ECE61labmanua Dukel PDF

Duke University
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
EE-61L
Electric Circuits Laboratory
Introduction to Wireless Control
and
Virtual Instrumentation using LabVIEW
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
Version
1.0:
1.1:
1.2:
1.3:
2.0:
2.1:
2.2:
2.3:
3.0:
4.0:
4.1:
4.2:
Fall 1994
Spring 1995
Fall 1995
Spring 1996
Fall 1996
Spring 1997
Fall 1997
Spring 1998
Fall 1998
Fall 1999
Summer 2000
Fall 2000
Gary A. Ybarra, Ph.D., Director of EE61L
with assistance from Christopher E. Cramer, Ph.D., and

Raymond Woo
EE61L Electric Circuits Laboratory

Introduction to Wireless Control and
Virtual Instrumentation using LabVIEW
Laboratory Manual
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Laboratory Make-Up Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
General Laboratory Operating Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Laboratory Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Laboratory Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
PSpice Results Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Perspective and Writing Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Laboratory Report Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Sample Lab Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
LAB 1
Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
LAB 2
Operation of the Digital Instruments and Basic Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
LAB 3
Kirchhoffs Laws and Basic Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
LAB 4
Thevenin Equivalent Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
LAB 5
Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
LAB 6
Exploring the Servomotor Controller Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
LAB 7
Assembly of the Transmitter and Receiver Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
LAB 8
Testing the Transmitter-Receiver System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
LAB 9
System Integration and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
LAB 10
Frequency Response of Filter Circuits with an Introduction to LabVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Introduction
Welcome to the new EE61 laboratory. Over the past 6 years several grants have been awarded to the EE61
program for its leadership as a national role model for introductory circuits. The primary contributors have been
Hewlett-Packard, the National Science Foundation, the Lord Foundation and National Instruments. The funds
provided by these grants have been used to purchase Hewlett-Packard state-of-the-art digital test equipment,
personal computers and LabVIEW full-development systems including GPIB interface cards.
It is a general practice in introductory circuits courses to require students to build a simple circuit, make
some measurements to verify the theory, and finally to disassemble the circuit. We believe that it would be
a much richer learning experience if the circuits built at each lab meeting were sub-circuits of a pertinent,
real-world system. Rather than disassembling circuits at the end of each lab meeting, the sub-circuits could
be mounted on a circuit board and interconnected as the semester progresses. This is what we are trying to
implement in the new EE-61 lab.
Laboratory Make-Up Policy
Every student is required to perform all laboratory exercises. In order to make-up a lab you will need to provide
a memorandum from the Deans office certifying that your absence from the lab meeting is excused. Students
who miss a lab and are unable to provide documentation excusing them run the risk of failing EE61L and must
see their course instructor immediately.
General Laboratory Operating Procedures
Listed below are the operating procedures that you are expected to follow in the laboratory.
1. Please treat the instruments with care, as they are very expensive. For example, the scope probes alone
cost $200.
2. Read the laboratory documentation prior to each lab meeting.
3. Read the question section before leaving the lab because some of the questions may require observations
of the lab equipment.
4. Return the components to the correct bins when you are finished with them.
5. Before leaving the lab, place the stools under the lab bench.
6. Before leaving the lab, turn off the power to all instruments including the printer.
7. Before leaving the lab, turn off the main power switch to the lab bench.
Laboratory Journals
You are required to obtain a spiral bound notebook into which data and notes are to be entered during each
lab exercise. At the end of each lab exercise you, your lab partner, and the lab TA must sign and date your
journal. These journals will be examined periodically by your lab TA and evaluated as part of your laboratory
grade.
Laboratory Reports
1. Laboratory reports will be due at the beginning of each lab meeting. Work that was performed the
previous lab meeting is to be documented and turned in the following week at the beginning of the lab
period.
2. Late reports will have points deducted at a rate of 10% per weekday. A report will be considered one day
late if it is handed in after the lab has started. No lab reports may be handed in more than one
week late.
1
3.
All lab exercises must be performed, and all lab reports must be turned in to
pass the course.
4. Laboratory exercises and the writing of laboratory reports are performed in pairs. The lab report
turned in by each student pair must be entirely their own work. In addition, each student pair
is required to write the statement, We have neither received nor provided any help on the writing of
this lab report, and sign their names beneath on the title page of their lab reports.
While content is clearly the primary objective, neatness and organization will be weighted significantly in
the grading of your lab reports. It is required that you type your lab reports using LATEX. A LATEX tutorial
is provided in the EE61 Coursepak and is available on the EE61 webpage which is accessible directly from the
Duke EE Homepage (http://www.ee.duke.edu/) under Course Homepages (Local Access Only).
Circuit diagrams may be hand-drawn, but wires should be drawn using a straight edge. It is recommended
that you learn to use xfig to draw your circuit diagrams and merge the diagrams as postscript files into your
LATEX documents. Tutorials describing how to use xfig and how to merge the diagrams as postscript files into
LATEX documents are provided in the EE61 Coursepak as well as on the EE61 webpage. A good laboratory
report is concise while providing enough detail such that another person could reproduce the results. Another
person should be able to read your lab reports and know what you did and how you did it. A detailed description
of the format you are to use for your laboratory reports along with an example lab report is presented at the
end of this introduction.
Your lab reports should not contain the degree of detail as present in the lab manual. Try to keep your
reports as concise as possible without deleting essential information. Provide minimum procedure statements
(eg. We obtained four 22 nF capacitors.) You may assume that the reader has knowledge and proficiency in
the use of the lab instruments. Writing of lab reports is not intended to be busy work in which you simply
rephrase what is stated in the lab manual. You should provide data, as well as comments and observations to
indicate your understanding.
PSpice Results Presentation
Most of the laboratory experiments and homework assignments will require you to perform PSpice simulations.
There is a PSpice tutorial included in the EE-61 coursepak. In general, you must include the following items in
order to receive full credit for this portion of laboratory reports and homework assignments:
1. Circuit diagram with the nodes labeled as used in the PSpice code, element values and problem statement
2. Analysis (calculations)
3. Simulation results: the output that PSpice produces including the source code, DC values, and any
graphs
4. Justification that the PSpice results are correct. In the case of DC analysis, a direct comparison of the
calculated value with the value produced by PSpice including percent error is sufficient. However, in the
more general case, the output voltage or current will be time-varying and a more detailed explanation is
required. You can verify that the graphs produced by probe are correct by calculating a few theoretical
values and comparing them with the corresponding coordinates on the graphs produced by PSpice. A more
sophisticated verification might include calculation of min/max values and the times at which they occur.
For AC circuit simulations, you must show that the amplitude, frequency and phase of the output voltage
(current) produced by PSpice (using probe) is the same as the theoretical value(s). The source code and
DC values are always produced in the .out file and you should include this file in your PSpice Results
Presentation. Be sure to edit the .out file to eliminate white space and any irrelevant information in order
to save paper. Whether you are simulating a simple DC circuit or a complex circuit with time-varying
sources, you must always provide a written statement of justification.
Perspective and Writing Style

Over the past several years there has been an increasing number of journal articles written in the first
person, plural. For example, In this paper we present a new method for depositing thin films... However,
2
most journal papers are written in the third person omniscient. For example, This paper presents a new
method for depositing thin films... Proponents of the use of the first person claim that its use promotes the
use of the active voice as opposed to the passive voice, and that the use of the passive voice is to be avoided.
For example, We show that our method performs better... in contrast with, It is shown that the method
proposed performs better... Proponents of the use of the third person claim that the use of the first person
is awkward and less professional than sentences crafted in the third person. It is up to you to decide which
perspective to use in your writing style. You should examine the writing in the various IEEE T ransactions
and compare different authors writing styles.
Acknowledgment
Six stations of Hewlett-Packard digital test instruments, PCs and printers, LabVIEW software and GPIB cards
were donated by the National Science Foundation. Eight stations of digital test instruments were donated by
Hewlett-Packard. Five Hewlett-Packard PCs were donated by the Lord Foundation of North Carolina. Five HP
Printers were purchased by the Department of Electrical Engineering. Five copies of LabVIEW software were
donated by National Instruments. There are a number of undergraduates who have helped with lab exercise
development: Vladi Ivanov, Nilesh Murthy, William Howell, William Lawson, Andre Starobin, Fay Chang,
Pamir Gelenbe, Teresa Lam, Shahid Khan, Adeline Chew and Raymond Woo. Graduate assistance has been
provided by Will Washington, Evrim Eicoz, Lisa Gresham, Stacy Tantum, Richard Anderson and Joseph Supple.
Laboratory Report Format

Use the following guide for your laboratory report format.
1. Title: On a separate cover page provide the title of the lab exercise, your name, your partners name, and
the date the exercise was performed. On the bottom of the title page, write the phrase I have neither
received nor provided any assistance in the writing of this laboratory report, and sign your name beneath.
2. Abstract: Provide a brief statement (no more than a few sentences) of your results and conclusions
obtained from the laboratory exercise.
3. Introduction: Describe the objective and summarize what you did in the laboratory exercise.
4. Analysis: In some of the laboratory exercises you will be required to perform theoretical calculations.
In this section, you are to present equations and their solutions as appropriate. If you need to make use
of experimental data, you may choose to present this section after the section entitled Experimental
Results.
5. Experimental Results: In some of the laboratory exercises you will be required to make various measurements. In this section, you are to present your experimental set-up along with your measurements.
State what equipment was used in your measurements and what was measured. Provide diagrams (eg.
XFIG) as necessary to illustrate your experimental set-up. Data are usually presented in the form of either
a table or a graphs. Provide tables, diagrams and figures as appropriate to present your experimental
results.
6. Simulation Results In some of the laboratory exercises you will be required to perform computer
simulations using PSpice. In this section, you are to present your simulation results.
There is a PSpice tutorial available on the EE61 webpage (http://www.ee.duke.edu/) under Course
Homepages (Local Access Only) that illustrates many of the features available in probe, the graphics
post-processor in PSpice. For details regarding PSpice syntax and numerous examples of the use of PSpice
commands you should refer to SPICE for Circuits and Electronics using PSpice by Rashid.
In general, you must include the following items in order to receive full credit for this portion of your
laboratory reports:
Circuit diagram with the nodes labeled as used in the PSpice code, element values and problem
statement.
3
A listing of your PSpice code (or schematic if using psched).

PSpice and probe output as appropriate.
Additional tables and graphs as required to present/illustrate your simulation results.
7. Discussion In this section (if appropriate) you are to compare theoretical, experimental, and simulation
results. Most measurements will contain some error (difference between theoretical and measured values).
Always calculate percent error and then describe possible or known sources of the error. An error percentage of 5% is not uncommon. If the percent error is less than 5%, consider the theory and measurements
to coincide. If the error percentage is greater than 5%, it is very likely that something has not been
accounted for in the theory or a measurement was not performed properly. Present theoretical values,
measured values, simulated values and percent error in the form of a table.
8. Conclusion: In this section you are to state whether the objectives of the lab were met. Were there
any errors in measurements that you could not account for? What changes in the lab exercise would you
suggest? Please explain and provide justification.
The following sample lab report (from EE61) illustrates the format you are to use for writing your laboratory
reports. While the sample lab report is not perfect, it does provide a good model for the type of content that
is appropriate for each section.
Duke University
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
EE61 Laboratory
Lab 2 - Operation of the Digital Instruments and Basic

Measurements
Laboratory performed on
August 17, 1995
Your Name
Partner: partners name (if appropriate)
I have neither received nor provided any assistance in the writing of this lab report.
Abstract--- The constant voltage (CV) and constant current (CC) controls on the DC power supply were investigated. By adjusting the CC control, the current available from the DC power
supply is adjusted. A 1 k 1/4 Watt carbon resistor was examined in terms of its color code
(nominal value and tolerance) and measured. Graphite resistors were created by drawing rectangles and filling them in with graphite using a pencil (#2 lead equivalent to HB). We obtained
a relationship between the dimensions of the rectangles and the resistance of the graphite resistors. The resistances of our bodies were measured and found to be in the range of 90 100
k. Measurements of current were made using the ammeter and voltage using the voltmeter.
Differences between the ideal meters and physical meters were observed. Measurements of the
amplitude and frequency of a sinusoidal voltage produced by the function generator were made
using the oscilloscope. The voltage indicated on the front panel display of the function generator
indicates the true value of the terminal voltage only if the load resistance is 50 . In the process
of making these measurements we gained familiarity with the test instruments.
I. Introduction
The objective of this laboratory exercise is to learn to use properly each test instrument at the lab bench.
We used four Hewlett-Packard digital instruments during this lab: the HP E3611A DC power supply, the HP
33120A function generator, the HP 34401A digital multimeter, and the HP 54600A digitizing oscilloscope. We
learned the correct method of measuring physical quantities (voltage, current, resistance) with the digital multimeter, the correct method of measuring voltages with the oscilloscope, the correct method of producing desired
waveforms with the function generator, and the correct method of obtaining desired DC voltages from the DC
power supply.
II. Experimental Results
A. DC Power Supply and Digital Voltmeter
In this experiment, we examined the role of the CV and CC Set buttons on the front panel of the DC power
supply. We set the DC power supply to provide 3 V (as indicated on its front panel display) and then used
the multimeter to obtain the more accurate value of 3.076 V. We then connected the DC power supply to the
oscilloscope and measured the voltage using two methods. First, the voltage was 3.069 V using the automatic
measuring feature, and then it was measure to be 3.1 V manually (counting the divisions and multiplying by
the number of volts per division). We set the voltage on the power supply to 0 V and using the CC Set button,
set the current limit to 0.05 A. We connected a 50 (nominal) resistor to the power supply and then connected
the multimeter across the resistor and power supply. The multimeter was set to measure DC voltage. We slowly
increased the voltage, and when we reached 2.62 V the power supply changed from CV to CC.
B. Resistance Measurement
In the first part of this experiment we compared the actual value of a 1 k 1/4 Watt carbon resistor and its
nominal value as indicated by its color code. In the second part of this experiment we measured a set of carbon
graphite resistors we created using a pencil and drew conclusions about the relationship between their physical
dimensions and resistance.
We selected a nominal 1 k resistor and measured its resistance to be 995.9 with the multimeter.
We created graphite resistors of different dimensions by drawing rectangles of various sizes on paper and
filling them in with pencil and then measured the resistance across the rectangles using the multimeter. Our
findings are summarized in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Resistance and physical dimensions of carbon resistors
Length
0.25 in
0.125 in
1.0 in
0.125 in
2.0 in
0.125 in
0.5 in
0.25 in
0.25 in
0.5 in
Width
0.125 in
0.25 in
0.125 in
1.0 in
0.125 in
2.0 in
0.25 in
0.5 in
0.25 in
0.5 in
Resistance
10.3 k
6.9 k
53.2 k
20.1 k
67.7 k
16.8 k
20.4 k
9.1 k
17.3 k
10.6 k
We measured the resistance across our bodies between right and left hands using the multimeter. I had a
resistance of 910 k while my lab partner had a resistance of 955 k.
C. Current and Ohms Law
In this experiment we assembled the circuit shown in Figure 1 using the DC power supply (vs ) set to 10
V and the same (nominal 1 k) resistor R measured earlier to be 995.9 . We measured the voltage across
the power supply to be vs = 10.07 V using the multimeter. We measured the current flowing through the
resistor to be i = 10.09 mA and then switched the leads to find that the current in the opposite direction was
-10.09 mA as expected (ie. that the current in one direction is the negative of the current in the other direction).
red
+
-
vs
v
M
Ammeter
black
Figure 1: Circuit for measuring current.

D. Ideal vs. Practical Voltmeter
In this experiment we compared an ideal voltmeter with a practical voltmeter. An ideal voltmeter has
an infinite resistance since it is an open circuit. Although it is impossible to make a physical voltmeter with
infinite resistance, a well designed voltmeter exhibits a very large internal resistance. To determine the internal
resistance of the digital voltmeter we set up the circuit shown in Figure 2.
R
red
i
vs
+
-
v
M
Voltmeter
black
Figure 2: Circuit used to determine the internal resistance of the voltmeter.

We selected a resistor (nominal 1 M ) and measured its actual value, R = 1.001 M , and then set the
DC power supply to deliver 10 V and measured its actual value to be vs = 10.068 V. Next we assembled the
circuit in Figure 2 and measured the voltage across the voltmeter to be VM = 9.1554 V. As will be shown in
7
the analysis section, these measured values may be used to determine the internal resistance of the voltmeter.
E. Ideal vs. Practical Ammeter
In this experiment we compared an ideal ammeter with a practical ammeter. An ideal ammeter has zero
resistance since it is a short circuit. As with the voltmeter, it is impossible to make a physical ammeter ideal,
so all ammeters exhibit a small internal resistance. To determine the internal resistance of the ammeter we
set up the circuit shown in Figure 1. We selected a resistor R (nominal 100 ) and measured its actual value,
R = 100.53 , and then set the DC power supply to deliver 10 V and measured its actual value, v s = 9.97 V
with the oscilloscope. Next we assembled the circuit in Figure 1 and measured the current, i = 97.05 mA using
the ammeter. As will be shown in the analysis section, these measured values may be used to determine the
internal resistance of the ammeter.
F. Measurement of Time-Varying Sources
In this experiment we used the function generator to provide a time-varying voltage which we measured with
the oscilloscope. First, we set the function generator to produce a 10 kHz sine wave with 6 V pp as displayed
on the front panel of the function generator. We then connected the oscilloscope to the function generator as
shown in the first circuit of Figure 3.
Rs = 50
i
vs
+
-
Rs = 50
red
+
v
M
i
oscilloscope
vs
+
-
red
R = 50 .1
v
M
oscilloscope
black
black
Figure 3: Circuits used to demonstrate the relationship between the voltage displayed on the front panel and
load resistance.
Using the automatic voltage measurement feature of the oscilloscope as well as manual estimation (counting
reticle squares on the scope screen), determined the peak-to-peak voltage, the frequency, and the period of
the sinusoidal voltage. After having made these measurements, we connected the function generator and the
oscilloscope across a nominal 50 resistor (measured to be 50.1 ), leaving the settings on the function generator
unchanged (See the second circuit in Figure 3). We used the automatic voltage measurement feature of the
oscilloscope to find the peak-to-peak voltage and printed out a copy of the sine wave using the HP Deskjet
printer (Figure 3). Our results are summarized in Table 2 below.
Table 2. Measurement of time varying sources
Peak-to-peak
voltage
Frequency
Period
displayed
by the
function
generator
measured
manually
without the
50 resistor
measured by
the oscilloscope
without the
50 resistor
measured by
the oscilloscope
with the
50 resistor
6V
10 kHz
12.2 V
10 kHz
100 s
12.2 V
10.0 kHz
100.0 s
6.21 V
10.0 kHz
100.0 s
III. Analysis
With the current limiter on the DC power supply set to 50 mA, we calculated the voltage at which the DC
power supply would transition from CV to CC using Ohms Law. Using the measured value of R (51.66 ), the
transition should occur at the voltage v = Ri = (51.66)(0.05) = 2.583V .
The measured value of the nominal 1 k resistor was 995.9 . The % deviation of the measured value from
the nominal value is 0.41%.
Assuming that the ammeter in Figure 1 has a negligibly small resistance compared to the resistance R =
v
= 10.07
995.9 , the theoretical value for the current is i = R
995.9 = 10.111 mA.
The current shown in Figure 2 is given by the equation:
vs v M
(1)
R
where vs is the voltage provided by the source DC power supply and vM is the voltage across the voltmeter.
Using Ohms Law, the internal resistance of the voltmeter (RM ) may be expressed in terms of R, vs , and vM
by the equation
i=
RM =
vM
=
i
vM
vs vM
R
RvM
vs v M
(2)
Using the measured values R = 1.001 M, vs = 10.068 V, and vM = 9.155 V, we calculated the internal
resistance of the voltmeter to be 10.04 M.
According to Ohms Law, the current the circuit of Figure 1 will be
i=
vS
R + RM
(3)
The internal resistance of the ammeter (RM ) can be found by algebraically manipulating this equation:
vS
R
(4)
i
Using the measured values R = 100.53 , vs = 9.97 V, and i = 97.05 mA, we calculated the internal
resistance of the ammeter to be 2.2 .
RM =

