Physics Laboratory Manual PDF

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL
(Version 1.0)

by
Vinod Patidar
G. Purohit
K. K. Sud

Department of Physics
School of Engineering
Sir Padampat Singhania University
Bhatewar, Udaipur- 313 601
2009-10

Contents

Preface i
Instructions to students ii
How to record the experiment iv
1. Experiment 1: AC mains 1
2. Experiment 2: Biot-Savarts law 5
3. Experiment 3: Four probe methods 9
4. Experiment 4: Diffraction grating 14
5. Experiment 5: Hall effect 18
6. Experiment 6: Helical method 22
7. Experiment 7: Laser 29
8. Experiment 8: Michelson interferometer 33
9. Experiment 9: Plancks constant 38
10. Experiment 10: p-n junction 43
11 Experiment 11: Sextant 47
12. Experiment 12: Ultrasonics 51
Appendix I: Units and physical constants 54

Physi c s Labor at or y Manual developed by Vinod Patidar, G. Purohit and K. K. Sud
School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University,Bhatewar, Udaipur - 313601
Preface

It gives us immense pleasure to present the first edition of Physics Laboratory
Manual for the B.Tech. II Semester students of Computer Science & Engineering,
Electronics & Communication Engineering, Civil Engineering and Mechanical
Engineering branches.
The physics theory and laboratory courses at SPSU are designed in such a
way that students develop the basic understanding of the subject in the theory
classes and then try their hands on the experiments to realize the various physical
phenomena learnt during the theoretical sessions. The main objective of the
physics laboratory course is: Learning Physics through Experimentations. All
the experiments are designed to illustrate various phenomena in different areas of
physics and also to expose the students to various instruments and their uses.
The objective of this Physics Laboratory Manual is to provide a
comprehensive source for all the experiments included in the physics laboratory
course. It explains all the aspects related to every experiment such as: basic
underlying physical principle, details of the instruments, how to use these
instruments for the desired purpose, the theoretical formalism & formulae,
procedure of performing the experiment and how to calculate the desired results
from the observations etc. It also gives sufficient information on how to interpret
and discuss the obtained results.
We acknowledge the authors and publishers of all the books which we have
consulted while developing this manual.
We also acknowledge the constant encouragement and appreciation
received from Mr. Ashok Ghosh (President), Mrs. Rinu Ghosh (Vice-President)
and Prof. P.C. Deka (Vice-Chancellor).
Helping efforts extended by Mr. Akhilesh Vyas, Technical Assistant,
Physics Laboratory are also greatly appreciated.
Hopefully this Physics Laboratory Manual will serve the purpose for
which it has been developed.
VP, GP & KKS
Instructions to students

1. The main objective of the physics laboratory is: Learning Physics
Through the Experimentation. All the experiments are designed to
illustrate various phenomena in different areas of physics and also to
expose the students to various instruments and their uses.

2. Be prompt in arriving to the laboratory and always come well prepared
for the experiment.

3. Be careful while working on the equipments operated with high voltage
power supply.

4. Work quietly and carefully. Give equal opportunity to all your fellow
students to work on the instruments.

5. Every student should have his/her individual copy of the Physics
Laboratory Manual.

6. Every student has to prepare two notebooks specifically reserved for the
physics laboratory work: (i) Physics Practical Class Notebook and (ii)
Physics Practical Final Notebook.

7. Every student has to necessarily bring his/her Physics Laboratory
Manual, Physics Practical Class Notebook and Physics Practical Final
Notebook, when he/she comes to the laboratory to perform the
experiment.

8. Record your observations honestly. Never makeup reading or doctor
them either to get a better fit on the graph or to produce the correct
result. Display all your observations on the graph (if applicable)

9. All the observations have to be neatly recorded in the Physics Practical
Class Notebook (as explained in the Physics Laboratory Manual) and
verified by the instructor before leaving the laboratory.

10. If some of the readings appear to be wrong then repeat the set of
observations carefully.

11. Do not share your readings with your fellow student. Every student has
to produce his/her own set of readings by performing the experiment
separately.

Instruction to students

iii
12. After verification of the recorded observations, do the calculation in the
Physics Practical Class Notebook (as explained in the Physics
Laboratory Manual) and produce the desired results and get them
verified by the instructor.

13. Never forget to mention the units of the observed quantities in the
observation table. After calculations, represent the results with
appropriate units.

