29
Screech-owl(s), 7, 10
Shearwater(s ) , 63, 102,

103, 110
Shrike(s), 32, 33
Sleeping, 16-17, 34
Smell, 29, 115
Snipe(s), 20, 90, 91
Social displays, 34
hierarchy, 37
Song(s), 8 0 - 8 5 , 86, 90,
92-93, 94
Sporrow(s), 8, 9, 56, 76,
79, 92, 98, 140, 146
Chipping, 139
House, 11, 61, 98, 119
Song, 43, 44, 48, 82,
117
W h i t e - crowned, 9 3 ,
110
White-throated, 22, 92
Spoonbill, Roseate, 50
Squirrels, 154, 155

1 60

122

7 5 , 115

Suet, 148
Sugar water, 149
Sunbathing_, 12
Sunlight, effect on nesting,
48

Survival, 116
Swallow(s), 23, 43
Bonk, 43, 58
Born, 54, 61
CliH, 54, 108
Tree, 104, 119
Swon(s), 26, 66
Trumpeter, 90, 132
Tundra, 26, 98
Sweeping, 23
Swift{s), 23
Chimney, 35, 63
European, 17
Synchrony, 58
Syrinx, 90, 91
Tanager(s), 54, 73, 148
Scarlet, 121, 123
Targets, feeding, 76, 77
Tenoon, Aexor, 17
Tern(s), 10, 17, 3 0 , 3 8 ,

4 3 , 5 1 , 125
Common, 50, 59
least, 56, 57, 67 (egg)
Territory, 40-47
Thrasher{s), 22, 142
Brown, 85, 92, 93
Thrush(es), 8 3 , 8 8 , 9 2 ,
108
Swainson's, 114
Wood, 83
Titmouse (Titmice), 19, 32,
36, 111
Plain, 47
Tuned, 145, 155
Towhee(s), 22, 140, 142
Rufous-si ded, 22, 77,
149
Trachea, 90, 91
Trichomonas gallinae, 120
Turkey (s). 11, 40, 66

Uropygial gland, 8, 9
Veery, 83
Vireo(s). 108
Red-eyed, 19, 123
Warbling, 85
Viruses, 120
Vitamins, 9, 12
Vulture l s ) . 1 0 , 29, 9 0 ,
100,
102,
108 , 124

103,

Warbler{ s ) . 19, 73, 79,

8 8 , 98, 106, 1 0 8 ,
114, 116, 128, 1 49

Bay-breasted, 81
Black-and-white, 20, 39
Blackburnion, 81
Blackpoll, 109
Block-throated Green,
19

Cope May, 81
Hooded, 47
Kentucky, 75
Yellow-rumped, 79
Water, 142
Waterfowl. 112
Waterthrush(es). 43, 47
Weather, 85, 121
Waxwing(s), 34, 148
Cedar, 14, 18, 51, 66
Wetlands, 122
Windows, collisions with,
152

Windpipe, 90, 91
Woodcock(s). 20, 44, 46,
52, 57, 90

Woodpecker ( s ) . 21, 36,

66, 149
Acorn, 32
Downy, 21, 75
Hairy, 21, 95
Pileated, 21
Red-bellied, 146
Red-headed, 21, 47

Wood-Pewee, Eastern, 60
Wren(s), 54, 92, 98, 111,
140, 149

Cactvs, 56
Carolina, 47, 61
House, 119
Marsh, 93
Winter, 76, 81
Yellowthroot, Common, 84

ABCDEF

BIRD LIFE
A GOLDEN GUIDE
STEPHEN W. KRESS, Ph . D. , is a Research Biolo
gist for the National Audubon Society and a Labo
ratory Associate of the Laboratory of Ornithology
at Cornell University. He has taught field ornithol
ogy classes at Antioch College, the Audubon Camp
in Maine, and the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithol
ogy. He has traveled extensively leading birdwatch
ing tours to many countries. At present he directs
the National Audubon Society's Puffin Project and
manages the Society's Maine C o a s t seabird
sanctuaries.

JOHN D. DAWSON, noted wildlife artist, is a grad

uate of the Art Center College of Design in Los

Angeles. His beautiful, scientifically accurate paint
ings have appeared in National Geographic, Audubon,
National Wildlife Federation and other publica
tions, and through the U. S. Postal Service/Philatelic
Division. In the Golden Guide series he has illus
trated Venomous Animals and Dinosaurs, and several
covers. Dawson works from a studio in his home in
the Hawaiian Islands.
GOLDEN PRESS NEW YORK

24079

A GOLDEN GUI DE