The oscilloscope has a very large internal resistance (Rosc >> 1 M). Therefore the voltage drop across the
50 internal resistance of the function generator in the first circuit of Figure 3 is negligible. The voltage v M
measured in this case is the same as the voltage vs , which was measured to be 12.2 V. In the second circuit of
M
Figure 3, the voltage drop across the load resistor will be vM = RvMs R+R
by voltage division. Using Rs = 50
s
and R = 51.2 , the theoretical value for vM is 6.172 V. The measured value of vM was 6.21 V. The percent
error for this measurement is 0.62%.
IV. Simulation Results
The circuit in Figure 1 used to measure the internal resistance of the ammeter was simulated using PSpice.
The node designation used in PSpice is shown in Figure 4. The measured values vs = 9.97 V, R1 = 100.53 ,
and the value of RM = 2.2 determined from analysis using the measured values vs , R1 = R, and i, were used
in the simulation.
The results produced by PSpice were obtained from the file lab1sim.out as follows.
9
R1
node 1
node 2
i
vs
+
-
RM
node 0
Figure 4: PSpice node designation for simulating the circuit used to measure the internal resistance of the digital
ammeter.
**** 08/19/95 13:49:35 ******** PSpice 6.2 (April 1995) ***** ID# 83013 ****
*Lab1sim.CIR
****CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
*******************************************************************
vs 1 0 9.97
R1 1 2 100.53
RM 2 0 2.2
.tran 2.0 2.0
.probe
.end
**** INITIAL TRANSIENT SOLUTION
TEMPERATURE =
27.000 DEG C
*******************************************************************
NODE
VOLTAGE
NODE
VOLTAGE
(1)
9.9700
(2)
0.2135
VOLTAGE SOURCE
NAME
CURRENT
vs
-9.705E-02 V
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION

JOB CONCLUDED
9.68E-01
WATTS
TOTAL JOB TIME
.66
The value of the current i in Figure 4 was measured to be 97.05 mA (Section II, Part E). The value of the
current produced by the PSpice simulation is identical to the value measured, except for the sign. The current
value shown (above) in the file Lab1sim.out corresponds to the current that flows in the direction of the voltage
drop of the source vs , which is in the opposite direction of i.
10
V. Discussion
The DC power supply can operate in either of two modes: CV or CC. In the CV mode the power supply
acts as a voltage source and the amount of current drawn depends on the resistance of the circuit as seen from
the terminals of the DC power supply. The amount of current drawn from the power supply cannot exceed
the value set by the current limiter. If the circuit attempts to draw more current than the value set by the
current limiter, the power supply will enter the CC mode and the voltage produced at its terminals will drop
as necessary to maintain the current set by the current limiter. In the CC mode, the DC power supply acts
as a current source. With the power supply set to 3 V (on its display) driving a 50 (nominal) resistor, we
calculated the point of transition from CV to CC to be 2.583 V while the measured transition point was 2.62 V.
The percent error is 1.43% indicating close agreement between the theoretical and measured points of transition
from CV to CC.
The nominal 1 k resistor had a measured resistance of 995.9 . The percent deviation from nominal is
0.41%, well within the 5% tolerance indicated by its gold tolerance band.
Based on the resistance measurements of the graphite resistors that we constructed, we determined that
resistance increases with the length-to-width ratio of the carbon rectangle, but also depends on the intensity of
the graphite. An increase in the length, while holding the wide constant produces and increase in resistance.
We also concluded that as the width is increased, the resistance is decreased.
I had a resistance of 90 k between right and left hands while my lab partner had a resistance of 95 k.
Considering that a current of 100-200 mA through a persons heart will almost certainly kill them, we calculated, using Ohms Law (v = iR), that 9 kV-18 kV across my hands would be lethal for me and 9.5 kV-19 kV
across my lab partners hands would be lethal for her. Of course, a much lower voltage would be lethal since
our bodies resistance is significantly reduced when current is passed through our skin. It is well-known that
the standard wall socket voltage (120V RMS) can be lethal in certain circumstances (eg. if a persons body is
immersed in water).
The current in the circuit of Figure 1 was measured using the ammeter to be 10.09 mA. The theoretical
value for this current, assuming that the ammeter has no internal resistance, was found to be 10.111 mA. The
% error is calculated to be 0.208%. It was found later that the ammeter has an internal resistance of 2.2 .
Taking the internal resistance of the ammeter into account, the theoretical value for the current would be 10.09
mA, producing a 0.0% error.
The calculated value for the internal resistance of the voltmeter was based upon measurements of R, v s , and
vM in Figure 2 and found to be 10.04 M. Ideally, the internal resistance of the voltmeter would be infinite.
In applications in which it is desired to measure the voltage across a resistance whose value is much smaller
than the internal resistance of the voltmeter, the voltage displayed by the voltmeter will be accurate. However,
in certain applications, the voltage whose value is desired may be across a resistance that is not much smaller
than the internal resistance of the voltmeter. In this case, the internal resistance of the meter must be taken
into account in order to yield an accurate measurement.
The calculated value for the internal resistance of the ammeter was based upon measurements of R, v s ,
and i in Figure 1 and found to be 2.2 . Ideally, the internal resistance of the ammeter would be zero. In
applications in which it is desired to measure the current through a resistance whose value is much larger than
the internal resistance of the ammeter, the current displayed by the ammeter will be accurate. However, in
certain applications, the current whose value is desired may be through a resistance that is not much larger
11
than the internal resistance of the ammeter. In this case, the internal resistance of the meter must be taken
into account in order to yield an accurate measurement.
We found that the terminal voltage of the function generator varies with load resistance. The peak-to-peak
value shown on the front panel display of the function generator assumes that the load is 50 . Therefore it is
necessary to measure carefully the voltage at its terminals each time the function generator is used. We cannot
simply assume that the front panel indicates the true value of the terminal voltage. However, the frequency
displayed on the front panel is correct and not dependent on the load resistance. When the 51.2 resistor was
driven by the function generator (Figure 3), the load voltage was measured to be 6.21 V. Given that the internal
resistance of the function generator is 50 , we solved for the voltage v s by vs = (R+RRs )vM = 12.27 V, which
agrees closely with the value on the front panel display (12.2V). Under open circuit conditions (Figure 3), the
terminal voltage is twice the value shown on the front panel display.
G. Questions from Laboratory Manual
Several questions were posed in the laboratory manual. My responses to them follows.
1. Suppose you set the voltage of the DC power supply to 5V. You connect it to a circuit and the voltage
provided by the power supply drops to 3V. What happened?
If I set the voltage of the DC power supply to 5 V as indicated on its front panel, connected it to a circuit
and then noticed that the voltage supplied by the power supply dropped to 3 V, I would assume that the
circuit drew more current than the value set by the current limiter, causing the power supply to enter the
constant current mode. The voltage dropped to 3 V because the load drew the maximum current at 3 V.
2. What is the resolution of a digital display? Compare the resolution of the digital display on the front
panel of the DC power supply to the display on the front panel of the multimeter. Why must you use the
multimeter to set the DC supply to 0.75V?
The resolution of a digital display is the smallest increment that can be represented. If the display
has a floating point, then the resolution is directly related to the number of digits in the digital display.
The resolution of the multimeter is 6 digits when acting as a voltmeter allowing it to measure mV. The
resolution of the power supply is 3 digits. Hence, the resolution of the multimeter display is much greater
than that of the DC power supply. It is necessary, in general, to measure the terminal voltage of the DC
power supply using the multimeter in order to obtain the most accurate value.
3. Suppose you set the function generator such that it produces a 1 kHz sinusoidal voltage with 5V peak-topeak across a 25 load. What will be the peak-to-peak voltage displayed on the front panel of the function
generator?
The function generator has an internal resistance of 50 . The voltage displayed on the front panel is the
voltage that would appear across its terminals if it were connected to a 50 load. Since the voltage across
the terminals of the function generator is twice as large as the value indicated on its front panel when it is
under open circuit conditions, the voltage across the terminals of the function generator would be one and
a half times as large as the value indicated on its front panel when it has a load resistance of 25 . This
vs R
conclusion was drawn from the voltage division equation vM = R+R
. With R = 25 and Rs = 50 ,
s
vs
vM = 3 . Since vs = 2vdisplay , vdisplay = 1.5vM . Therefore, if you set the function generator such that it
produces a 1 kHz sinusoidal voltage with 5 V peak-to-peak across a 25 load the peak-to-peak voltage
displayed on the front panel of the function generator would be 7.5 V.
VI. Conclusion
In this laboratory exercise we learned to use the instruments at the lab station. These instruments include: The
function generator, the digitizing oscilloscope, the multimeter, and the DC power supply.
The most fundamental concept learned in this lab is that the values displayed on the front panel of the
instruments may be misleading if not properly interpreted. For example, the peak-to-peak voltage as shown on
12
the front panel of the function generator is accurate only if the load resistance is exactly 50 . It is therefore
necessary to use the voltmeter or the oscilloscope to measure the amplitude of voltages produced by the function
generator each time a new circuit is assembled. We also learned the importance of measuring resistance values
using the ohmmeter. The value determined by the color code is only the resistors nominal (In name only)
value. Therefore, each time a new resistor is utilized, its value will be measured using the ohmmeter and recorded
for subsequent analysis. We obtained measured values for the internal resistances of both the voltmeter and the
ammeter and recognize the importance of including their effects in certain measurement conditions.
The concepts we learned and the skills we developed will enable us to successfully proceed to future lab
exercises.
13
Lab 1 Orientation
1
Purpose
The objective of this exercise is to learn the fundamentals of LATEX and PSpice. In addition, you will be
introduced to the Hewlett Packard test instruments at the lab bench.
Your laboratory TA(s) will lead you through tutorials introducing LATEX and PSpice.
Visually examine the set of test instruments at your lab station. You should find the following instruments:
HP E3611A DC Power Supply
HP E3631A Triple Output, Programmable DC Power Supply
HP 33120A Function Generator
HP 34401A Digital Multimeter
HP 54600A (or B) Digitizing Oscilloscope
In addition, you should also find a Hewlett Packard PC and Deskjet printer. You will be using all of these
instruments throughout the semester.
Locate the HP E3611A DC Power Supply. Examine the controls on its front panel. This is a relatively
simple instrument to use. It is used to provide DC (constant) voltages and currents. It is important to
prevent the leads of the DC power supply from touching each other. When the power supply leads touch, a
short circuit is formed which can cause serious damage to the power supply. Consider what would happen
if you shorted the wall socket, or a car battery! Short circuits can be dangerous, and special care should be
taken to avoid them.
Locate the HP 33120A Function Generator. Examine the controls on its front panel. This instrument has an
extensive capability including the ability to generate any arbitrary waveform. You will be using the function
generator primarily as an AC (sinusoidal) voltage source.
Locate the HP 34401A Digital Multimeter. Examine the controls on its front panel. This instrument is used
to measure voltage, current and resistance. When configured to measure voltage, its function is a voltmeter.
Likewise, it may function as an ammeter and ohmmeter.
Locate the HP 54600A (or B) Digitizing Oscilloscope (See Figure 5).
Examine the controls on its front panel. This instrument is the workhorse. It can perform multiple
functions simultaneously. For example, it can display a waveform on the screen, measure a waveforms
peak-to-peak voltage, average voltage, frequency, period, and many other parameters all simultaneously.
Connect the output of the function generator to channel 1 of the oscilloscope. Your lab TA will lead you
through a sequence of measurements using the oscilloscope.
It is extremely important that you become comfortable (and proficient!) with the use of these four test
instruments.
The printer will be used throughout the semester to obtain hard copies of waveforms displayed on the
oscilloscope. Use the printer to obtain hardcopies of a sinusoid, a triangle wave, a square wave, and a
sawtooth wave. Include these plots in your lab report.
The PC will be used to run a program written using LabVIEW to control the HP test instruments
remotely. Turn on the PC at your labstation and see what what software is loaded on it.
Power to all instruments and the PCs is controlled by the master switch located on the front corner of
the bench (just below the bench top). Please be sure that all instruments have been turned off (including
the printers) as well as the master switch before leaving lab each week.
14
cursor
time cursors adjustment
voltage
Hewlett Packard 54600A
Oscilloscope
soft keys
Line
01
Figure 1: Hewlett Packard 54600A Oscilloscope front panel
Assignment
1. Read the Introduction Section of this Laboratory Manual. If any of the lab policies are unclear, please
ask your lab TA for clarification.
2. Your lab TA will take you (step by step) through a PSpice simulation using the HP PC at your lab
station. This will include using a resident editor to create a file containing your PSpice code. You will
examine the .out file and explore some of the basic features of probe, the PSpice graphics postprocessor.
Be sure to save the hardcopies of your results to include as part of your laboratory report.
3. Read the LATEX tutorial in the EE61 Coursepak.
4. Read and perform the exercises in the PSpice tutorial in the EE61 Coursepak using the Sun Workstations in Hudson Room 161. In order to understand the behavior of the circuits of examples 2 and 3 in
the PSpice tutorial, an understanding of AC circuit analysis is required. However, you are to perform
simulations of all three circuits and include the probe plots in your laboratory report. No physical
explanation of the simulation results is required for examples 2 and 3.
5. Write a lab report entitled, Lab 1 Orientation using LATEX following the format illustrated in the
Introduction. In your lab report describe what you did in the lab exercise and include the PSpice
results you obtained while performing the PSpice tutorial (all three examples) in the EE61 Coursepak
as well as the simulations performed in the lab using the HP PCs. Include ALL PSpice results. Be
sure to draw each circuit neatly with the nodes labeled as entered in your PSpice code.
15
Lab 2 - Operation of the Digital Instruments and Basic

Measurements
1
Purpose
The objective of this exercise is to learn to properly use the instruments at the lab bench and the correct
method of measuring physical quantities with each instrument. You will be using four Hewlett-Packard
digital instruments in this course:
HP E3611A DC power supply
HP 33120A Function Generator
HP 34401A Digital Multimeter
HP 54600A (or B) Oscilloscope
DC Power Supply
The DC power supply is used to generate either a constant voltage (CV) or a constant current (CC). That
is, it may be used as either a DC voltage source or a DC current source. You will be using it primarily as a
voltage source. Recall that DC is an acronym for direct current. DC means constant with respect to time.
The HP3611 DC power supply has two range settings. The first range setting allows the power supply to
produce between 0 and 20 volts (V) and has a maximum current capacity of 1.5 amps (A). The second range
setting allows it to generate between 0 and 35 V with a maximum current capacity of 0.85 A. The voltage
produced by the power supply is controlled by the knob labeled voltage. The current is limited by adjusting
the knob labeled current. As long as the circuit does not atttempt to draw more current than the value set
by the current knob, the voltage will remain constant. This is often a difficult concept for students to grasp.
Current limiting allows the power supply to be set such that it will not generate more current than desired.
This can be useful as a safety feature, preventing electrocution due to accidental contact with terminals.
In addition, current limiting can prevent damage to equipment and parts which may be unable to handle
excessive currents. More details about current limiting will be presented in the experimental procedure.
Function Generator
The HP33120 function generator is used to provide voltages that vary with time. It has four primary
waveforms: sine, square, triangular and ramp. There are three parameters that can be varied for each
waveform:
1. peak-to-peak voltage (0-10 V)
2. frequency (0-15MHz)
3. DC offset
To set any of these features, press the button labeled with the feature you wish to modify. The present
setting of this feature will appear. Notice that one of the digits is blinking, turning the dial will affect this
digit, you may change which digit is flashing by pressing the left or right arrow keys. It is also possible to
enter a number directly by pressing the button marked Enter Number. After pushing this button, you
may enter a number on the key pad. Pressing enter immediately following will alter the setting to the new
value.
16
Digital Multimeter
The HP34401 digital multimeter measures voltage, current and resistance. There are separate settings for
measuring AC and DC values. If you examine the softkey pad on the lower left of the multimeter, you
will find primary functions in black and alternate functions in blue. The alternate functions are accessed by
pressing the shift softkey and then the function softkey. For example, to measure DC voltage, you press the
DC V softkey. To measure DC current, you press the shift softkey followed by DC I which is the same
softkey used for DC voltage. The multimeter also has the capability of measuring other quantities such as
the frequency and period of periodic waveforms. There are three vertically aligned holes (banana jacks) in
the multimeter located at the top right of the meter front panel. To measure voltage, place the positive
terminal in the top hole, with the negative terminal in the center hole. The top hole is labeled Hi in red,
and V in black. To measure current place the from terminal (the terminal at which current enters the
multimeter) in the bottom hole (labeled in red as I), and the to terminal in the center hole. Other than
that, the operation of the digital multimeter is almost entirely automatic, simply set the multimeter to the
type of measurement you wish to make by pressing the button labeled voltage, current, etc. and read the
value from the display.
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is used to view a voltage waveform on a screen. An electron beam is generated in the cathode
ray tube, directed at the back of the screen, and swept in time along the X-Axis. A voltage applied to the
scope probes is amplified and applied to a pair of horizontal metal plates through which the electron beam
passes. This voltage deflects the beam in the vertical direction (Y-Axis). The sweep in the electron beam
combined with vertical deflection results in the appearance of a waveform on the screen of the scope. The
scope has two probes: one for Channel 1 and one for Channel 2. The probes are very expensive (approx. $200
each), so please be careful with them. Each channel has a vertical placement knob which moves the waveform
for that channel up and down. Each channel also has a knob which selects the vertical scale of the waveform
in terms of volts per division. Divisions are the visible grid lines on the oscilloscope screen. The knob which
sets the horizontal scale in time per division controls both channels. The majority of all measurements made
in this lab can be performed automatically with the HP54600 scope. To see the waveform, press Autoscale. The Auto-scale button will be used more than any other on the scope. When you want to capture
a waveform on the screen, the first thing to think of is Auto-scale. This takes the waveform at the input
and displays it so that the entire peak-to-peak voltage is displayed as well as several periods. To measure
voltage, push the button marked voltage which is located to the right of the screen near the top of the front
panel. This will bring up a menu at the bottom of the screen, listing available voltage measurements. The
first choice is to select either channel 1 or 2 for measurement. After that, you may select: Peak to Peak
voltage (Vpp ), average voltage (Vave ), or rms voltage (Vrms ). By pressing the corresponding softkeys, you
will automatically get the selected measurement. For more choices, press the softkey labeled Next Menu.
The next menu will allow you to select: Vmax , Vmin , Vtop , Vbot , Vamp , Vover or Vpre . Time measurements
can be obtained by pressing the Time button (located next to the voltage button). This will give you
the following menu options: Frequency, Period, Duty Cycle, +Width, -Width, Rise Time, Fall Time, Delay
and Phase Difference. This last command, Phase Difference, is useful for computing the difference in phase
between waveforms on channels 1 and 2.
Discussion: Methods of Measurement
Discuss with the rest of the class how you would go about measuring voltage across and current through a
resistor using the multimeter. How would you place the leads? The following hints may be helpful:
1. As a voltmeter, the multimeter has infinite resistance. (Ideally)
17
2. As an ammeter, the multimeter has zero resistance. (Ideally)
Experiment - DC Measurements
Record each measured value.