14. Calculate the percentage error in the results obtained by you if the
standard results are available and also try to point out the sources of
errors in the experiment.

15. Find the answers of all the questions mentioned under the section Find
the Answers at the end of each experiment in the Physics Laboratory
Manual.

16. Finally record the verified observations along with the calculation and
results in the Physics Practical Final Notebook.

17. Do not forget to get the information of your next allotment (the
experiment which is to be performed by you in the next laboratory
session) before leaving the laboratory from the Technical Assistant.

18. The grades for the physics practical course work will be awarded based
on your performance in the laboratory, regularity, recording of
experiments in the Physics Practical Final Notebook, lab quiz, regular
viva-voce and end-term examination.

How to record the experiment

After the verification of complete experiment in the Physics Laboratory Class
Notebook, every student has to record the experiment in the Physics Laboratory
Final Notebook. The following format is recommended and should be adhered
to closely unless your instructor instructs otherwise. A fare record work and
regularity in completing the record will definitely contribute to enhance your
grades.
1. Each notebook should be clearly identified with a title Physics
Laboratory Final Notebook, the name of the student (whom it
belongs to) & his/her enrolment number, name of the branch, semester
and the academic year (e.g. 2009-10) etc.
2. The first page of the Physics Practical Final Notebook should contain an
index having five columns for serial no., name of the experiment, date of
performing the experiment, date of submission and grades and remarks.
3. Every experiment should start from a fresh page. In the top-right of the
first page of each experiment, the date of performing the experiment
should be indicated. For writing the experiment details, only use the
ruled pages. Blank pages should be used only for drawing the figures.
4. The experiment should be recorded in the following sequence:
(i) Objective of the experiment
The objective should give the concise definition of the aim of the
experiment.

(ii) Apparatus
Name all the instruments used in performing the experiments.
Do not use the code numbers specified by the manufacturers of the
instruments.

(iii) Formulae
Give only the relevant formulae which will be used for obtaining the
desired results from the observations.
All the symbols used in the formulae should be explained properly and
also mention the units in the unit system which you are going to use
throughout the experiment.
If the calculation is to be done through the graph, then mention the
details about the graph to be drawn and also represent the formulae in
terms of the slope of the curve.
How to record the experiment

v
(iv) Observations:
It is the most important part of your experiment. First of all
calculate the least counts (with proper units) for all the
instruments used for observations.
Prepare the detailed observation table as explained in the Physics
Laboratory Manual.
Do not use pencil for recording the observations.
There should be no overwriting.
Every observation should be followed by a proper unit.

(v) Calculation
Perform the calculation as explained in the Physics Laboratory
Manual.

(vi) Result and discussion
Mention the results (with proper unit) produced in the calculation
section.
Compare your result with the standard values (if available) and
also calculate the percentage error in your results.
If the results are produced in graphical form then discuss the
variation of physical quantity plotted in the graph.

(vii) Precautions
Mention the most appropriate precautions which should be taken
care while performing the experiment.

(viii) Finally write the answers to the questions given in the Find the
answers section of the PhysicsLaboratory Manual.

Experiment 1

Determination of frequency of AC mains

Objective
To determine the frequency of A. C. mains with the help of a sonometer having
non-magnetic / magnetic wire.

Apparatus
Sonometer having non-magnetic / magnetic wire, slotted weights, Step down
transformer (6-8 volt), Horse shoe magnet, Screw gauge

Theory
When transverse waves are excited in a stretched wire the bridges act as rigid
reflectors of these waves. As a result of this the length of the wire between two
bridges becomes a bound medium with waves reflected at both ends. Thus
stationary waves are formed with bridges as nodes. Therefore in the
fundamental mode, when wire vibrates in one loop, we have
l =
2

where is the distance between bridges and is the wave-length of transverse
waves through the string. We know that if the, elastic forces are negligible
compared to tension, the velocity of transverse waves in the string is given by
l
m
T
v =
Where T is the tension and m is mass per unit length of the wire. Therefore the
natural frequency (fundamental mode) of the wire is given by
m
T
l
v
f
2
1
= =