1. Set the DC power supply to provide 3 V as shown in the digital display on the power supply front
panel. (See important note below)
2. Set the multimeter to measure DC voltage, making sure the leads are set for voltage, not current
measurement.
3. Measure the voltage using the multimeter.
4. Disconnect the multimeter from the power supply and connect the oscilloscope leads to the power
supply.
5. Adjust the volts/division knob on the oscilloscope until the voltage appears on the screen. (This should
occur around 1 volt/division.)
6. Measure the voltage by using the automatic measuring features of the oscilloscope.
7. Using the same screen, measure the voltage by hand, i.e. count the divisions and multiply by the
number of volts per division. (This number can be found in the upper left corner of the screen.)
8. Set the DC power supply to 0 V.
9. Push and hold the CC Set button. While holding down the CC Set button, adjust the current knob
until the Amps value displayed on the front panel shows 0.05 A. Then release the CC Set button.
10. Connect a 50 resistor to the power supply.
11. Connect the multimeter across the resistor and set it to measure DC voltage.
12. Increase the voltage (slowly) across the resistor. At approximately what voltage do you expect to
observe something unusual? If the change from CV to CC occurs at a voltage read by the voltmeter
different from what you expected, explain why.
Important Note: Be careful with the DC power supply leads. Avoid letting them touch at all times.
When the power supply leads touch, a short circuit is formed which can cause serious damage to the power
supply. Consider what would happen if you shorted the wall socket, or a car battery! Short circuits can be
dangerous, and special care should be taken to avoid them.
Experiment - Resistance Measurement
The standard resistor color code is shown on the back of the door to the lab. Here is a quick synopsis:
Most resistors have four colored bands. The first three bands indicate the nominal value of the resistor and
the fourth band indicates the tolerance in value. The first two bands form the mantissa, and the third the
18
exponent of 10.
color
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
value
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
The tolerance band is typically either gold or silver. A gold tolerance band indicates that the measured
value will be within 5% of the nominal value. A silver band indicates 10% tolerance. For example a resistor
with color code brown-black-red-silver indicates a nominal value of 1 k. The first two bands (brown-black)
produce the mantissa (10) and the third band (red) is the exponent of ten (102 = 100). So the value is
10 100 = 1 k. Since the tolerance band is silver, we can expect the measured value of the resistor to be
between 900 and 1100 .
1. Select a 1 k resistor (color coded brown-black-red).
2. Place the resistor in the spring board at your lab station.
3. Set the multimeter to measure resistance. To do this, press the softkey labeled 2W. Determine the
actual value of the resistor. The words actual and measured may be used interchangeably.
4. Compute the percent difference between the actual (measured) value of the resistor and the nominal
value of 1 k as indicated by its color code.
You will now create a sequence of carbon resistors. Based on their measured values, you will draw
conclusions about the relationship between their physical dimensions and resistance.
8.0.1
Graphite Resistor
1. Using a pencil, draw a rectangle whose length (approximately 1) is twice its width on a sheet of paper.
Fill in the rectangle with pencil mark. Measure and record the resistance over the length and then
over the width of the graphite resistor.
2. Using a pencil, draw a square whose side-length is approximately 1. Fill in the square with pencil
mark. Measure and record the resistance over the width of the graphite resistor.
3. Based on your measurements, draw conclusions relating the physical dimensions and resistance.
8.0.2
Measuring the Resistance of Your Body
1. Holding one probe between the thumb and forefinger of each hand, measure the resistance of your body
between your hands. Squeeze the probes tightly so that good contact is established. Record the value
of your bodys resistance.
2. Considering that a current of 100-200 mA through your heart will almost certainly kill you, how much
voltage across your hands would be lethal?
19
Experiment - Current and Ohms Law

1. Assemble the circuit in Figure 1 with the voltage source set to 10V and using the same (nominal 1 k)
resistor as measured in the beginning of Section 8.
2. Set the multimeter to measure dc current, and make sure that the leads are in the correct jacks in the
front panel of the multimeter.
3. Measure the current flowing through down through the resistor. An ammeter measures the current
flow from the red probe to the black probe within the meter. Does this value agree with
v
)?
Ohms Law (i = R
4. Measure the current flowing through the resistor in the opposite direction. This is done by reversing
v
the leads of the ammeter. Does this value agree with Ohms Law (i = R
)?
1 k
10 V
+
-
Ammeter
Figure 1: Circuit illustrating the measurement of current.
10
10.1
Experiment - Ideal vs. Practical Voltmeter and Ammeter

Voltmeter
An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance: It is an open circuit. Although it is impossible to make a physical
voltmeter with infinite resistance, a well designed voltmeter exhibits a very large internal input resistance. In
some experiments, it is important to take into account the finite, non-ideal, internal resistance. To determine
the internal resistance of the voltmeter, set up the circuit shown in figure 2. The voltmeter reads the voltage
across itself, which includes its internal resistance. Since the circuit has only a single branch, the current
flowing through the resistor also flows through the voltmeter. The current is given by the equation:
I=
VS V M
R
(1)
From Ohms Law, if we know the current (I) and the voltage (VM ) we can compute RM .
RM =
VM
=
I
VM
VS VM
R
RVM
VS V M
(2)
1. Select a 1 M resistor.
2. Measure its value using the multimeter.
3. Set the power supply to provide 10 V (Remember, always measure the voltage provided by the
power supply with either the voltmeter or the scope. Do not rely on the digital display
on the front panel of the power supply.)
20
1 M
10 V
+
-
Voltmeter
Figure 2: Circuit for measuring the resistance of the voltmeter.

4. Assemble the circuit in Figure 2.
5. Record the voltage measured by the voltmeter
6. Compute the internal resistance of the voltmeter using Equation 2.
10.2
Ammeter
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance so that the the circuit in which it has been placed is not disturbed.
An ideal ammeter is a short circuit. However, as with the voltmeter, no ammeter can ever be ideal, and
therefore all ammeters have some (hopefully) small internal resistance. To determine the resistance of the
ammeter, we will use the circuit in Figure 1. According to Ohms Law, the current in this circuit will be
I = VR where R = R + RM . So the current can be found using the equation:
I=
VS
R + RM
(3)
By using the known quantities I, VS and R, we can solve for the unknown quantity RM .
In the procedure that follows it is extremely important that you take precise and accurate measurements.
Record each measurement as precisely as the instrument will allow.
1. Select a 100 resistor. Measure and record its actual value.
2. Assemble the circuit in Figure 3. Set the multimeter to the ammeter mode for dc current measurement.
Recall this means two things: Place the test leads in the correct banana jacks on the front panel and
press the proper sequence of softkeys.
3. Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage across the DC power supply.
4. Measure the value of the current using the ammeter.
5. Determine the value of RM from Equation 3.
11
Measurement of Time Varying Sources
In this section, we will be using the function generator to provide a time-varying voltage which will then be
measured using the oscilloscope.
Important: DO NOT let the leads from the function generator touch each other! If the function generator leads touch each other, either the internal fuse will blow or serious damage to the instrument
will occur. It is very important that you keep this in mind at all times.
21
100
1V
+
-
Ammeter
Figure 3: Circuit for measuring the resistance of the ammeter.

Important: The function generator has an internal resistance of 50 . The voltage displayed on its
front panel is the voltage that would appear at its terminals if it were connected to a 50 load. Under open
circuit conditions, the voltage across the terminals of the function generator is twice as large as the value
indicated on its front panel. This is an important concept and often misunderstood.
If you are located at a lab station that has no printer, complete items 15-17 after one of the lab stations
containing a printer becomes vacant.
1. Set the function generator to produce a 10 kHz sine wave with 6 Vpp .
2. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the leads on the function generator.
3. Locate the VERTICAL section on the front panel of the oscilloscope. It is the section which includes
the connections of the scope probes to the scope.
4. Press the softkey labeled 1. A menu will appear on the bottom of the scope screen. The items that
appear on this menu are: channel activation, coupling, bandwidth limiter, inversion, vernier, and probe
calibration. Examine the setting for probe. It should be on 10. If it is not, set the probe value to
10. This tells the scope that the probe reduces the signal strength by a factor of 10. All of the scope
probes in this lab are 10x probes. It is a good idea to get in the habit of checking the probe setting
at the beginning of each lab.
5. Press Auto-Scale on the oscilloscope to view the signal produced by the function generator.
6. Using the automatic features of the oscilloscope, determine the peak-to-peak voltage. Observe that the
measured peak-to-peak voltage is approximately twice the peak-to-peak voltage shown on the front
panel of the function generator.
7. Using the automatic features of the oscilloscope, determine the frequency, and the period of the sinusoidal voltage.
8. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage by hand, i.e. count the vertical divisions from the minimum to the
maximum and multiply by the number of volts per division. The volts per division setting is shown
in the upper left corner of the scope screen.
9. Using the same screen, measure the period of the sine wave, i.e. count the number of horizontal divisions
in one period of the sine wave. The time per division setting is shown at the top-right-center of the
scope screen.
10. Using the formula, f requency =
1
P eriod
determine the frequency of the sine wave.
11. Connect the function generator across a 50 resistor. Leave the settings on the function generator
unchanged.
22
12. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe across the resistor (and function generator).
13. Press Auto-Scale on the oscilloscope to view the signal produced by the function generator.
14. Using the automatic features of the oscilloscope, determine the peak-to-peak voltage. Observe that
the measured peak-to-peak voltage is approximately the same as the peak-to-peak voltage shown on
the front panel of the function generator. Hence, the voltage at the terminals of the function generator
is load dependent. Whenever you use the function generator to provide a voltage waveform and
desire a specific amplitude, you must use either the multimeter or the scope to set the desired voltage
because the value shown on the front panel of the function generator is valid only for a 50 load.
15. Press the Print/Utility softkey on the scope. It is located to the right of Autoscale.
16. Turn on the HP Deskjet printer. Wait a few moments and then press the print screen softkey on
the scope. A printout of the waveform shown on the scope screen should result. Feel free to use the
printer to obtain scope traces as needed to document your laboratory experiments.
17. Compare the values for the peak-to-peak voltage and frequency that were 1) specified by the function
generator, 2) measured by the oscilloscope and 3) measured by hand. Do the measurements made by
hand differ from those made by the oscilloscope? Which do you think are more accurate? Justify your
answer.
18. Hold the scope probe in one hand and expose the metallic hook. Touch the hook with your other hand.
With your third hand, press the autoscale button on the scope. Continuing to touch the hook, move
your hand near a power receptacle or a power cord and observe the change in the waveform shown on
the scope. Obtain a printout of the waveform for two cases. What is the frequency of the waveform?
Explain the waveform measured by the scope.
12
Questions to be Answered
1. Suppose you set the voltage of the DC power supply to 5V. You connect it to a circuit and the voltage
provided by the power supply drops to 3V. What happened?
2. What is the resolution of a digital display? Compare the resolution of the digital display on the
front panel of the DC power supply to the display on the front panel of the multimeter. Why must
you use the multimeter to set the DC supply to 0.75V?
3. Suppose you set the function generator such that it produces a 1 kHz sinusoidal voltage with 5V peakto-peak across a 25 load. What will be the peak-to-peak voltage displayed on the front panel of the
function generator?
4. In Section 8.0.2, you measured the DC resistance between your left and right hands. To make this
measurement, the ohmmeter applied a small (known) voltage and measured the resulting current. The
ratio of applied voltage to resulting current is the resistance between the ohmmeter probes (in this
case, the resistance between your left and right hands). Based on the resistance you measured, you
calculated the voltage range that would cause 100-200 mA of electric current to flow through your
body and termed this the lethal voltage. However, in real life, the lethal voltage would be far less
than the value you calculated. You are to explain in detail why the lethal voltage is in fact much
less than the value you calculated. Your explanation should include the change in skin resistance that
occurs when an electric shock occurs and other physiologic effects of electric shock that can be lethal
(eg. pulmonary failure).
23
13
PSpice (to be done outside of lab)
In both the lecture and the lab, PSpice will be a very important tool and will accompany the majority of lab
exercises. Unless it is explicitly stated that the PSpice exercise is to be performed in lab using the HP PCs,
the PSpice simulations should be performed outside the lab using either the Sun Workstations in Room 161
or some other platform such as your own personal PC.
In this exercise, you will use PSpice to compute the current in a simple circuit. The objective of this
PSpice exercise is to become familiar with PSpice syntax and how to code the elements as well as the topology
of a circuit.
13.1
Basic PSpice information

1
5V
5 k
+
-
1 k
Figure 4: Example PSpice circuit.

All PSpice programs should contain the following: a heading, this should be the first line of the program;
a .end line which should be the very last line of the program. Between these two lines there should be
commands to specify the circuit which is to be analyzed. To specify a circuit, first label the nodes in the
circuit (see Figure 4) with node 0 always being the ground node. Once your circuit is labeled, enter each
element in the circuit as follows:
Voltage Sources: Vname node+ node value
Current Sources: Iname nodef rom nodeto value
Resistors: Rname node1 node2 value
Vname , Iname , and Rname are names of the elements which should begin with V, I and R respectively.
Examples include V1, I12, R1 and VDUMMY. Only the first letter is important.
To completely specify our example circuit we would write the following code:
Example Circuit 1
V1 1 0 5
R1 1 2 5k
R2 2 0 1000
.tran 0.02 2.0
.probe
.end
To simulate a circuit on one of the Sun Workstations in Room 161, enter your code into a file ending
with a .cir suffix (eg. spice1.cir). At the UNIX prompt type the command pspice. When prompted, enter
the filename you chose. After PSpice has finished running, examine the .out file produced by PSpice. If
graphical output is desired, type the command probe.
For more information on PSpice, refer to the PSpice tutorial in the EE-61 Course-Pak and the Rashid
text.
24
13.2
Procedure
Write a PSpice program to simulate the circuit built in Section 9. After running the PSpice code, check the
output (file.out) to determine if the current flowing through the voltage source agrees with Ohms Law and
the value for current you obtained in Section 9. Include the PSpice code and pertinent results in your lab
report.
25
Lab 3 Kirchhoff s Laws and Basic Instrumentation

1
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to develop proficiency in the use of the digital multimeter in the context of
verifying Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current Laws (KVL and KCL). In the process you will become familiar
with the use of the breadboard.
Prototyping a Circuit
The solderless breadboard (sometimes called a protoboard) is the most common type of prototyping circuit
board. Prototyping a circuit is the process of creating a model suitable for complete evaluation of its design
and performance. This requires the circuit to be designed, built and tested in the laboratory. Theoretical
calculations and computer simulation are part of the design process. Once the circuit configuration is
determined, the circuit is built on a prototyping board. There are two main types of prototyping circuit
boards:
1. Solderless Breadboards
2. Perfboard
Perfboard is a thin slab of either epoxy glass or phenolic with 1 mm diameter holes punched through it.
As an example of epoxy glass perfboard, look on top of the instrument cabinet at your lab station. There
should be a 4 x 8 section of epoxy glass perfboard with 3 types of diodes mounted on it. A circuit built
on perfboard requires either soldering or wire wrapping the connections. A circuit built on a breadboard
requires neither soldering nor wire wrapping the connections. Your laboratory instructor will assign to you
and your partner a JE25 breadboard on which you will build your subcircuits throughout the semester. Be
sure to observe the number shown on the breadboard (just below the JE25 identifier in the upper left corner)
so that you can identify your board at each laboratory meeting. Located at each of the lab stations is a pair
of prototyping boards permanently connected to the bench top. One of the boards is a breadboard and the
other is a springboard (rarely seen anymore except in Radio Shack Electronics Projects Kits). You should
use these boards on the bench top for making circuits that you intend to dismantle before leaving the lab at
the end of the period. Any subcircuit that you intend to interconnect to others in later lab sessions should
be built on your JE25 breadboard.
Using the Breadboard
Check out a Jameco JE25 breadboard from your lab TA. You will be using this board throughout the
semester. Obtain a piece of masking tape and affix it to the top of your board. Write your name (and
partners name) on the tape. Write down the identification number of your board for reference. When you
are finished with your board at the end of each lab, return your board to its sequential location in the cabinet.
After you have checked out your breadboard, examine it closely with your partner. Your JE25 breadboard
has two terminal strips, four bus strips, and three binding posts as shown in Figure 1. Each bus strip has
two rows of contacts. Each of the two rows of contacts on the bus strips are a node. That is, every contact
along a row on a bus strip is connected together, inside the breadboard. Bus strips are used primarily for
power supply connections but are also used for any node requiring a large number of connections. Each
terminal strip has 60 rows and 5 columns of contacts on each side of the center gap. Each row of 5 contacts
is a node. You will build your circuits on the terminal strips by inserting the leads of circuit components
into the contact receptacles and making connections with 22 AWG (American Wire Gauge) wire. There are
wire cutter/strippers and a spool of wire in the lab. You will be using the red and black binding posts for
power supply connections. Hence, it is a good idea to wire them to a bus strip.
26
Binding Post
Bus Strip
Terminal Strip
Figure 1: Jameco JE25 Solderless Breadboard
27
Using the Multimeter as a Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a device for measuring voltage. It measures the voltage drop from the red to the black
probes. The voltmeter is placed in parallel with the circuit element whose voltage is to be measured. Recall
that two elements are in parallel when they share the same pair of nodes and hence share the same voltage.
Consider the voltage divider circuit shown in Figure 2 in which the voltage across R 2 is to be measured. If
the presence of the voltmeter does not affect the voltage it is intending to measure, the meter must draw no
current. That is, it must act as an open circuit. An open circuit may be thought of as an infinite resistance.
Hence, an ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance. You measured the internal resistance of the voltmeter
in Experiment 2 and found the value to be on the order of M which is large, but certainly not infinite.
1
red probe
VS
+
-
V
X
Voltmeter
black probe
Figure 2: Voltage Divider Circuit
First consider the circuit with the voltmeter not present. In this case the voltage v x can be expressed in
terms of the source voltage vs and the resistors R1 and R2 by
Vx = V s
R2
R1 + R 2
(1)
With the voltmeter present, its resistance alters the voltage division equation which becomes
Vx = V s
R2 RM
R2 RM + R1 (R2 + RM )
(2)
where RM is the resistance of the voltmeter. You will not be able to see how this equation was obtained at
first examination. Let the voltmeter in Figure 2 be represented by a resistance R M . Use resistance reduction
and voltage division to obtain an expression for vx in terms of vs . Then, clear the fractions in the numerator
and denominator. Be sure to show your derivation in your lab report. Recall that an ideal voltmeter has
infinite resistance. Letting the value of RM in Equation 2 be infinite should result in Equation 1. Derive
equation 1 from Equation 2 by taking the limit as RM . LHospitals Rule may be helpful.
You will now build the voltage divider circuit using the DC power supply as the voltage source v s in
Figure 2.
4.1
Voltage Divider with Moderate-Valued Resistors
1. Obtain two 1 k resistors from the parts bin. Designate one of the resistors as R 1 and the other as
R2 .
2. Measure the resistor values using the multimeter as an ohmmeter. Be sure to keep track of which
resistor corresponds to which value measured!
3. Build the circuit in Figure 2 using the 1 k resistors for R1 and R2 .
28
4. Set the power supply to 5V. Use the voltmeter, not the front panel display of the power supply to
ensure the proper setting. Important Note: You built the circuit before you set the power supply
voltage to 5V. If the current limiter is set to a value lower than than the current demanded by the
circuit, the constant current (cc) indicator will light up and the voltage control knob will no longer
adjust the output voltage. If this happens, simply increase the current limiter until you are able to
achieve 5V in the constant voltage (cv) mode.
5. Using the voltmeter, measure the voltage across resistor R1 , and then across resistor R2 . Record these
values, as always, and verify Kirchhoffs Voltage Law KVL.
6. Comment on the accuracy of measurements made considering the internal resistance of the voltmeter.
7. Create a table presenting theoretical and measured voltages along with percent error. Consider whether
your theoretical values for the voltages across R1 and R2 should include the effect of RM . Important
Note: When you are calculating percent error, you should avoid cases in which the theoretical value is
zero since the percent error is meaningless. To calculate percent error between theoretical and experimental verification of KVL, use the source voltage as the reference. For example, in the measurements
made in this section, the theoretical value (and measured value!) for the voltage across the supply is
5V. The measured value is the same as the theoretical value because you used the voltmeter to set the
power supply voltage to 5V. To obtain the KVL measured voltage, add the voltage across R 1 to the
voltage across R2 . Compare with 5V.
4.2
Voltage Divider with Large-Valued Resistors
1. Obtain two 10 M resistors from the parts bin. Designate one of the resistors as R 1 and the other as
R2 .
3. Build the circuit in Figure 2 using the 10 M resistors for R1 and R2 .
4. Set the power supply to 5V.
5. Using the voltmeter, measure the voltage across resistor R1 , and then across resistor R2 . Record these
values, as always, and verify Kirchhoffs Voltage Law KVL.
6. Comment on the accuracy of the voltage measurements made (consider the internal resistance of the
voltmeter).
7. Create a table presenting theoretical and measured voltages along with percent error. Consider whether
your theoretical values for the voltages across R1 and R2 should include the effect of RM .
Using the Multimeter as an Ammeter
An ammeter is a device for measuring current. It measures the current flowing from the red to the black
probes within the meter. The ammeter is placed in series with the circuit element whose current is to be
measured. Recall that two elements are in series when they share in the same branch and hence share the
same current. Consider the current divider circuit shown in Figure 3.
The current through R1 may be expressed as a fraction of is in terms of R1 and R2 using current division
i1 = i s
1
R1
1
R1
1
R2
= is
R2
R1 + R 2
(3)
You will now build the current divider circuit and make several measurements. Record all measured
values and present percent error calculations and tables as appropriate.
29
10 k
i
10 V
+
-
is
Figure 3: Current Divider Circuit
5.1
Current Divider with Moderate-Valued Resistors
1. Obtain two 100 resistors from the parts bin. Designate one of the resistors as R 1 and the other as
R2 .
3. Build the circuit in Figure 3 using the 100 resistors for R1 and R2 .
4. Set the power supply to 10V. Dont forget to set the voltage using the voltmeter rather than depending
on the front panel display of the power supply. Important Note: You built the circuit before you
set the power supply voltage to 10V. If the current limiter is set to a value lower than than the current
demanded by the circuit, the constant current (cc) indicator will light up and the voltage control
knob will no longer adjust the output voltage. If this happens, simply increase the current limiter until
you are able to achieve 10V in the constant voltage (cv) mode.
5. Using the voltmeter, measure the voltage across the 10 k resistor followed by the parallel combination
of resistors R1 and R2 . Record these values, as always, and verify Kirchhoffs Voltage Law KVL.
6. Configure the multimeter to measure current. Remember that this requires two things: Remove the
terminal of the red probe from the voltage/resistance measuring receptacle and insert it in the current
measuring receptacle on the front panel of the multimeter. Then press the DC current button, also on
the front panel of the multimeter.
7. Measure the current through the 10V source. Remember that you have to break the circuit and insert
the ammeter in series with the 10V source to allow the current to flow through the ammeter.
8. Measure the current through R1 and then the current through R2 .
9. Verify Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL). Remember that a theoretical value of zero produces a meaningless percent error.
voltmeter).
11. Comment on the accuracy of the current measurements made (consider the internal resistance of the
ammeter).
30
5.2
Current Divider with Small-Valued Resistors
1. Obtain two 10 resistors from the parts bin. Designate one of the resistors as R 1 and the other as
R2 .
3. Build the circuit in Figure 3 using the 10 resistors for R1 and R2 .
4. Set the power supply to 10V. Dont forget to set the voltage using the voltmeter rather than depending
on the front panel display of the power supply.
5. Using the voltmeter, measure the voltage across the 10 k resistor followed by the parallel combination
of resistors R1 and R2 . Record these values, as always, and verify Kirchhoffs Voltage Law KVL.
6. Configure the multimeter to measure current. Remember that this requires two things: Remove the
terminal of the red probe from the voltage/resistance measuring receptacle and insert it in the current
measuring receptacle on the front panel of the multimeter. Then press the DC current button, also on
the front panel of the multimeter.
7. Measure the current through the 10V source. Remember that you have to break the circuit and insert
the ammeter in series with the 10V source to allow the current to flow through the ammeter.
8. Measure the current through R1 and then the current through R2 .
9. Verify Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL). Remember that a theoretical value of zero produces a meaningless percent error.
voltmeter).
11. Comment on the accuracy of the current measurements made (consider the internal resistance of the
ammeter).
Return all parts to the correct drawer in the parts bin.
In this laboratory experiment, you constructed a total of four circuits:

1. The voltage divider circuit in Figure 2 first with R1 and R2 each with a nominal value of 1 k and
then with a nominal value of 10 M.
2. The current divider circuit in Figure 3 first with R1 and R2 each with a nominal value of 100 and
then with a nominal value of 10 .
Using the values of the voltmeter and ammeter internal resistance that you measured in lab 2, use PSpice
to simulate:
the voltage divider circuit with the large-valued resistors. Note that there are two circuits to simulate.
These two circuits correspond to the measurement of voltage across R1 as well as the voltage across
R2 .
the current divider circuit with the small-valued resistors. Note that there are three circuits to simulate.
These three circuits correspond to the measurement of current through the 10 k resistor, the current
through R1 , and the current through R2 .
31
Questions to be answered
1. The current division equation (Equation 3) does not include the resistance of the ammeter. Let the
internal resistance of the ammeter be RM . Write the expression for the current through R1 , i1 ,
including the resistance of the meter assuming that the ammeter is being used to measure the current
i1 . Then take the limit of this expression as the ammeter internal resistance goes to zero, showing that
the limit is given by Equation 3.
2. The voltage source and 10 k resistor in Figure 3 form an approximate current source for small load
resistances. If the voltage source and 10 k resistor formed an ideal current source, then the current
is would be constant, independent of the resistances of R1 and R2 , which is certainly not the case.
Consider the parallel combination of R1 and R2 as a single resistance RL . If RL is small compared
to 10 k, then the current is will be very nearly 1 mA (Recall that vs = 10V ) independent of RL .
Calculate the range of values of RL such that the current is will deviate from 1 mA by no more than
5%.
3. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 4. Suppose you want to know the value of all voltages and currents
in the circuit. Assume that you know nothing at all about the resistor values. You want the results
to be as accurate as possible. You have a multimeter that you may use as either a voltmeter or an
ammeter. Explain the sequence of measurements that you make. Comment on your level of confidence
that your results are accurate. Dont forget that you have Ohms Law and Kirchhoffs Laws that may
be used.
R1
i1
+
VS
+
-
V
1
i2
+
V
2
R2
i3
R3
V3
Figure 4: Resistive Network
PRE-LAB for Lab 4: Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
In Lab 4: Thevenin Equivalent Circuits, you will be investigating the concept of equivalent circuits as seen
at a pair of terminals. Prior to entering the lab next week, you are to perform the theoretical calculations
to obtain the Thevenin equivalent of the two circuits (Circuit 1 and Circuit 2) in terms of symbols. Before
you calculate the Thevenin equivalent circuits, be sure to REMOVE R4 from the circuit (both Circuit 1
and Circuit 2). Your lab TA will verify your analyses at the beginning of the lab meeting, and a portion of
your lab grade will be based upon the correctness of your solutions.
32
Lab 4 Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

1
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to learn how to obtain a Thevenin Equivalent circuit by making measurements of
the I-V (current-voltage) characteristics at a pair of terminals.
Introduction
Any linear DC circuit as seen at a pair of terminals can be reduced to a practical voltage source (an ideal
voltage source in series with a resistor). See Figure 1.
RTh
a
voc
+
b
Figure 1: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

In order to obtain the Thevenin Equivalent circuit, two quantities must be calculated or measured:
1. voc : The open circuit voltage drop from terminals a to b and
2. isc : The short circuit current from terminals a to b.
Once that values for voc and isc have been obtained, the Thevenin resistance RTh can be determined
from the relation
RTh =
voc
isc
(1)
If the circuit contains no dependent sources, then RTh may also be found by turning off all of the
independent sources and using resistance reduction at terminals ab.
Experimental Procedure
You will build two circuits, calculate their Thevenin Equivalent circuit as seen at a pair of terminals, and
then verify your analysis through measurements.
3.1
Circuit 1
1. Obtain four different valued resistors each with a value in the range 100 - 1 k . Randomly designate
the resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 .
2. Measure and record the value of each resistor.
33
3. Build the circuit shown in Figure 2 on the breadboard mounted to the bench top, using the DC power
supply as vs . Once you have built the circuit, set the value of vs to 1 V. Be sure to use the multimeter
to make sure the terminal voltage produced by the power supply is as close to 1 V as you can get it.
4. Calculate the voltage drop from a to b (across R4 ) using voltage division twice. Be sure to show all
your work in your lab report.
5. Measure (and record) the voltage drop from a to b (across R4 ).
6. Calculate the Thevenin Equivalent circuit as seen at terminals ab without R4 present. You are
calculating the the Thevenin Equivalent circuit as seen by R4 . Be sure to show all your work in your
lab report.
7. Remove R4 from your circuit. Measure voc and isc at terminals ab and calculate RTh . Do your
measurements agree with your theoretical analyses?
8. Dismantle your circuit. Obtain a 1 k potentiometer (variable resistor) from the parts bin. There
are several different drawers with potentiometers. Locate the drawer with the 1 k label. Using the
ohmmeter, adjust the resistance of the potentiometer to the value of RTh you calculated in step 6.
9. Build the circuit shown in Figure 3 using the same resistor for R4 , the potentiometer for RTh , and
the DC power supply for voc . Adjust the terminal voltage of the power supply to the value of voc you
calculated in step 6. Be sure to use the voltmeter to check this voltage!
10. Calculate the current through R4 in Figure 3.
11. Measure the current through R4 . Do the calculated and measured values agree?
12. Measure the voltage across R4 . Does this value agree with your calculated value from step 4 and
measured value from step 5?
13. Dismantle your circuit.
R1
VS
+
-
R3
R2
R4
Figure 2: Circuit 1
RTh
voc
+
-
R4
b
Figure 3: Thevenin Equivalent circuit connected to a load resistor
34
3.2
Circuit 2
1. Obtain five different valued resistors each with a value in the range 100 - 1 k . Randomly designate
the resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 , and R5 .
2. Measure and record the value of each resistor.
3. Build the circuit shown in Figure 4 on the breadboard mounted to the bench top, using the DC power
supply as vs . Once you have built the circuit, set the value of vs to 1 V. Be sure to use the multimeter
to make sure the terminal voltage of the power supply is as close to 1 V as you can get it.
4. Calculate the voltage drop from a to b (across R4 ) using the node voltage method. Be sure to show
all your work in your lab report.
5. Measure (and record) the voltage drop from a to b (across R4 ).
6. Calculate the Thevenin Equivalent circuit as seen at terminals ab without R4 present. You are
calculating the the Thevenin Equivalent circuit as seen by R4 . Be sure to show all your work in your
lab report.
7. Remove R4 from your circuit. Measure voc and isc at terminals ab and calculate RTh . Do your
measurements agree with your theoretical analyses?
8. Dismantle your circuit. Obtain a 1 k potentiometer (variable resistor). Using the ohmmeter, adjust
the resistance of the potentiometer to the value of RTh you calculated in step 6.
9. Build the circuit shown in Figure 3 using the same resistor for R4 , the potentiometer for RTh , and
the DC power supply for voc . Adjust the terminal voltage of the power supply to the value of voc you
calculated in step 6. Be sure to use the voltmeter to check this voltage!
10. Calculate the current through R4 in Figure 3.
11. Measure the current through R4 . Do the calculated and measured values agree?
12. Measure the voltage across R4 . Does this value agree with your calculated value from step 4 and
measured value from step 5?
13. Dismantle your circuit.
14. Return the resistors to the proper drawers in the parts cabinet.
R1
VS
+
-
R
R4
a
R
b
R5
Figure 4: Circuit 2
35
Read Section 3-9.2 Small-Signal Transfer Function in Rashid which explains how to use the .tf control line.
The syntax of the .tf control line is:
.tf outputvar inputsrc
Circuit 1 (with the load resistance R4 replaced by a dummy resistance Rdummy ) is shown in Figure 5
with the nodes labeled for PSpice. If the .tf control line
.tf v(3) vs
is used, PSpice will produce the input resistance as seen by the voltage source vs , the output resistance
(Thevenin resistance at terminals ab), and the voltage gain from vs to vab . For example, if the following
code is executed with PSpice:
*Thevenin1.cir
Vs 1 0 10
R1 1 2 750
R2 0 2 1200
R3 3 2 1000
R4 3 0 1000Meg
.tran 2.0 2.0
.tf v(3) vs
.probe
.end
then the file Thevenin.out will contain:
****
SMALL-SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
V(3)/Vs =
6.154E-01
INPUT RESISTANCE AT Vs =
1.950E+03
OUTPUT RESISTANCE AT V(3) =
1.462E+03
The simulated value of the open circuit voltage voc is the voltage gain times the input voltage or voc =
(0.6154)*(10) = 6.154 V. The simulated value of the Thevenin resistance R Th is the output resistance (RTh
= 1.462 k) which is easily verified by analysis.
Use PSpice to simulate the four following circuits.
1. Circuit 1 with R4 present.
2. Circuit 1 with R4 replaced with a large dummy resistor. Use the .tf control line to obtain the Thevenin
Equivalent circuit parameters.
3. Circuit 2 with R4 present.
4. Circuit 2 with R4 replaced with a large dummy resistor. Use the .tf control line to obtain the Thevenin
Equivalent circuit parameters.
Compare in detail your theoretical, measured, and simulated results.
36
R1
VS
+
-
R3
R2
R dummy
(large)
Figure 5: Circuit 1 with nodes labeled for PSpice
Questions
Answer the following questions in your lab report.

1. What is meant by the word equivalent in Thevenin Equivalent circuits?
2. Explain why Rdummy is needed in the PSpice simulations. Why not just take R4 out of the circuit and
simulate the resulting circuit?
3. Why is it that making Rdummy large produces accurate simulation results? How large must Rdummy
be in order to produce accurate simulation results?
4. What is the practical value of Thevenin Equivalent circuits? Give several practical applications in
which Thevenin Equivalent circuits are used.
5. As you have seen, the Thevenin Equivalent of a circuit can be obtained by calculating/measuring two
I-V values: voc and isc . Often, it is not practical to measure the short circuit current. Can you imagine
trying to measure isc for a car battery? Suppose you wanted to obtain the Thevenin Equivalent of a
circuit by making two measurements, neither of which involves measuring isc . You measure voc and
then place a 1 k resistor across the terminals and measure the voltage drop across the resistor. Do
you have enough information from these two measurements to obtain the Thevenin Equivalent circuit?
Justify your answer in detail.
6. Suppose you have two boxes in front of you. One box contains a Thevenin Equivalent (voltage source in
series with a resistor) and the other box contains a Norton Equivalent (current source in parallel with a
resistor). Each box has a pair of terminals available for measurement. You cannot open the boxes. You
may make any electrical measurements at the terminals. You also have access to the outside surface
of the boxes. Can you determine which box contains the Thevenin Equivalent and which box contains
the Norton Equivalent? Or is it impossible to determine which circuit is in which box? Justify your
answer in detail.
37
Lab 5 Operational Amplifiers

1
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to examine the properties of the operational amplifier and learn to design practical
op-amp circuits. The concepts and equations of the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers will be verified
and the use of the operational amplifier as a comparator will be investigated.
Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a device with two inputs and a single output. The output of the
amplifier vo is given by the formula:
vo = A(v + v )
(1)
Where A is the open-loop voltage gain of the amplifier, v + is the non-inverting input voltage and v is the
inverting input voltage. Both v + and v are node voltages with respect to ground. Typically, the open-loop
voltage gain A is on the order of 105 106 . A resistor is placed between the output node and the inverting
input to provide feedback and adjust amplification. When an op-amp circuit behaves linearly, the op-amp
adjusts its output current such that the voltage difference between the two inputs is nearly zero.
v = v+
(2)
Another important feature of the op-amp is that its input resistance is very large and may be taken as
infinite in many applications. The most common type of op-amp is the 741 which has an input resistance
of 2 M. This is large enough to be considered infinite in most applications. Because of the high input
resistance, only a very small current flows into either input of an op-amp. In practical op-amp circuits, the
current flowing into either of the inputs is usually on the order of A. In the case of an ideal op-amp, where
the single assumption is made that the open-loop voltage gain A goes to infinity,
ii = 0
(3)
where ii is defined to be the current entering the non-inverting input and exiting the inverting input.
Equations 2 and 3 can be used to analyze most of the properties of op-amp circuits.
Op Amp Symbol
Figure 3 shows an operational amplifier with an open-loop voltage gain A.