The frequency of the wire can be changed by varying tension T or lengthl .
Now when the wire, carrying current, is placed in a magnetic field
perpendicular to its length, the wire experiences a magnetic force whose
direction is perpendicular to both the wire as well as the direction of the
magnetic field. Thus due to orientations of field and wire, the wire in this case
experiences a force in the vertical direction with the sense given by Flemings
left hand rule. Since in the experiment alternating current is being passed
through the wire, it will experience an upward force in one half cycle and
downdard force in next half cycle. Thus the wire gets impulses alternately in
opposite directions at the frequency of the current, and consequently it begins
to execute forced transverse vibrations with the frequency of the
AC
f
Experiment 1: Determination of frequency of AC mains
2

alternating current. Now if the distance between bridges is so adjusted that the
natural frequency of vibrations of the wire becomes equal to that of the
alternating current, resonance will take place and the wire will begin to vibrate
with large amplitude. In this case
f
AC
f f = .
Hence
m
T
l
f
AC
2
1
=

Figure 1: Experimental arrangement to determine the frequency of A.C. Mains

Formula
The frequency of A.C. mains is given by the realtion
m
T
l
f
AC
2
1
=
Where
T =Mg and
2
r m =
T is tension in the sonometer wire
M is the mass placed on the hanger
m is mass per unit length of the sonometer wire
l is the length of sonometer wire between the bridges under the resonance
condition
is the density of the material of sonometer wire
r is the radius of sonometer wire
g is the gravitational acceleration

2
2
1
r
Mg
l
f
AC
=
3

g
l
M
r
f
AC
2
1
=
Procedure
1. Connect the secondary coil of the step down transformer across the
sonometer wire to complete the circuit as shown in figure 1.
2. Put certain load say, 500 gm on the hanger (total load is now 1 Kg as load
of hanger is 500 gm).
3. Keep both the bridges at centre of the sonometer wire and mount the horse
shoe magnet vertically near the center of the wire between bridges, such
that the wire passes symmetrically between the two pole pieces. (this
produces magnetic field in horizontal plane and perpendicular to the length
of the wire).
4. Connect the primary coil of the step down transformer to A.C. mains.
5. Now vary the position of the bridges slowly and symmetrically with
respect to the horse shoe magnet till a stage is reached when the wire
vibrates with maximum amplitude. This is the position of resonance. Note
down the positions of both the bridges with the scale given on the
sonometer.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 by increasing the load on the hanger in the steps of 500
gm till maximum allowable limit is reached.
7. Repeat the experiment by decreasing the load on the hanger in steps of 500
gm.
8. With the help of the screw gauge measure the diameter of the sonometer
wire in two mutually perpendicular directions at several places along its
length and hence find mean radius r of the wire.

Observations
Density of material of sonometer wire ( ):------------------
Gravitational acceleration (g):-----------------------------
(a) Determination of M and mean under the resonance condition l
Least count of sonometer scale:------------
Length between the bridges under the resonance condition
Load increasing Load decreasing

Length
l
2
=b-a
Mean
l

Load
on the
hanger
(M)
gm
Position
of the
left
bridge
(a)
Position
of the
right
bridge
(b)
Length
l
1
=b-a
Position
of the
left
bridge
(a)
Position
of the
right
bridge
(b)
S.
No.

M

4

(b) Measurement of diameter of wire

Least count of screw gauge:-----------------

S. No. Main Scale
reading
Circular
scale
reading
Total Mean
diameter
Radius (r)

Calculations
1. Draw a graph between M and l .
2. Find the slope of the curve and calculate frequency of A.C. mains using
the formula

g
l
M
r
f
AC
=
2
1

Result
The frequency of A.C. Mains is ------------------------- Hz
Standard value of the frequency of A.C. Mains is 50 Hz
Percentage error is-------------------

Precautions

1. The experimental wire should be uniform and free from kinks.
2. There should be no friction at the pulley.
3. The magnet must be placed at the middle of the bridges throughout the
experiment.
4. To obtain sharper resonance the magnetic field should be perpendicular
to the length of the wire and in horizontal plane so that wire may vibrate
in vertical plane. In this case bridges act as good reflectors of transverse
waves.
5. The mass of the hanger should be included in M.

Find the answers

1. How are the stationary waves produced in the wire?
2. What is the principle involved in this experiment?
3. What do you understand by resonance?
4. What is the velocity of transverse waves?
5. On which factors does the frequency in this method depend?
6. Is there any difference between frequency and pitch?
7. What is the role of horse shoe magnet?