The terminals labeled +vcc and vcc are power supply connections to the op-amp and set limits on the
voltage which can be produced at the output node.
The op-amp we will be using is the 747 as shown in Figure 4. The 747 is a dual op-amp integrated circuit
(IC) containing two 741 op-amps.
To use this IC, you must insert it into your board as shown in Figure 1. When properly positioned, the
op-amp straddles the gap in the middle of the terminal strip with the 14 pins snuggly fit into individual holes
in the terminal strip. Observe the notch at one end of the op-amp chip. This notch is used for orientation
and identification of the pins. With the notch positioned as shown, pin 1 is always to the left of the notch.
Op Amp Configuration
As discussed earlier, amplifier circuits that utilize op-amps as linear amplifiers require feedback circuits to
control the voltage gain (amplification). The output voltage of the op-amp can never exceed the power
38
14
13
12
11
10
Figure 1: Proto Board with inserted 747.

supply voltage levels, called the rails of the power supply. In this section, we shall examine two types
of amplifier configurations for the op-amp (Inverting and Non-inverting) and the voltage gain provided by
each.
4.1
Inverting Amplifier
Figure 5 shows an op-amp in the inverting configuration along with the power supply connections +v cc and
vcc . Future circuit diagrams will show only the signal portion of the circuit with the understanding that
the power supply connections are required for proper operation of the circuit. To analyze this circuit, we
will use Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) to determine the output node voltage vo and the circuit voltage
gain given by the formula
vo
(4)
voltage gain =
vs
It is important to distinguish between the voltage gain of the circuit and the open-loop voltage gain of the
op-amp. The op-amp is only part of the amplifier circuit. The open-loop voltage gain A of the op-amp is
the voltage gain from the two op-amp inputs to the op-amp output. While the output node of the whole
amplifier circuit may be the output node of the op-amp, the input to the amplifier circuit will not be, in
general, a voltage applied across the input terminals of the op-amp.
To analyze an op-amp circuit we first look at the op-amp input nodes (2 and 3). Assuming an ideal
op-amp, no current flows into either of the op-amp inputs (Equation 3). The current through R 3 is zero
and therefore v3 = 0. From Equation 2 we know that v2 = v3 = 0. From this, the current flowing through
resistor R1 is
v1 v 2
vS 0
vS
iR1 =
=
=
(5)
R1
R1
R1
From Equation 3 we know that iR1 = iR2 =
vS
R1 .
iR2 =
vS
0 vO
= iR1 =
R2
R1
vO
vS
=
R2
R1

R2
vO = vS
R1
39
(6)
(7)
(8)
To find the voltage gain (of the amplifier circuit), we need to divide the output voltage by the input voltage:

R2
v
S R1
R2
vO
=
=
(9)
Gain =
vS
vS
R1
Note that the final voltage gain is negative, thus the name inverting amplif ier. However, sometimes a
negative voltage gain is not desired. In such a case, one could either use the output of the inverting amplifier
as the input to a second inverting amplifier which would cause the total voltage gain to be positive. However,
a simpler method would be to use the non-inverting amplifier configuration.
4.2
Non-inverting Op Amp
The basic configuration for a non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 6. The voltage gain for this circuit
R2
is 1 + R
, it will be left to you as an exercise to verify this voltage gain in your lab report.
1
Op Amp as a Comparator
In the previous section, we saw how the use of a feedback resistor can provide stability to an op-amp allowing
it to operate as a linear amplifier. In this section, we shall look at an op-amp configuration which does not
use feedback: the comparator. The purpose of the comparator is to compare two voltages and produce a
signal that indicates which voltage is greater. Figure 7 shows an op-amp as a comparator.
The principle of the comparator is based in Equation 1. Since the voltage gain, A, of an op-amp is very
large, any difference will be magnified to the power supply rails vcc , as was discussed in Section 2. If v1
is greater than v2 then the difference v + v will be positive and the result will be amplified to +vcc . If,
however, v2 is greater, then the difference is negative and the result will be amplified to vcc . Finally, if the
two voltages are exactly equal, then the difference will be zero and the output will also be zero.
Special Note: Whenever you want to remove and op-amp from a breadboard, use the IC
EXTRACTOR in the wire jumper box at your lab station. If you do not use the extractor, you will
bend the pins of the chip making it unusable.
For this portion of the lab exercise, you will be using the springboard and breadboard mounted on the bench
at your lab station.
6.1
Power supply
For this experiment, you will need a power supply which can provide +10 volts, -10 volts and a common
ground. However, the power supply at your station is not equipped to provide both positive and negative 10
volts relative to earth ground. So we are going to trick the op-amp circuit by a clever use of a single power
supply. Assemble the circuit shown in Figure 8. From the standpoint of the bench (20 V) power supply,
vcc is ground, common is 10 volts and +vcc is 20 volts. However, from the standpoint of the op-amp,
common will be used as ground (not the same as earth ground) so that +vcc is now only 10 volts and vcc
is -10 volts. We have switched reference frames so that +vcc is now only 10 volts and vcc is -10 volts.
Measure and record the values of vcc and +vcc using common as the reference (ground) node.
6.2
Inverting Amplifier
1. Select, measure, and record the values of three resistors, R1 = 5k, R2 = 20k and R3 = 5k. Obtain
a 747 op-amp. Assemble the circuit shown in Figure 5. Be sure to include the power connections +v cc
40
and vcc from the power supply circuit of Figure 8 to +vcc and vcc of the 747 chip as shown in
Figure 4. In addition, the ground nodes shown in Figure 5 are to be connected to the common node
of Figure 8. Note that Figure 4 shows two +vcc connections. There are two 741 op-amps in each 747
chip. There is a separate +vcc for each op-amp. Connect a wire between the two +vcc pins. Also note
that the pins labeled NC are not connected to anything.
2. Using the function generator apply a 1 volt peak-to-peak, 10 kHz sine wave as v S . Note that you need
to verify the peak-to-peak voltage using the oscilloscope.
3. Using the oscilloscope, display both the op-amps input and output waveforms. You can do this by
using channel 1 at the input and channel 2 for the output. Find the peak-to-peak voltage of the output
waveform.
4. Record the peak-to-peak voltage of vO and find the voltage gain of this op-amp configuration (Equation
4.)
5. Increase the peak-to-peak voltage of the function generator until the top of the output sine wave is
being cut off. This effect is called clipping, and it occurs when the desired amplification would produce
an output voltage greater than the bounds of vcc and +vcc dictated by the power supply. Measure
the voltage of the top half of the sine wave and record this value. Do the same thing with the bottom
half of the sine wave. How do these values compare to the values recorded for +v cc and vcc ?
6. Compare the voltage gain you found in Step 4 to the theoretical voltage gain of the inverting op-amp.
Note: If you find yourself with an op-amp circuit that wont work and you have verified
that the external wiring is correct, extract the op-amp from the breadboard carefully using
the IC EXTRACTOR in the wire jumper box at your lab station, and then use the op-amp
tester to determine if your chip is bad.
6.3
Non-Inverting Amplifier
1. Using the three resistors you acquired for Section 6.2, assemble the circuit shown in Figure 6.
2. Using the function generator apply a 1 volt peak-to-peak, 10 kHz sine wave as v S . Note that you need
to verify the peak-to-peak voltage using the oscilloscope.
3. Using the oscilloscope, display the op-amps output waveform. Find the peak-to-peak voltage of the
output waveform.
4. Record the peak-to-peak voltage of vO and find the voltage gain of this op-amp configuration (Equation
4.)
5. Increase the peak-to-peak voltage of the function generator until you achieve clipping. Measure the
voltage of the top half of the sine wave and record this value. Do the same thing with the bottom half
of the sine wave. How do these values compare to the values recorded for +v cc and vcc ?
6. Compare the voltage gain you found in Step 4 to the theoretical voltage gain of the non-inverting
op-amp.
6.4
Comparator
1. You will need two DC power supplies for this portion of the experiment. Get a second DC power
supply from the cabinet in the back of the lab if needed.
2. Assemble the circuit in Figure 9 using the voltage divider op-amp power supply you used in the previous
sections.
41
3. Set voltage supply P1 to 12 volts.

4. Measure the voltage at the inverting input of the op-amp. (Note: All voltages in this section should
be measured with respect to the negative terminals of the two power supplies.)
5. Set voltage supply P2 to 0 volts initially.
6. Measure and record the output voltage vo .
7. While monitoring vo , slowly turn the voltage of P2 up until vo changes.
8. Record the voltage of P2 at the point at which vo changes.
6.5
Comparator with Triangle Wave Input
1. Replace P2 with the function generator set to produce a triangular wave with a frequency of 50 Hz
and maximum peak-to-peak voltage.
2. Lower the voltage on P1 so that +vcc and vcc are 3.0 and -3.0 volts respectively.
3. Use the oscilloscope to view the output voltage (with respect to the node connected to the negative
terminals of P1 and P2).
4. While reducing the amplitude of the triangle wave, observe the waveform on the oscilloscope.
5. Draw the waveform shown on the oscilloscope screen for 3 different triangle wave amplitudes and
explain what is happening.
Project Procedure (To Be Done on Project Board)
Do NOT dismantle this circuit when you are through with this exercise. You should keep the entire circuit,
including the op-amp IC, on your project board.
For the wireless control system we will be using operational amplifiers in two of the three configurations
presented: non-inverting amp and as a comparator. After the signal is received by the receiver, it will be
converted from AC to DC (a later experiment). This DC value will be small, under 500 mV, and will need to
be amplified in order to be useful. For that purpose, we will use a non-inverting op-amp configuration. The
output of the amplifier will then be used as the input to a circuit which will control a servomotor, causing
the servomotor to rotate. The servo controller utilizes a comparator.
You will now design and build a non-inverting amplifier circuit.
1. Build the power splitter shown in Figure 8 on your project board.
2. Select resistors which will provide a voltage gain of 10 for your amplifier.
3. Measure and record the values of the resistors you have chosen.
4. Assemble a non-inverting amplifier circuit as was done in the previous section.
5. From the power splitter on your project board, connect +vcc to +10 volts and vcc to 10 volts.
Note: since we are amplifying a DC voltage, we will not need more than a 2 to +10 volt power supply,
however for simplicity we have constructed the power supply with a 10 to 10 volt range.
6. Test the circuit by providing a small voltage to the non-inverting input of the amplifier. Verify that
the voltage gain of the amplifier is approximately equal to the theoretical voltage gain.
Analyze this circuit in your lab report to verify that it will amplify a small positive DC voltage by a
factor of 10.
42
Read Chapter 3 (Section 6 Dependent Sources) in Rashid. In order for you to analyze certain devices such
v-
75
vo
2 M
+
v
+
-
5
2 . 10 (v+- v -)
Figure 2: PSpice model for the 741 op-amp.

as op-amps and transistors using PSpice, you must use controlled sources. The following controlled sources
are available: Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS), Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS), Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) and Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS). These sources are
specified in the following manner:
VCVS: Ename n+ n nc+ nc gain
VCCS: Gname nf rom nto nc+ nc gain( 1 )
CCVS: Hname n+ n vname gain()
CCCS: Fname nf rom nto vname gain
nc+ and nc are the nodes of the controlling voltage for voltage controlled sources (either voltage or
current sources). vname is the name of the voltage source through which the controlling current flows for
current controlled sources (either voltage or current sources). Note that the voltage source through which
the controlling current flows can be a dummy (zero voltage) voltage source.
Simulate the circuit you built and tested in Section 6.3 using PSpice and the op-amp model shown in
Figure 2. Use a 1 volt peak-to-peak, 10 kHz sine wave as vS . Include the PSpice output in your lab report.
Compare the theoretical voltage gain, the voltage gain resulting from your PSpice simulation, and the voltage
gain measured in lab.
Note: The input resistance of the op-amp model of Figure 2 is 2 M. The PSpice designator for 10 6 is
MEG not M! PSpice is not case sensitive and therefore takes M as m which designates 10 3 not 106 .
Questions
Answer the following questions in your lab report.

R2
, using the same general procedure
1. Verify that the voltage gain of the circuit shown in Figure 6 is 1+ R
1
as outlined in Section 4.1. You may assume the op-amp is ideal.
2. We have seen some examples of clipping in an operational amplifier circuit. Explain how and why
clipping should be accounted for in designing an amplifier circuit. More specifically, discuss the possible
effects of clipping due to poor design in a high-fidelity audio amp.
43
3. Explain why vo turned on when it did in Section 6.4.

4. List several practic uses for a comparator. Hint: Think of contexts in which a physical quantity is
compared to a threshold and a decision made based on the comparison. Examples include: fuel level
in a gas tank (if below a threshold a dashboard light is illuminated), heart rate monitored in a hospital
(if below a threshold a warning tone is produced).
+v cc
vv+
ii
vo
+
-v cc
Figure 3: Operational Amplifier
14
13
+Vcc
NC
12
11
10
+Vcc
NC
NC
-Vcc
NC
NC
Figure 4: 747 Operational Amplifier

R2
+Vcc
R1
i R1
vo
-Vcc
vs
R3
Figure 5: Inverting operational amplifier circuit
44
R2
R1
+
vo
R3
vs
Figure 6: Non-inverting operational amplifier circuit
+
-
v
1
+
-
+
-
vo
v
2
Figure 7: Operational amplifier as a comparator
+Vcc
20 V
1 k
+
-
COMMON
1 k
-V cc
Figure 8: Power supply circuit
1 k
P1
+vcc
+
-
+
1 k
P2
+
-
vo
-v cc
Figure 9: Operational amplifier comparator circuit
45
Lab 6 Exploring the Servomotor Controller Circuit

1
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to examine the circuit that controls the servomotor. The goal is to mathematically
characterize this system in terms of its electrical input and mechanical output. The information gained
about the servo circuit will be useful when the circuit is connected to and driven by the receiver in the lab
project. There are eight servomotor controller boards in the lab. Please treat them with care.
Servomotor
A servomotor (servo) is an electromechanical device in which an electrical input determines the position of
the armature of a motor. Servos are used extensively in robotics and radio-controlled cars, airplanes, and
boats.
You will be using an Airtronics 94102 Precision Heavy-Duty Standard Servo. The position of the armature (See Figure 1) is determined by the duty cycle of a periodic rectangular pulse train. The duty cycle
of a rectangular pulse train is expressed in %: It is the ratio of the pulse duration to the pulse period times
100% (See Figure 2 for examples.)
Armature Attachment
Armature
Motor
Top
Side
Figure 1: Illustration of Servomotor Identifying the Armature

The receiver sub-circuit of the lab project outputs a DC voltage. Therefore it is necessary to convert
the DC voltage produced by the receiver into a rectangular pulse train whose duty cycle is determined
by the DC level. In this lab exercise you will investigate how the servo controller circuit accomplishes this
conversion from a DC voltage level to a rectangular pulse train with a specific duty cycle.
Components of the Servomotor Controller Circuit
The servo controller circuit consists of several op-amps and Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) components.
Its purpose is to convert a DC voltage into a rectangular pulse train whose duty cycle is determined by
the DC level. The servo responds to variations in the duty cycle of a 50 Hz rectangular pulse train. The
controller circuit is designed to produce a 50 Hz rectangular pulse train with a duty cycle determined by
the DC voltage level at its input. The path of the signal through the circuit is shown in the block diagram
of Figure 3. A summary of each component is provided in the following section.
46
Waveform
Duty Cycle
50%
25%
75%
Period T
On Time = 0.75T
Figure 2: Examples of Duty Cycle Calculation
3.1
555 Timer
The 555 Timer is a TTL digital logic circuit that is used in the controller circuit to produce a periodic
square wave signal. The period and duty cycle of the square wave signal are determined by the resistors and
capacitors connected to the timer. A square wave with a 50% duty cycle is desired. In order to obtain exactly
a 50% duty cycle from the 555 Timer, two resistors of identical value are required. Since it is impractical to
obtain two resistors of identical value, two resistors close in value are used to generate a square wave with a
duty cycle close to 50%, and then a JK flip flop is used to create a square wave with a duty cycle of exactly
50%. The frequency of the square wave produced by the JK flip flop is 1/2 the frequency of the output of
the 555 timer, as you will see in the next section.
3.2
J-K Flip Flop
The output of the timer is sent to the J-K flip flop. The J-K flip flop is also a TTL digital logic circuit. A
J-K flip flop may be used to perform many different functions. In this circuit the J-K flip flop is being used
as a frequency divider. The frequency of the output signal is related to the input frequency by Equation 1.
fin
(1)
2
The J-K flip flop requires the input signal to complete one full cycle in order for its output to change
states from 0V to 5V or from 5V to 0V. Therefore, it takes 2 periods of the input signal to produce one
period at the output of the flip flop.
fout =
3.3
Comparator 1: Used as a Level Shifter
A comparator circuit, in general, contains a threshold (reference) voltage to which another signal is compared.
If the signal is greater than the reference voltage, the output voltage of the comparator is +V cc . If the signal
is less than the reference voltage, the output voltage of the comparator is V cc .
In the controller circuit the comparator (comparator 1) is used to shift the Levels of the square wave
from 0V and 5V to -5V and +5V.
The output of the J-K flip flop is a voltage square wave with Levels of 0V and 5V. This square wave is
the input to the comparator. The comparator circuit utilizes one of the 741 op-amps on the LM324 Quad
Op-Amp chip shown in Figure 6,7. The purpose of the comparator in this circuit is to shift the voltage
Levels of the square wave produced by the flip flop to the power supply Levels (+V cc = 5V, Vcc = 5V )
of the op-amp. This change in amplitude creates a square wave signal that is symmetric around ground
(ideally) but does not affect the shape or frequency of the square wave input signal. Hence, the output of
47
Comparator 2
Pre-
DC Signal Input
Amplifier
12k
1.2k
Output
To
Servo
100k
+5V
10k
555
J-K
Timer
Flip Flop
3.3 uF
+
10k
Comparator 1
Integrator
Figure 3: Servomotor Controller Circuit Block Diagram

the comparator is also a square wave, but its voltage Levels have been shifted from 0V and 5V to -5V and
+5V.
3.4
Integrator
100k
10k
3.3 F
+
10k
Figure 4: Approximate Integrator Circuit

The square wave signal with Levels 5V produced by the comparator is the input signal to the (approx)
integrator. The (approx) integrator utilizes one of the 741 op-amps on the LM324 Quad Op-Amp chip. The
circuit, called an integrating amplifier or integrator, is shown in Figure 4. The output voltage of the integrator
is, ideally, the accumulated area of the input voltage (accumulated as a function of time) multiplied by a
constant. This ideal integral relationship is given by Equation 2. The integral relationship between the input
and output voltages arises as the result of the derivative relationship between voltage across and current
through a capacitor. Given that the square wave signal with Levels 5V produced by the comparator is
the input signal to the integrator, try to figure out what the waveform will look like at the output of the
integrator.
48
Vout =
3.5
(2)
AVin dt
Comparator 2
The final stage of the servo controller circuit is a comparator (Comparator 2 in Figure 3). The integrator
output is compared to the (amplified) DC signal. This comparator circuit utilizes the second 741 op-amp on
the LM324 Quad Op-Amp chip shown in Figure 6,7. Whenever the integrator signal amplitude is greater
than the DC input, the output of the comparator is high (+Vcc). Whenever it is less than the DC input, the
output of the comparator is low (0 V). This operation is shown for an arbitrary signal in Figure 5. Consider
the time-varying periodic signal as compared to the DC threshold level. When the threshold is set to level
1, the time-varying signal exceeds the threshold only for a relatively short duration near its peak. During
this time, the output signal from the comparator is a rectangular pulse train with a duty cycle as shown
in Figure 5. If the threshold is reduced to level 2, the time-varying signal exceeds the threshold for a longer
duration and the duty cycle is increased.
1
2
Input
Output (2)
Output (1)
Figure 5: Comparator output

It should now be apparent that raising the DC signal voltage, or threshold level, will decrease the duty
cycle of the comparators output and lowering the DC signal voltage will increase the duty cycle of the
output.
There are two different versions of the servo controller board. You must first determine which servo controller
board you have at your lab station. The main difference between the two versions is the DC power supply
49
for the op-amps and TTL logic chips. The controller shown in Figure 6 shows the controller which utilizes
two 9V batteries and Figure 7 shows the controller which utilizes an external split DC source for its on-board
logic. Depending on which board you have at your lab station, follow the procedure below. Both controller
boards will require the use of the HP E3631A Triple Output DC power supply in addition to the HP E3611A
power supply that you have used in previous experiments.
As its name suggests, the HP E3631A Triple Output DC power supply is capable of producing three
independent DC levels simultaneously. The first output of the HP E3631A can provide up to 6V and 5A.
The second output can provide up to 25V and 1A, and the third output can provide up to -25V and -1A.
The second and third outputs share the same common (ground) terminal. This makes the HP E3631A ideal
for situations that require the use of Vcc such as an op-amp circuit. When the HP E3631A is turned on,
the display will read OUTPUT OFF. To use the power supply, first press the Output On/Off button.
To set the voltages, first press the button that corresponds to the output that you wish to set (+6V, +25V,
or -25V). Then turn the dial to set the voltage. Note that the two arrow buttons beneath the dial can be
used to change which digit is being adjusted by the dial.
For both types of controller boards:
*****WARNING*****
Do not unscrew the banana jacks. Unscrewing the banana jacks can result in the disconnection of wires
on the bottom of the boards.
You will use the HP E3611A power supply as the DC input signal and the 6V output of the HP E3631A
power supply as the servomotor power source (+5V). Before connecting the HP E3611A, be sure to adjust
the voltage to 0V. Notice that the DC input signal and the servomotor power source share the same ground
node on the controller board. This means that you must connect the negative terminals on the HP3611A
and the 6V output of the HP3631A. It is important to use the HP E3631A as the servomotor power source
because the HP E3611A cannot provide enough current. The DC input signal is the control signal,
determining the angular displacement of the servomotor armature, and is therefore a low current signal. In
fact, an ideal control signal input would not require any current at all. On the other hand, the servomotor
power source provides the power that physically moves the servomotor armature. This requires a relatively
larger amount of current. After connecting both power supplies, set the 6V output on the HP3631A power
supply to provide 5V.
If your controller utilizes an external DC power supply for logic circuit power:
Your controller board requires two additional power inputs to provide the split 5V for the logic circuit.
For these you will use the 25V outputs of the HP E3631A power supply. To do this, simply connect the
+25V terminal on the power supply to the +5V terminal on the controller board, the -25V terminal to the
-5V terminal, and the COM terminal to the ground terminal. Set the two voltage outputs on the HP
E3631A to 5V.
The remaining sections apply to both controller versions:
The digital oscilloscope will be used to examine the signals present at the output of each stage in the
controller circuit.
1. Adjust the HP E3611A power supply to +1 V
2. Flip the toggle switch on the servo controller board and observe that the red light emitting diode (LED)
is illuminated. There is a 100 k Clarostat potentiometer mounted near the top of the board that will
need to be adjusted to calibrate your servo board. Your TA will explain the calibration procedure you
are to follow.
50
9V
9V
Battery
Battery
cable
calibration
potentiometer
toggle switch
+5 V
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
8 7 6 5 4
741 R
Op Amp 8
C R R
2 6 7
LM324
Quad Op Amp
6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
3 2 1
ground
1 2 3
4 5
LED
DC input
signal
Airtronics
SERVO
voltage
regulators
94102
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
7476
4 3 2
J-K Flip Flop

555
1 2 3
4 5
6 7 8
Timer
Cermet Potentiometer
6 7
Figure 6: Servo Circuit Layout (9V battery version)
Airtronics
SERVO
(servomotor)
calibration
potentiometer
94102
+5 V
ground
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
8 7 6 5
741 R
Op Amp 8
LM324
Quad Op Amp
1 2 3
C R R
2 6 7
4 5 6
7 8
3 2
DC input
signal
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
(logic circuits)
4
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9
3 2 1
7476
555
J-K Flip Flop
Timer
1 2 3
4 5
6 7 8
Cermet Potentiometer
6 7
LED
-5V
ground
+5 V
LED
outputs
4 gnd 3
Figure 7: Servo Circuit Layout (all external DC power supply version)
51
4.1
Black Box: Input and Output
To begin our investigation we will treat the servo controller as if it were a black box, where all we can observe
is the electrical input (DC voltage) and mechanical output (position of the rotor).
Vary the input voltage (DC Signal) between 0 and 10 volts, and observe the behavior of the servos
rotor. Estimate the full range of the rotors motion in degrees. Using the fully clockwise position as
= 0, record voltages and angles for several positions.
Connect the ammeter between the the output of the E3631A power supply and the servomotor +5V
input. Vary the input voltage (DC Signal) between 0 and 10 volts and observe the amount of current
drawn from the (unmounted) power supply. Can you draw any conclusions about the consumption of
power by the servomotor?
4.2
Signal Analysis
We will now examine the output of each stage in the controller circuit. The goal is to describe the waveforms
as precisely as possible. To do this we will measure two quantities, peak-to-peak voltage and frequency, of
each signal. Connect the ground lead of the scopes probe to the controller ground.
1. Connect the scope probe to lead 1. This is the output of the 555 Timer. Measure the peak-to-peak
voltage and frequency of the signal. Obtain a hard copy of the scope trace from the printer.
2. Connect the probe to lead 2. This is the output of the J-K flip flop. Measure the peak-to-peak
voltage and frequency of the signal. Obtain a hard copy of the scope trace from the printer.
3. Connect the probe to lead 3. This is the output of the Level Shifting Comparator (comparator 1).
Measure the peak-to-peak voltage and frequency of the signal. Obtain a hard copy of the scope trace
from the printer.
4. Connect the probe to lead 4, the output of the integrator. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage and
frequency of the signal. Obtain a hard copy of the scope trace from the printer.
5. Connect the probe to lead 5, the output of comparator 2. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage and
frequency of the signal. Obtain a hard copy of the scope trace from the printer. Measure the duty-cycle
of the signal. Now vary the DC Signal voltage and observe the changes in the duty-cycle. Record the
duty-cycle and rotor position for several DC input voltages.
Use PSpice to simulate the integrator circuit of Figure 4 using the op-amp model with the 741 parameters
(see Figure 8). Use the same resistor and capacitor values as are shown in Figure 4. Create an input voltage
in PSpice identical to the integrator input voltage as measured on the servo controller board in Section 4.2
part 3. In addition to simulating the integrator circuit using PSpice, Solve for the output voltage of the
integrator analytically (you may use an ideal op-amp in the your analytical solution). Include the PSpice
output, plots, and your analytical solution in your lab report.
A KCL at the inverting node of the integrator produces a 1st order linear differential equation relating
the output voltage (which happens to be the voltage across C as well) to the input voltage. To solve the
problem analytically, you have to solve the differential equation (D.E.) with the proper initial conditions.
The input to the integrator is a squarewave, and therefore this is a sequential switching problem. You must
solve the D.E. for each interval of time in which the input voltage is constant (ie. for each half-cycle of the
squarewave) using the solution to the previous interval to find the initial condition for the current interval.
If you solve the problem for a few cycles, you will find that your peak-to-peak results are consistent with
52
v-
75
vo
2 M
+
v
+
-
5
2 . 10 (v+- v )
Figure 8: PSpice model for the 741 op-amp

the PSpice simulation results and lab measurements (hopefully), but that the DC value is off. In order to
obtain the correct DC value, you must solve the DE for many cycles. This is a relatively difficult problem
for which you will need to write a short computer program. You may use any programming language you
wish. There are different degrees of solution to this problem, and partial credit will be awarded accordingly.
Note that in PSpice triangular, sawtooth, and square pulse waveforms can be created with:
Vname n+ n PULSE(V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
where V1 and V2 are the initial and pulsed voltage values respectively, TD is a time delay, TR and TF are
rise and falls times, PW is the pulse width (time the voltage is at V2), and PER is the period of the pulse.
There are several other source waveforms available in PSpice. These waveforms can be used for both voltage
and current sources. Please refer to the PSpice tutorial in the EE61 Course-Pak and the Rashid text.
Note that the default start time is zero if no value is present in the .tran command line. In your
simulation of the integrator circuit, you will find that it is necessary to plot the results for a time window
that begins later than t=0 in order to obtain steady-state results. Try plotting voltages beginning at t=0
and you will see the necessity of plotting the voltages over a time interval that begins later than t=0. When
you examine a plot of the voltage at the output of the op-amp beginning at t=0, you will observe a triangle
wave superposed on an exponential. Try to explain this phenomenon.
Questions
Answer all of the following questions in your lab report.

1. Plot the rotor position vs. the DC input voltage. Give a mathematical expression for this relationship.
Is the relationship linear?
2. Plot the rotor position as a function of the duty-cycle output of the comparator (lead 5). Give a
mathematical expression for this relationship. Is this relationship linear?
3. From the above two expressions derive a relationship between the DC input voltage and the duty-cycle
of the signal output from the comparator. Is this relationship linear? Explain why the input signal
to the comparator in Figure 5 would not give a linear relationship between DC input and the output
signals duty-cycle. Explain why a square wave input (instead of a triangle wave) to the comparator
would not give an output signal with variable duty-cycle.
4. Analyze the integrator circuit shown in Figure 9 by relating Vout to Vin assuming an ideal op-amp.
Express A in Equation 2 in terms of C and R1 .
53
C
R1
Vin
Figure 9: Integrator
54
Vout
Lab 7 Assembly of the Transmitter and Receiver Circuits

1
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to build the transmitter and receiver circuits. In the process you will learn
to solder. There is no report required for Laboratory 7.
Soldering
There are five soldering stations in the lab each composed of a soldering iron and soldering stand. Soldering
is an art that some of you may have already experienced. In preparation for making a solder joint, plug
in the soldering iron and allow approximately 3 minutes for heating. Wet the the sponge located in the
soldering stand with water. Touch some solder to the tip of the iron letting a small amount drip on the tip.
Then swipe the tip of the iron on the wet sponge. This process is called tinning and helps the transfer of
heat from the iron tip. To make a solder joint, heat the contact point by touching the connection with the
tip of the iron while touching the solder to the other side of the contact point. It is important that the solder
melts on the joint itself due to the heated joint, not from contact with the tip of the iron. There are several
important facts to keep in mind when soldering:
1. Some circuit elements can only tolerate the heat produced by the soldering iron for short periods of
time. It is good practice to minimize the amount of time the soldering iron is in contact with the
connection.
2. Tinning the tip of the iron helps heat transfer. If you have trouble heating the connection to be
soldered, consider tinning the iron. Make sure you have a wet sponge.
3. Do not breathe the smoke produced from the solder. Solder is approximately 1/2 tin and 1/2 lead.
4. When you are finished soldering, unplug the iron.
Construction of the Transmitter Circuit
Observe the schematic of the transmitter and receiver circuits shown in Figure 1. In this section, you will
build the transmitter and receiver circuitry.
1 k
Potentiometer
R2
SPST
SWITCH
R5
D2
R6
R1
SERVO
INPUT
Coil 1
TERMINALS
Coil 2
C1
R3
D1
Figure 1: Transmitter and Receiver Circuit

The circuit contains:
1. a single pole single throw (SPST) switch
2. a light emitting diode (LED-D1) with current limiting resistor
55
+5 V
CONTROLLER
3. a 1 k potentiometer (variable resistor)

4. a transmitting coil
5. a receiving coil
6. a germanium rectifying diode (D2) with smoothing capacitor (C1).
3.1
Soldering leads to the switch
1. Obtain two 4 (approximate length) pieces of 22 AWG solid conductor wire.

2. Strip 1/2 of insulation off both ends of each wire. There is a wire gauge adjustment you can make on
the handle of the wire cutters/strippers that will close the cutters to the diameter of the conductor for
ease of stripping.
3. Solder one end of each wire to the terminals of the switch. Be sure to tin the iron tip. Avoid excessive
time of contact of the iron tip with the switch terminals. In addition, be very careful about what you
touch with the hot iron tip. It is very easy to accidentally touch a meltable or flammable item.
3.2
LED Current Limiter Design
Assuming:
1. a voltage of 5V across the series combination of the LED and resistor and
2. a 1.6V drop across the LED
Find the design value of the current limiting resistor such that the current through the LED will be approximately 7 mA. Select a resistor from the parts bin that is as close as possible to your design value. Assemble
the portion of the transmitter prior to the potentiometer (R2) noting that the longer terminal of the LED
is the anode (See Figure 2).
3.3
Winding the Transmit and Receive Coils
1. Obtain two segments of PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipe.

2. Obtain two pieces of 26 AWG magnet wire, each long enough to result in 25-30 turns on the outside
of the PVC segment as well as approximately 4 at the beginning and end of the coil. You may find
useful the fact that the tiles on the floor are 12 square.
3. Every student must wind a coil. Observe the notch on one end of the PVC segment. Begin winding the
coil from the notch. Take your time winding, making sure that the coil turns are on the surface of the
PVC and snug against the previous coil turn. Try to wind the coil near the notched end rather than
in the middle of the PVC segment. Leave approximately 4 of length of magnet wire at the beginning
and end of the coil for connection. When you have completed the winding, place a piece of scotch tape
along the length of the coil to hold the windings in place. Count (and record) the number of windings
on each coil.
4. Obtain a match and burn 1/2 of enamel off both ends of the coil to expose the copper conductor.
The flame only needs to contact the magnet wire for one second. There are stick matches in the lab.
Use a small piece of 400 grain paper to scrape off the burned enamel from the ends of the coils.
5. Obtain a piece of masking tape, place it on the PVC tube, and write your initials on the tape.
6. Use the multimeter to measure the DC resistance of your coil.
56
VD
Anode
Cathode
Diode Symbol
Anode
Cathode
Silicon or Germanium Diode
Cathode
short lead
Anode
long lead
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Figure 2: Diode Types with Polarity Indication
7. The inductance of your coil will be in the vicinity of 10-30 H. Think about how you might measure
the inductance. Hint: Suppose the inductance is 10 H and you placed the coil in series with a 100
resistor. Then, you applied a 300 kHz square-wave to the series combination. What would the voltage
across the 100 resistor look like? Each student is required to measure the inductance of their coil. To
measure the inductance of your coil, obtain a 50 resistor, measure its value, and connect it in series
with your coil on either your project board or the bench-top board. Connect the function generator
across the series combination. The equivalent circuit of this measurement scheme is shown in Figure
3.
Function Generator
Internal Resistance
50
L
v (t)
in
Squarewave
+
-
+
50
v (t)
out
-
Figure 3: Circuit for Measuring Coil Inductance

Note that the 50 internal resistance of the function generator has to be included in the analysis. Measure
the inductance of your coil by considering the time constant of the RL circuit.
Let R be the total series resistance (100 in this case). A KVL around the loop produces the following
first order differential equation in the current i(t):
57
L di(t)
dt + Ri(t) = vin (t)
The complementary (transient) solution to this differential equation is
R
icomp (t) = Be L t
L
which has a time constant = R . The time constant is the amount of time required for the exponential
to drop to e1 = 0.368 times its initial value.
The function generator defaults to an amplitude of 100 mV PP. Set the amplitude to a value large enough
to produce a distinct exponential voltage across the 50 resistor.
3.4
Rectifier and Smoothing Circuit
A rectifier is a circuit that performs AC to DC conversion. AC, an acronym for Alternating Current, means
sinusoidal variation with time. DC, an acronym for Direct Current, means constant. Hence, a rectifier
converts a sinusoidal voltage to a constant voltage. Most rectifiers utilize one or more semiconductor diodes.
The theory behind diode operation will be investigated in the next lab exercise. For now, think of a diode as
a one-way valve. While re-examining Figure 1, consider what happens in the receiver circuitry. The two coils
are linked via mutual inductance. Since the transmitter input will be connected to the function generator
and driven with an AC (sinusoidal) voltage, the current through the transmitting coil will be sinusoidal.
Therefore, the induced voltage across the receiving coil will be sinusoidal as well. In order to drive the servo
controller, we need a DC voltage. Hence, we will use a rectifier circuit to perform this conversion. The
rectifier (and smoothing circuit) is composed of D2 , C1 , and R3 in Figure 1. The induced sinusoidal voltage
across the receiving coil will cause a current to flow to the right through Diode 2, but only during the positive
half-cycle of the induced voltage. During the negative half-cycle, the induced voltage across the receiving coil
attempts to force current to the left through Diode 2. However, due to the unidirectional one-way valve
nature of the diode, no current flows through it. The capacitor C1 charges during the positive half-cycle
and discharges through resistor R3 during the negative half-cycle. However, since the time constant
is R3 C1 = 0.047s (see item 1 below) which is large compared to the period of the sinusoidally induced
voltage, the next positive half-cycle occurs before the capacitor discharges at all. The result is a nearly
constant (DC) voltage across C1 and R3 . As will be seen in the next lab, the DC voltage across C1 and R3
will depend on the amplitude of the current through the transmitting coil.
1. Obtain a germanium diode (labeled Germanium Diodes in one of the EE-61 parts bins), a 4.7 nF
mylar capacitor C1 , and a 10 M resistor R3 .
2. Assemble the transmitter and receiver circuits. Recall that the banded end of the diode is the cathode.
The orientation of the anode and cathode of D2 is very important. Do not
a) make the connection between the rectifier and the non-inverting amplifier.
b) connect the potentiometer. There are not enough potentiometers for every pair of lab partners.
Therefore, when you test your circuits next week, you will use a potentiometer and then return it to
the parts bin.
Return any unused parts to the correct drawer in the parts bin. In the next lab you will perform test
measurements of the transmitter and receiver circuits.
There is no report required for Laboratory 7.
58
Lab 8 Testing the Transmitter-Receiver System

1
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is test the subcircuits of the transmitter and receiver and to test the combined
transmitter and receiver (up to the non-inverting amplifier).
Review of the Transmitter-Receiver System
In Lab 7 you constructed the transmitter and receiver circuits (up to the non-inverting amplifier) including
the transmit and receive coils as shown in Figure 1.
1 k
Potentiometer
R2
SPST
SWITCH
R5
D2
R6
R1
SERVO
INPUT
Coil 1
TERMINALS
Coil 2
C1
R3
+5 V
CONTROLLER
D1