Experiment 2

Study of Biot-Savarts law

Objective
(a) To verify the Biot-savarts law by showing that the magnetic field
produced is directly proportional to the current passed in the coil.
(b) To determine the magnetic field at the centre of a coil and its variation
with distance and radius of the coil

Apparatus
Gauss meter, hall probe, power supply, ammeter, coils of different radii, bench
with scale and uprights.

Theory and Formulae
The magnetic equivalent of Coulomb's law is the Biot-Savart law for the
magnetic field produced by a short segment of wire, s d
r
, carrying current I
3
0
4 r
r s d I
B d
r r
r

=
,
where the direction of is in the direction of the current and where the vector s d
r
r
r
points from the short segment of current to the observation point where we
are to compute the magnetic field. Since current must flow in a circuit,
integration is always required to find the total magnetic field at any point. The
constant
0
is chosen so that when the current is in amperes and the distances
are in meters, the magnetic field is correctly given in units of tesla. Its value in
SI units is
A m T A m T / . 10 26 . 1 / . 10 4
2 6 2 7
0

= =
We use the formula for the magnetic field of an infinitely long wire whenever
we want to estimate the field near a segment of wire, and we use the formula
for the magnetic field at the center of a circular loop of wire whenever we want
to estimate the magnetic field near the center of any loop of wire.
Infinitely Long Wire: The magnetic field at a point at distance r from an
infinitely long wire carrying current I has magnitude

r
I
B
2
0
=
Experiment 2: Study of Biot-Savarts law
6

and its direction is given by the right-hand rule: point the thumb of your right
hand in the direction of the current, and your fingers indicate the direction of
the circular magnetic field lines around the wire.
Circular Loop: The magnetic field at the center of a circular loop of current-
carrying wire of radius R has magnitude
R
I
B
2
0
=
and its direction is given by the right-hand rule: curl the fingers of your right
hand in the direction of the current flow, and your thumb points in the direction
of the magnetic field inside the loop.

I

Figure 1: Biot-Savart Law

Procedure
1. Mount Hall probe and circular conductor on the bench.
2. Align the Hall probe towards the center of the circular conductor.
3. Adjust the Zero of the Digital Gauss Meter. It must show zero reading
when no current is passed through the conductor.
4. Connect the conductor loop to the power supply. Increase the current I
from the power supply in steps of 2A and measure the magnetic field.
5. Repeat the procedure for other circular conductors having different radii.
6. Set the current at a fix value, say I=15 A. Move the Hall probe to the
extreme right side of the circular conductor and note down the distance
between the circular conductor and Hall probe as well as corresponding
magnetic field. Now decrease the distance between the Hall probe and
current carrying conductor in steps of 2.5 cm and measure the magnetic
field at various positions.
7. Repeat the step 6 for the left side of the current carrying circular
conductor.
7

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for other circular conductors having different radii.

Observations
Least count of the bench scale:-----------------
(a) Magnetic field B of a circular conductor as a function of current I

Circular conductor
of Diameter 40mm
Circular conductor
of Diameter 80mm
Circular conductor
of Diameter 120mm
S. No.
I (A) B
(Gauss)
I (A) B
(Gauss)
I (A) B
(Gauss)

(b) Magnetic field B as a function of distance d from the center of the loop

Circular conductor of
Diameter 40mm
Circular conductor
of Diameter 80mm
Circular conductor
of Diameter 120mm
S.
No.
d(cm) B
(Gauss)
d(cm) B
(Gauss)
d(cm) B
(Gauss)

8

Graphical representations
Draw the following graphs:
(a) B(Gauss) Vs I(A) for all three different circular conductors
(b) B(Gauss) Vs d(cm) for all three different circular conductors

Discussion
Discuss the variation of magnetic field with current and distance from graphs.

Precautions
1. The axial Hall probe must be aligned as precisely as possible towards
the centre of the circular conductor.
2. The Digital Gauss Meter must be set to zero when no current is passed
through the conductor. This is achieved by adjusting the zero adjust
knob of the Gauss meter.

Find the answers
1. Explain the Biot-Savart Law?
2. What happens to magnetic needle placed near a current carrying
conductor?
3. What is the magnetic field produced due to the current passing through a
conductor?
4. Define magnetic induction?
5. Define Tesla and Gauss?
6. How can you find the direction of magnetic field produced by a current
passing through circular loop?
7. Does the magnetic field depend on the number of turns in a circular
coil?