The whole system will be integrated in Lab 9. In this lab you will test the sub-circuits of both the
transmitter and receiver, as well as the composite system from system input to the output of the rectifier.
The system (up to the non-inverting amplifier, with no connection between the receiver and the non-inverting
amp) will operate as follows. The function generator will supply a high frequency sinusoidal signal at the
input to the transmitter. When the SPST switch is closed, current will flow through the LED as well as the
transmitting coil through the 1 k potentiometer. The LED will be illuminated and its intensity will indicate
the relative signal strength of the function generator. The 1 k potentiometer will be used to adjust the
strength of the signal applied to the transmitting coil. The current through the transmitting coil will induce
a voltage across the receiving coil according to Faradays Law of mutual inductance. Since the transmitted
signal is sinusoidal, the induced voltage across the receiver coil will also be sinusoidal at the same frequency
as the transmitted sinusoid. As will be explained in the following section, a diode acts as a one-way valve
allowing current to flow easily in one direction and strongly opposing current in the other direction. The
silicon diode in the receiver will allow current to flow through it to the right but not to the left. The arrow
head in the diode symbol indicates the forward direction. Current flows easily in the forward direction but
not in the reverse direction. When the sinusoidal voltage across the receiver coil is positive, current will
flow through the diode in its forward direction and charge the capacitor C1 at a rate dictated by the time
constant = C1 R3 . When the sinusoidal voltage across the receiver coil is negative, the diode will cease
to conduct since the voltage across the receive coil is trying to force current in the reverse direction of the
diode. Hence, when the voltage across the receiver coil is negative, no current flows through the diode, and
the capacitor will discharge through R3 according to the time constant = C1 R3 . If the time constant
= C1 R3 is significantly greater than the period of the sinusoidal voltage across the receiver coil, then the
capacitor will not have time to discharge before the next positive half-cycle comes along and tops of f its
charge. The result is a conversion of an AC (sinusoidal) signal to a DC (constant) signal.
The DC signal level across the combination of C1 and R3 will be proportional to the transmitted signal
strength provided that your transmit and receive coils do not move during transmission. The DC signal level
produced in the receiver across the combination of C1 and R3 will be too low to drive the servo controller.
However, you will design and build an op-amp non-inverting amplifier to obtain the needed voltage gain to
59
drive the servo controller. Your goal, when the system is completed is for your circuit to be able to control
the servo over as much of its range as possible while adjusting the 1 k potentiometer in the transmitter.
Diode Theory
The analysis of diode circuits is not part of EE61. However, some exposure to their behavior in the laboratory
is appropriate. The following section is provided so that you have a basic theoretical explanation for the
electrical behavior you will observe in both the transmitter and receiver circuits.
3.1
Basic Diode Theory
Diodes are non-linear devices. This means that superposition does not apply to circuits containing diodes.
When a voltage is applied across a resistor, current flows in proportion to the voltage where the proportionality factor is constant. The current-voltage (IV) characteristic for a resistor is shown in Figure 2, and
is expressed analytically by I = VR . For a diode, the IV characteristic looks like Figure 3, and is described
I
+
-
Figure 2: Resistor circuit and its I-V characteristic

qVD
analytically by the formula I = Is (e KT 1). Where Is is the reverse saturation current, the small ( 109 A)
q
1
current that occurs in the negative voltage region. KT
is a temperature dependent constant 0.026V
at
room temperature. VD is the voltage across the diode and is a dimensionless constant determined by the
composition of the diode (Silicon, Germanium, etc.)
I
+
-
Figure 3: Diode circuit and its I-V characteristic

To observe the non-linearity of a diode, consider the circuit shown in Figure 4. When we apply V 1 and
V2 simultaneously, we find that the voltage across D is -3 V and the resulting current is very close to I s .
If we attempt to use superposition, we find V1 produces 2 V across D and I1 = 2190Is . V2 produces -5 V
across D and I2 = Is . If we then sum these two currents, we would find I = 2189Is which is obviously
incorrect. Since the principle of superposition does not apply, a diode is a non-linear element.
60
+
-
+
-
V =2V
1
V =5V
2
Figure 4: A diode circuit with 2 voltage sources.
3.2
Physical Diode Theory
Figure 5: A diode symbol with associated P and N regions.

The next step in understanding diodes is to understand the physical principles behind the diode. A diode
is composed of two regions of semiconductor (eg. silicon, germanium). A semiconductor is neither a good
conductor such as copper, nor an insulator (dielectric) such as glass. A slab of semiconductor can be thought
of as a resistor whose resistance depends on the amount of doping (impurities such as gallium or arsenic)
that is implanted in the silicon. One region of semiconductor within the diode is called the P region. The P
region has been doped with an impurity which causes the presence of holes, or incomplete covalent bonds
in the semiconductor crystal. These holes in the P region attract electrons and therefore are analogous to
positive charges. Hence, the P region may be thought of as being Positive (even though it is electrically
neutral). The N region has been doped with an impurity which causes the presence of more electrons than
are needed for the covalent bonds in the crystal. The extra electrons (the ones not involved in covalent
bonding) are available for conduction. The N region may be thought of as the Negative region due to the
presence of the electrons available for conduction. At the junction between the two regions, a potential field
is built-up. This field produces a barrier potential and is responsible for the (approx.) 0.7 V turn-on voltage
(for silicon diodes) required in the forward direction to establish current flow. When a voltage is applied
in the reverse direction we say that the diode is reverse biased. When the diode is reverse biased, the
potential barrier builds up across the junction and opposes current flow through the diode. The greater the
applied reverse voltage, the larger the barrier. When reverse biased, only a very small leakage current
flows. This leakage current is called the reverse saturation current (I s ).
Measuring the I-V Characteristic of a Diode
In order to observe the I-V characteristic of a diode, we need to be able to plot the current through the
diode as a function of the voltage across the diode. The oscilloscope only measures voltages. However, it
can plot one voltage as a function of another voltage. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 6. In this circuit,
V2 = VR = IR and is therefore linearly proportional to I. When the LED conducts current in the forward
direction, the voltage drop across it will be in the vicinity of 1.4-1.6 V. If the voltage across the diode is
significantly greater than the voltage across the 10 resistor, then V1 VD . In order to observe the I-V
characteristic, we will observe V2 as a function of V1 , with the understanding that the shape of the I-V
characteristic is identical to the V2 V1 characteristic because V2 is proportional to I and V1 VD .
61
50
V (Horizontal)
1
D
Vs
+
-
V (Vertical)
2
R = 10
Function Generator
Figure 6: Diode circuit.
4.1
Procedure for Measuring the I-V Characteristic of the LED
You will be examining the IV characteristics of the same type of Light Emitting Diode (LED) diode as you
have in your transmitter circuit. Obtain another red LED from the parts bin.
1. Construct the circuit in Figure 6 on the bench-top breadboard. Set the function generator to produce
a sinusoidal, 1 kHz, 4V (measured) peak-to-peak voltage V1 . Note that V1 is the voltage drop from the
anode of the diode to ground.
2. Set your oscilloscope for X-Y measurements, and connect the X probe to V1 and the Y probe to V2 . To
do this, press the Button labeled Main/Delayed. This will cause a softkey menu to appear. Press the
softkey labeled XY. The probe connected to channel 1 provides the X axis and the probe connected
to channel 2 provides the Y axis.
3. Sketch or print-out the I-V characteristic as it appears on the screen.
4. Return the resistor and LED to the proper drawers in the parts bin.
Testing the LED Indicator Circuit
In this section you will test the LED indicator circuit in your transmitter and determine if it operates close
to the intended design from lab 5. The potentiometer is not to be connected in the transmitter circuit until
later in the experiment.
1. Disconnect the SPST toggle switch from your breadboard. Connect the multimeter to the switch
leads. With the multimeter set to measure resistance, toggle the switch and observe the resistance as
you toggle the switch a few times. Put the switch in the off position. Reinstall the switch in your
transmitter circuit.
2. Set the DC power supply to 0V and connect it to the input terminals of the transmitter. Increase the
voltage to 5V and then toggle the switch to the on position.
3. You should see the LED glowing red. If the LED does not illuminate, remain calm. You can troubleshoot the circuit easily. Whether your LED illuminates or not, use the multimeter as a voltmeter
and measure the voltage drops across the power supply, the switch, the current limiting resistor and
the LED. Record all values measured. If your LED did not illuminate, try to figure out where the fault
is. If the source voltage is correct (near 5V) and the voltage across the resistor is 0V, where is the 5V
dropping? If the 5V is dropping across the LED, then it is reverse biased. Check the polarity of
the power supply. If the polarity of the power supply is correct, then the polarity of the diode must
be wrong. Remove the diode, invert the terminals, and reinsert it into your circuit. Once your diode
circuit is operating, perform the voltage measurements again. Does KVL hold? Set the multimeter to
measure current (ie. as an ammeter) and measure the current through the resistor and LED. Compare
the measured current with its theoretical value as determined from Ohms Law.
62
4. Toggle the switch to the off position. Disconnect the DC power supply from the transmitter input.
Connect the function generator to the input of the transmitter. Set the function generator to produce
a sinusoidal voltage at a frequency of 10 kHz. Toggle the switch to the on position. Adjust the
amplitude of the function generator until a 10V peak-to-peak value is measured at the input of the
transmitter.
5. The LED should be illuminated. Adjust the frequency to the range of 2-3 Hz. Observe the LED
flashing. Increase the frequency until the LED appears to be emitting a continuous luminance. Record
this frequency value. Reduce the amplitude of the function generator until the LED is barely visible.
Measure the voltage (AC/RMS) across and current (AC/RMS) through the LED. How much power is
the LED absorbing when it is barely emitting light?
6. Adjust the amplitude of the function generator to produce a 10V peak-to-peak voltage at the input
of the transmitter. Use both channels of the scope to observe simultaneously the voltage across the
resistor and the voltage across the diode. Explain why the waveforms are as shown on the scope.
Testing the Transmitter and Receiver

1. Obtain a 1 k potentiometer and install it in your transmitter circuit.
2. Your coils should be wound such that the turns are near the notched end of the PVC. Each coil was
wound either clockwise or counter-clockwise as seen from the notched end. Observe and record the
relative orientation of the windings. That is, record whether the transmitter coil is wound clockwise or
counter-clockwise as seen from the notched end. Repeat for the receiver coil. Orient your transmit and
receive coils such that the magnetic flux produced in the transmitting coil will be maximally coupled
to the the receiver coil. To do this, place the notched ends of the coils as close to each other as
possible with a common axis. You will find that it is necessary to keep the coils stationary during the
measurements or the measurements will change with time causing frustration! You may find it helpful
to insert a pen or pencil through the two coils to stabilize them while you make your measurements.
3. Set the function generator to produce a sinusoidal voltage at a frequency of 10 kHz and a peak-to-peak
value of 5V (as measured using the oscilloscope). Using both channels of the scope, measure the peakto-peak voltage across both the transmit and receive coils. The autoscale utility of the oscilloscope
may not work properly for the signal across the receive coil. Use the manual vertical (amplitude)
adjustment on the scope to obtain an appropriate waveform on the scope. Adjust the potentiometer
until the voltage across the transmit coil is maximum. Increase the frequency by a factor of ten and
make another set of measurements. Each time you change the frequency, you will have to examine the
voltage produced by the function generator and adjust its amplitude to maintain a peak-to-peak value
of 5V. Continue until you have reached the frequency limit of the function generator. Comment on
any unusual waveshapes observed.
4. The parallel RC circuit (C1 and R3 ) in the receiver has a time constant = C1 R3 as explained in the
introduction of this lab exercise. This time constant determines both the rate that C1 will charge as
well as the rate it will discharge. Considering the values of C1 and R3 you have on your board, what
is the value of this time constant? Measure the voltage across C1 and R3 at a frequency of 200 kHz
(using the scope) along with the voltage across the transmitter coil. You choose the amplitude. Slowly
vary the amplitude of the transmitted signal by varying the potentiometer. Observe the transmitted
signal strength and the DC value across C1 and R3 as you adjust the potentiometer over its entire
range. Explain what you observe.
63
Questions to be Answered
1. Considering the range of DC values your receiver produced while varying the potentiometer in the
transmitter, how much voltage amplification will you need to drive the servo controller? Will you be
able to sweep the servo through its complete range? Explain.
2. Explain in your own words how the rectifier circuit in the receiver converts AC to DC.
3. Explain in your own words how a diode works.
64
Lab 9 System Integration and Testing

1
Purpose
The purpose of this exercise is to design the amplifier stage of the receiver and to test the transmitter and
receiver circuits with the servo controller. The purpose and operation of the GFCI will also be explored.
GFCI Demonstration
At the beginning of this lab your instructor will demonstrate for you a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupt
(GFCI). This circuit can be found in the wall outlet of most bathrooms and garages. Its purpose is to
prevent electrocution. Recall that (metal) plumbing is electrically connected to earth ground in a house.
A dangerous situation that often occurs is when a person accidentally makes contact with the line voltage.
For example, a hair dryer may have a loose wire and a person could touch it by accident. If the person is
electrically isolated there is usually no problem. However, if that person were to touch a (metal) plumbing
fixture, the person would be connected to earth ground, causing the completion of a circuit through the
persons body. Electric current causes muscle contractions in human beings when as little as 6 mA for
women and 9 mA for men goes through the body. This may cause a person to be unable to release anything
he or she is holding. Such a small current is usually not enough to kill a person. However, once you make
contact with electricity, you begin to sweat and the skin beneath the point of contact is destroyed which
reduces the bodys surface resistance so that more current flows through you. Once this current reaches 50100 mA through the heart, it will likely cause it to stop beating (called fibrillation). The GFCI is a circuit
breaker that produces an open circuit in the power line if the difference between the currents in the hot and
neutral wires (see the residential power system diagram in the EE61 Coursepak) in the GFCI is greater than
5 mA. This occurence would indicate that 5 mA or more had found an alternate route to ground, possibly
through a person. The GFCI senses the difference in current between the hot and neutral wires by mutual
inductance. Three coils are utilized in the sensor. One coil is wrapped around the hot wire and the other
is wrapped around the neutral wire. The current flowing in the wires induces a voltage across each of the
two coils. These two coils are wrapped so that if the currents are approximately equal, the net flux will be
zero. However, if the currents are not equal, the net flux will not be zero. This non-zero flux will induce
a voltage across a third coil wrapped around the other two. This voltage is then used to open the circuit
breaker, cutting off the current flow.
Integrating the Amplifier
In the previous laboratory exercise, you determined the gain required by your receiver in order to drive the
servo controller. In this portion of the lab you will be using that result in order to modify the design of the
non-inverting op-amp circuit you built in Lab 5.
1. Build the split power supply shown in Figure 1. The center tap (common) will be used as
ground for the entire receiver circuit.
2. Design a non-inverting amplifier which has the required amplification, using resistors greater than 1
k and less than 50 k. Modify the non-inverting amplifier circuit on your project board as needed.
Connecting the Circuits

1. Obtain a 1 k potentiometer and connect it in the transmitter circuit.
65
+Vcc
1 k
+
-
20 V
COMMON
1 k
-V cc
Figure 1: Split Power Supply
14
13
NC
+Vcc
12
11
10
NC
+Vcc
NC
NC
-Vcc
NC
Figure 2: 747 Dual Op-Amp Integrated Circuit
1 k
Potentiometer
R2
SPST
SWITCH
R5
D2
R6
R1
SERVO
INPUT
Coil 1
TERMINALS
Coil 2
C1
R3
D1
66
+5 V
CONTROLLER
2. Set the function generator to 10 Vpp (as shown on its front panel display) with a frequency of 200
kHz.
3. Connect the function generator across the input terminals.
4. Set the DC power supply to 20 V and connect it across your voltage splitting power supply.
5. Connect the common of the split power supply to the ground on both the receiver and the servo
controller.
6. Connect the HP 3631A 6V output to the 5 volt input of the servo controller and set the output voltage
to 5 volts. Connect the ground terminal of the power supply to ground (common) of the receiver.
Measuring the Output of the Amplifier
Before connecting your receiver output to the servo controller, you *must* test the other portions of your
circuit to make sure they are operating as designed.
1. Turn on your circuit.
2. Set the multimeter to read DC voltage.
3. Test the amplifier you designed by applying a small DC voltage ( 250mV ) at the non-inverting input
and determine if the output voltage is what you would expect it to be.
4. Connect the non-inverting input to R3 .
5. Connect the multimeter across the output of the amplifier.
6. Vary the potentiometer from one extreme to the other, to find the range of values you can obtain at
the output of the amplifier. Record this range.
7. Is the range great enough to drive the servo controller? If not, try adjusting the frequency of the
function generator. You may have to redesign your amplifier to increase or reduce the amplification.
Do not go on to the next step until you have demonstrated the ability to produce a 0-10V output
capability for your system.
Interfacing the Receiver and Servo Controller
Once you have demonstrated to your lab TA the ability of your system to produce a 0-10V output capability:
1. Set your transmitter switch to the off position.
2. Connect the output of the amplifier to the signal input of the servomotor controller.
3. Turn on the switch in your transmitter.
4. Vary the potentiometer in the transmitter and observe the servo position. Is the servo being driven as
expected?
5. Make measurements as appropriate using any of the test instruments. Be sure to explain each measurement made along with a discussion of its meaning in your lab report. Hint: Measure voltages
and/or currents for several different positions of the potentiometer and observe the position of the
servo. Provide tables of measured data, graphs of servo position as a function of voltage and/or current measured. Discuss the relationship between servo position and the measured quantities. Are the
relationships linear?
67
Disassembly of the Transmitter and Receiver Circuitry

1. Desolder your switch using the desoldering pump. Try to remove as much solder as possible. Place the
desoldered switch in the correct drawer in the parts bin.
2. Unwind your coils. Place the used magnet wire in the magnet wire box and your PVC tube in the
PVC tube box.
3. Return all parts to the proper drawers in the part bin. Do NOT just drop them in a pile on the table!
Questions
1. Can a person be electrocuted by a wall socket equipped with a GFCI? Justify your answer.
68
Lab 10 Frequency Response of Filter Circuits

With an Introduction
to Automatic and Virtual Instrumentation
using LabVIEW
Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to investigate the frequency response of a lowpass filter (LPF) and a bandpass
filter (BPF). In addition, you will be introduced to automatic instrumentation using LabVIEW.
Frequency Domain Representation
Consider an AC circuit with a single voltage source and any number of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
Recall that AC is an acronym for Alternating Current and the phrase AC circuit implies that all voltages
and currents in the circuit are sinusoidal. If the frequency of the source is fixed, then a complete analysis in
either the time domain or the frequency domain is possible. In the time domain, a differential equation is
extracted from the circuit and solved. In general, the order of the differential equation is equal to the number
of energy storage elements (Ls and Cs) in the circuit. A much easier method is to solve the circuit using
phasor analysis in the frequency domain. The reason analysis is easier in the frequency domain is because
differentiation in time transforms to multiplication by j. As a result, an algebraic equation arises rather
than a differential equation. Algebraic equations are generally easier to solve than differential equations.
If the frequency of the voltage source is varied, the impedance of each energy storage element changes,
and the response of the circuit varies as a function of the input frequency. The frequency response of a
circuit is a quantitative description of its behavior in the frequency domain.
2.1
Reasons for Frequency Response Analysis
Frequency response analysis is important to us for two primary reasons. First, if we know the frequency
response then we can predict the response of the circuit to any input. Sinusoidal waveforms have the elegant
property that they can be combined to form other (non-sinusoidal) waveforms. For example, a 50 Hz triangle
wave can be expressed as a sum of sinusoids whose frequencies are integer multiples of 50 Hz (called the
Fourier Series representation). Therefore the frequency response allows us to understand a circuits response
to more complex inputs. Second, we are often interested in designing circuits with particular frequency
characteristics. For example, in the design of an audio 3-way loudspeaker system, we would like to direct
low frequency signals to the woofers, high frequency signals to the tweeters, and mid-frequency signals to
the mid-range speakers. Therefore we would need a circuit that is capable of passing certain frequencies of
a signal and rejecting others.
2.2
Filters
Filters are frequency selective circuits. The filter used in audio loudspeakers to direct high and low frequency
signals to the appropriate transducers is called a cross-over network. There are numerous applications of
filters including radio receivers, television receivers, noise reduction systems, and power supply circuits to
name just a few.
Circuits that pass certain frequencies and attenuate (eliminate) other frequencies are called filters. Filters
are categorized into three general types. Circuits that pass low frequency signals are called low-pass filters
69
(LPF). Circuits that pass signals with frequencies between lower and upper limits (ie. a band of frequencies)
are called bandpass filters (BPF). Circuits that pass high frequency signals are call high-pass filters (HPF).
Often filters are described in terms of ideal characteristics. An ideal lowpass filter, for example, might pass
frequencies below 1 kHz and completely stop (reject, eliminate) all frequencies above 1 kHz. A physical
LPF filter, however, might pass all frequencies below 1 kHz but also partially pass frequencies above 1 kHz.
A physical filter can be designed to closely approximate an ideal filter if needed. However, the better the
approximation, the higher the cost because more components are required.
Frequency Response
Frequency response is defined as the ratio of the phasor output to the phasor input where the output and
input may be either a voltage or a current. The most common ratio is phasor output voltage to phasor input
voltage.
H(w) =
Vout
Vin
(1)
H() is often referred to as the voltage transfer function. You may refer to H() as either the frequency
response or the voltage transfer function.
Figure 1 shows a comparison between the frequency response of a 1st order (contains 1 energy storage
element) physical lowpass filter and an ideal lowpass filter.
|H(f)|
H max
Ideal filter
H max
2
1st order physical approximation
fc= fhp
Figure 1: Comparison of the frequency responses of an ideal lowpass filter and a 1st order physical approximation.
70
LabVIEW and the Frequency Response Virtual Instrument (VI)
4.1
LabVIEW Software Overview
Labview is a graphical programming system that is designed for data acquisition, data analysis, and instrument control. LabVIEW can run on a number of systems including PC Windows, Macintosh and VXI
systems, and is transportable from one system to another.
Programming an application in LabVIEW is very different from programming in a text based language such
as C or Basic. LabVIEW uses graphical symbols (icons) to describe programming actions. Data flow is
wired into a block diagram. Since LabVIEW is graphical and based on a windows type system it is often
much easier to get started using it than a typical language. Many engineers and scientists that would not
normally try to program an application can get usable output easily with LabVIEW.
LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments (VIs) because the appearance and operation imitate actual instruments. VIs may be used directly by the user or as a subroutine (called subVIs) of a higher
program which enables a modular programming approach. The user interface is called the front panel, because it simulates the front panel of a physical instrument. The front panel can contain knobs, push buttons,
graphs, and other controls and indicators. The controls can be adjusted using a mouse and keyboard, and
the changes indicated on the computer screen. The block diagram shows the internal components of the program. The controls and indicators are connected to other operators and program structures. Each program
structure has a different symbol and each data type (eg. integer, double-float etc) has a different color.
4.2
Frequency Response Virtual Instrument
It is fairly easy to determine the frequency response (magnitude) of a circuit in the lab using just a function
generator and a multimeter. However, it is much more convenient to automate the measurements and
record the measured values using LabVIEW. Having the results stored in the computer memory provides
the additional advantage of being able to perform subsequent analysis of the data. In this lab we will use the
frequency response VI in LabVIEW to determine the frequency response of two filter circuits. The Frequency
Response VI communicates with the function generator and the multimeter to measure a circuits frequency
response. The VI executes the following steps:
1. Configure the multimeter to measure AC voltage.
2. For Loop: for i=0:N-1 Step through frequencies fstart + ifstep
Set frequency of function generator.
Read the AC Voltage from the multimeter.
Form the ratio of the output voltage amplitude to the input voltage amplitude.
Output the measured frequency response value to the plots on the front panel.
At each frequency, a measurement of the frequency response is made and the value plotted on the front
panel. At the end of the for loop, N measurements of the frequency response have been made.
4.3
Initial Test of the Frequency Response VI
To open the Frequency Response VI do the following:

1. Turn on the monitor and the computer.
2. Once MS Windows is open, select the LabVIEW group.
71
3. Double click on the LabVIEW icon in the LabVIEW group.

4. Once LabVIEW is opened, select Open in the File menu.
5. Select EE61FREQ.VI and press the Open button.
Figure 2: Frequency Response VI Front Panel

The screen should now look something like Figure 2. Before connecting the instruments to a circuit, we will
perform an initial test of the VI.
4.3.1
Initial Test Procedure
1. Turn on the function generator and the multimeter. Configure the multimeter to measure voltage
(AC).
2. Connect the multimeter to the function generator.
3. Connect the oscilloscope to the function generator and multimeter.
4. On the Frequency Response VI Front Panel: set the High frequency to 10MHz and the Low frequency
to 100 Hz. Set the number of steps to 20. Select Run in the Operate menu.
5. As the VI executes, immediately press the autoscale button on the scope and note the displays on the
front panel of the function generator and the multimeter. You should see the frequency displayed on
the function generator increasing as well as changing values measured by the multimeter. The scope
should be showing a frequency-stepped signal. You will have to press the autoscale button on the scope
periodically.
Once the VI has completed its execution, something similar to a white horizontal line should appear on
both plots with an amplitude 1 on the semi-log plot and 0 dB on the log-log (Bode) plot.
Both the semi-log and log-log plots include graph cursors to aid determination of particular frequencies.
Graph cursor indicators and controls are shown below each of the plots. If the cursor is not visible on
the plot, place the hand icon on the cross-hair symbol to the right of the cursor indicators, press the left
72
mouse button, and select Move Into View. Move the cursor so that the vertical line is at 1000. Press
the cross-hair symbol and select Goto Cursor. This will zoom in on the cursors position which can aid in
determining frequencies.
Frequency Response of an RC Lowpass Filter
In this section we consider the frequency response of an RC lowpass filter. The filter circuit, shown in Figure
3, consists of a resistor and a capacitor in series with the function generator. The function generator has an
internal resistance of 50 which you must take into account in the analysis. Recall that the voltage v s
is two times the voltage displayed on the front panel of the function generator. The output of
the circuit is taken to be the voltage across the capacitor.
Rint = 50
R=100
+
Vs
+
-
C= 47nF
Vo
-
Function Generator
Figure 3: RC Lowpass Filter Circuit

The behavior of the circuit as a function of frequency may be deduced from considering the impedance of
the capacitor for different frequencies. For example, at DC (f=0) the capacitor is an open circuit. Therefore,
no current flows through any of the elements since they are all in series with the capacitor. Since the current
through the resistances is zero, the voltage across them is zero. KVL applied around the loop shows that
vo = vs . If the frequency is arbitrarily large (f ) the capacitor becomes a short circuit and therefore
the output voltage vo = 0. As the frequency increases from DC (f=0) the capacitor goes from being an
open circuit to being a short circuit. As a consequence, the output voltage goes from v s to zero. The circuit
produces its greatest response at DC. As the frequency is increased, the response drops. As the frequency is
increased further the response drops to zero. Low frequencies pass, high frequencies are cut. It is a low-pass
filter (LPF).
5.1
Derivation of the Frequency Response
Combining the impedances (ZR = R, ZC = 1/jC) of the elements gives a total impedance of Rint + R + Zc .
The output voltage across the capacitor is given by Equation 2
Vo =
1
Vs ( jC
)
Vs Z c
=
1
Rint + R + Zc
Rint + R + jC
(2)
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by jC for simplification gives:

Vo =
Vs
1 + jC(Rint + R)
(3)
Dividing Equation 3 by Vs gives Equation 4, the voltage transfer function (or frequency response) of the
circuit expressed in terms of angular frequency.
73
H(w) =
Vo
1
=
Vs
1 + jC(Rint + R)
(4)
Replacing with 2f gives Equation 5, the transfer function expressed in terms of frequency.
H(f ) =
1
1 + j2f C(Rint + R)
(5)
The magnitude of the voltage transfer function, called the gain is

|H(f )| = p
1
1 + [2f C(Rint + R)]2
(6)
The limit of |H(f )| as f approaches infinity is zero as expected. As f 0 the magnitude approaches 1.
A graph of this function looks like the 1st order approximation filter response in Figure 1. In the case of the
ideal low-pass filter, it is clear where the passband ends and the stopband begins. It is not clear at all where
the passband ends and the stopband begins in the case of the 1st order RC LPF. It is by convention that
we define the band edge using the half-power frequency fHP . When the output power drops to one-half
of its maximum value, the output response (whether voltage or current) drops to 12 Hmax where Hmax is
the maximum gain. To find the half-power frequency, you take the expression for the gain (equation 6) and
set it equal to 12 Hmax and solve for fHP . This is the frequency at which |H(f )|2 = 21 or |H(f )| = 12
since Hmax =1 for this circuit. This is also called the cutoff frequency fc of the lowpass filter and is given by
Equation 7.
fHP = fc =
5.2
1
2C(Rint + R)
(7)
Measurement of the Frequency Response
You will now measure the frequency response of the lowpass filter in Figure 3 experimentally. First, you will
make a series of measurements manually. After the manual measurements have been taken, you will then
make similar measurements automatically using LabVIEW.
1. Obtain a 100 resistor and a 47 nF mylar capacitor from the parts bin. Measure (and record) the
exact capacitance with the capacitance meter in the lab, as well as the resistance using the ohmmeter.
After using the capacitance meter, always turn off its power or the battery will die.
2. Connect the function generator to the series combination of the resistor and capacitor. Reset the
function generator (Turn it off. Wait a few seconds and then turn it on again.) so that it can be set
manually. Set the amplitude to 1.0 volt peak-to-peak (on the front display panel). Set the frequency
to the values given in Table 1 and record the AC voltage measured across the capacitor using the
multimeter set to measure AC voltage.
3. The maximum response should occur at DC (f=0 Hz) but cannot be measured with the function
generator as the source because it is incapable of generating 0 Hz. However, the value of the response
you measure at f = 100 Hz should be nearly identical to the DC response. Using the value of the
response you measured at 100 Hz, adjust the frequency of the function generator until the response
drops to 12 times the response at 100 Hz. Record that frequency as the measured cutoff (half-power)
frequency fc .
You will now measure the frequency response of the lowpass filter circuit automatically using the
frequency response VI in LabVIEW.
74
Frequency
100 Hz
1 kHz
10 kHz
20 kHz
25 kHz
30 kHz
35 kHz
40 kHz
50 kHz
AC Voltage Vo
Table 1: Lowpass filter experimental frequency response

1. Set the High frequency to 50 kHz and Low frequency to 100 Hz.
2. Set the Number of Steps to 50.
3. Select Run in the Operate menu.
4. Observe the function generator (and oscilloscope trace) stepping through different frequencies from 100
Hz to 50 kHz and the multimeter measuring the corresponding responses.
5. When the simulation is complete, record the value of the DC response which is taken to be the value
of the response at 100 Hz. In your lab report, justify this assumption. You will do this by comparing
the value
of the theoretical frequency response magnitude at DC (0 Hz) and at f=100 Hz. Divide this
value by 2 to determine the response at the half-power frequency.
6. Use the graph cursors to determine fc .
7. Run the VI again, this time narrowing the frequency range to focus on the frequencies near the cutoff
frequency. Observe the traces on the scope as the frequency is stepped. Use the graph cursors to
determine fc again.
Comment on the accuracy of the two measurements of fc made using LabVIEW, as well as the value
obtained manually. Hint: Consider the nature of the three measurements. When you used LabVIEW
to automate the measurements, 50 frequencies were applied and the response at those frequencies were
obtained. When you narrowed the range of frequencies, the measurements were closer together in the
frequency domain. However, there were still only a finite number of frequencies utilized. When you measured
the half-power frequency fc manually, you varied the frequency by hand until the response dropped to 12
times the DC response.
Frequency Response of a Bandpass Filter (BPF)
We now turn our attention to the frequency response of the parallel resonant bandpass filter (BPF) circuit
shown in Figure 4. Recall that a bandpass filter passes frequencies between two limits. The range of
frequencies between the two limits is refered to as the passband of the filter and the difference between the
limiting frequencies as the bandwidth f of the filter.
The magnitude of the transfer function of this circuit is given by Equation 8 and the resonance frequency
fr by Equation 9. Resonance is a physical phenomenon in which stored energy oscillates between two energy
storage elements. In the BPF circuit shown in Figure 4, the magnetic energy stored in the inductor and the
75
Rint = 50
+
Vs
+
-
C= 47nF
Vo
-
Function Generator
Figure 4: Parallel Resonant Bandpass Filter Circuit
|H(f) |
H max
H max
2
stopband
passband
stopband
f1
fr
f2
Figure 5: Frequency Response for a Parallel Resonant Bandpass Filter Circuit
76
electric energy stored in the capacitor are exchanged back and forth in harmony at resonance. Resonance
occurs at a single frequency fr determined by the values of L and C. The frequency response magnitude
attains a maximum at the resonant frequency. A graph of the frequency response magnitude for the parallel
resonant BPF is shown in Figure 5.
|H(f )| =
1
Vo
=q
Vs
1 + [Rint (2f C
fr =
1
2
2f L )]
2 LC
(8)
(9)
1. Determine fr using C = 47 nF and the estimated value of L for your inductor found in Lab 7.
2. You will now manually determine the frequency response of the bandpass circuit in Figure 4. Connect
the function generator across the parallel combination of the 47 nF capacitor and the inductor you
made in Lab 5 (note that you will have to do this twice, once for each students inductor). Reset the
function generator by cycling the power. Set the amplitude (displayed) to 1.0 Vpp . Set the frequency
to the values shown in Table 2 and record the AC voltage measured across the parallel combination of
inductor and capacitor.
3. Adjust the function generator until the measured voltage is a maximum. Record the resonance frequency, fr . Determine the inductance of your coil using this frequency.
4. Determine the frequency response of the bandpass circuit in Figure 4 using LabVIEW.
Set the High frequency to 1 MHz and Low to 1 kHz. Set the number of steps to 50. Select Run
in the Operate menu and obtain an initial response plot.
Change to frequency limits to zoom in on the resonance region.
Obtain values for the resonance frequency fr , and the half-power frequencies f1 and f2 . Determine
the bandwidth f = f2 f1 and the Q of the circuit given by Equation 10. Determine the
inductance of your coil using the resonance frequency found with LabVIEW.
Frequency
1 kHz
10 kHz
50 kHz
100 kHz
200 kHz
300 kHz
400 kHz
500 kHz
1 MHz
AC Voltage (Vo)
Table 2: Bandpass filter experimental frequency response
Q=
fr
f
77
(10)
7.1
Lowpass Filter Circuit
Simulate the lowpass filter circuit shown in Figure 3 using PSpice. Be sure to include the internal resistance
of the function generator. Examine the circuit EX3 in the PSpice tutorial in the EE61 Course-Pak to see how
to produce plots of frequency response. Compare your simulation results to theory and to your measured
frequency response.
7.2
Bandpass Filter Circuit
Simulate the bandpass filter circuit shown in Figure 4 using PSpice. Be sure to include the internal resistance
of the function generator. Obtain a plot of the frequency response magnitude for the bandpass filter circuit,
and compare your simulation results to theory and to your measured frequency response.
Questions
1. Derive Equation 8 using impedances (ZR = R, ZC = 1/jC and ZL = jL). From Equation 8 show
that the resonance frequency fr is given by Equation 9.
2. Determine which of the three values of inductance for your coil is most accurate 1) the value estimated
in Lab 5 using the time constant of an RL switched circuit, 2) the value estimated using the resonant
frequency you obtained using manual frequency response measurements, or 3) the value estimated
using the resonant frequency you obtained using LabVIEW to automatically measure the frequency
response. Justify your answer and explain why the other values are less accurate.
78

ECE61labmanua Dukel PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ECE61labmanua Dukel PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Duke University

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Gary A. Ybarra, Ph.D., Director of EE61L

with assistance from Christopher E. Cramer, Ph.D., and

EE61L Electric Circuits Laboratory

Operation of the Digital Instruments and Basic Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Kirchhoffs Laws and Basic Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Thevenin Equivalent Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Exploring the Servomotor Controller Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Assembly of the Transmitter and Receiver Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Testing the Transmitter-Receiver System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

System Integration and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Frequency Response of Filter Circuits with an Introduction to LabVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Laboratory Make-Up Policy

General Laboratory Operating Procedures

PSpice Results Presentation

Perspective and Writing Style

Laboratory Report Format

A listing of your PSpice code (or schematic if using psched).

Lab 2 - Operation of the Digital Instruments and Basic

Figure 1: Circuit for measuring current.

Figure 2: Circuit used to determine the internal resistance of the voltmeter.

F. Measurement of Time-Varying Sources

TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION

TOTAL JOB TIME

Lab 2 - Operation of the Digital Instruments and Basic

Discussion: Methods of Measurement

2. As an ammeter, the multimeter has zero resistance. (Ideally)

Record each measured value.

Experiment - Resistance Measurement

Measuring the Resistance of Your Body

Experiment - Current and Ohms Law

Figure 1: Circuit illustrating the measurement of current.

Experiment - Ideal vs. Practical Voltmeter and Ammeter

Figure 2: Circuit for measuring the resistance of the voltmeter.

Measurement of Time Varying Sources

Figure 3: Circuit for measuring the resistance of the ammeter.

determine the frequency of the sine wave.

PSpice (to be done outside of lab)

Basic PSpice information

Figure 4: Example PSpice circuit.

Lab 3 Kirchhoff s Laws and Basic Instrumentation

Using the Breadboard

Figure 1: Jameco JE25 Solderless Breadboard

Using the Multimeter as a Voltmeter

Voltage Divider with Moderate-Valued Resistors

Voltage Divider with Large-Valued Resistors

Using the Multimeter as an Ammeter

Figure 3: Current Divider Circuit

Current Divider with Moderate-Valued Resistors

Current Divider with Small-Valued Resistors

PSpice (to be done outside of lab)

In this laboratory experiment, you constructed a total of four circuits:

Figure 4: Resistive Network

PRE-LAB for Lab 4: Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

Lab 4 Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

Figure 1: Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Figure 3: Thevenin Equivalent circuit connected to a load resistor

PSpice (to be done outside of lab)

OUTPUT RESISTANCE AT V(3) =

Figure 5: Circuit 1 with nodes labeled for PSpice

Answer the following questions in your lab report.

Lab 5 Operational Amplifiers