Experiment 3

Four probe method

Objective
To study the variation of resistivity with temperature and determine the energy
band gap of a semiconductor using four probe method

Apparatus
Four probe arrangement, oven, thermometer, sample semiconductor crystal,
voltmeter, ammeter, connecting leads.

Theory
The Ohm's law in terms of the electric field and current density is given by the
relation

= J E
where is electrical resistivity of the material. For a long thin wire-like
geometry of uniform cross-section or for a long parellelopiped shaped sample
of uniform cross-section, the resistivity can be measured by measuring the
voltage drop across the sample due to flow of known (constant) current through
the sample. This simple method has following drawbacks:
The major problem in such method is error due to contact resistance of
measuring leads.
The above method can not be used for materials having irregular shapes.
For some type of materials, soldering the test leads would be difficult.
In case of semiconductors, the heating of sample due to soldering results
in injection of impurities into the material thereby affecting the intrinsic
electrical resistivity. Moreover, certain metallic contacts form schottky
barrier on semiconductors.
To overcome first two problems, a collinear equidistant four-probe method is
used. This method provides the measurement of the resistivity of the specimen
having wide variety of shapes but with uniform cross-section. The soldering
contacts are replaced by pressure contacts to eliminate the last problem
discussed above.
Experiment 3: Four probe method
10

Figure 1: Four probe arrangement

In this method, four pointed, collinear, equi- spaced probes are placed on the
plane surface of the specimen (Figure 1). A small pressure is applied using
springs to make the electrical contacts. The diameter of the contact (which is
assumed to be hemispherical) between each probe and the specimen surface is
small compared to the spacing between the probes. Assume that the thickness
of the sample d is small compared to the spacing between the probes s (i.e., d
<< s). Then the current streamlines inside the sample due to a probe carrying
current I will have radial symmetry, so that

= r
r
V
E
hence

=
J r
r
V

If the outer two probes (l and 4) are current carrying probes, and the inner two
probes (2 & 3) are used to monitor the potential difference between the inner
two points of contact, then total current density at the probe point 2 which is
at a distance r from probe 1 and r from probe 4 can be written as

r
r
r
r I
J
d
^
2

Thus potential difference between probes (2) and (3) can be written as

2
1 1
ln2
2 3
ln2
s
s
I I
V dr
d r s r d
V d
I

= + =

11

d

Figure 2: Four probe circuit

Formulae
The resistivity of a semiconductor crystal is given by

2 ln
d
I
V
= ,
where
d is the thickness of the crystal
V is the voltage across the crystal
I is the current through the crystal

The energy band gap of semiconductor crystal is given by
g
E
eV
T
k E
g
1
log 3026 . 2
2
10

= ,
where
k is Boltzmann constant = and T is temperature in Kelvin. K J / 10 6 . 8
5

Procedure
1. Connect the outer pair of probes leads to the constant current power
supply and inner pair to the voltage terminals.
2. Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and fix the thermometer in
the oven through the hole provided.
3. Switch on the power supply and keep the digital panel meter in the
current measuring mode through the selector switch. In this position the
LED facing mA would glow. Adjust the current to a desired value.
12

4. Now change the digital panel meter in the voltage measuring mode. In
this position the LED facing mV would glow and the meter would read
the voltage between inner probes.
5. Connect the oven supply, the rate of heating may be selected with the
help of a switch.
6. Increase temperature of the oven upto 130
0
C and then switch off the
oven.
7. The temperature of the oven will decrease automatically. Now, measure
the voltage in the digital panel meter four various values of temperatures
with a difference of 5
0
C.
8. Record the observations till the temperature of the oven reaches to the
room temperature.

Observations
Distance between the probes (S): 2.5 mm
Thickness of the crystal (d): 0.05 mm
Current through the crystal (I)=-----------------------mA

S.
No.
Temp.
(
0
C)
Temp
(K)
1000 /
T
Voltage,
V (mV)
2 ln
d
I
V
=
10
log
130
125
120

30

Calculations
1. Draw a graph between 1000/T versus
10
log .
2. Find the slope of the curve plotted in step 1 i.e. obtain the value of
)
1000
(
log
10
T

From the graph.
3. The energy band gap of semiconductor crystal is calculated by
g
E
eV
T
k
T
k E
g
= =
1000
log
10 2 3026 . 2
1
log 3026 . 2
2
10 3 10

13

Results and discussion

1. Discuss the nature of graph between the resistivity and temperature.
2. The band gap of the given semiconductor is---------------------------- eV

Precautions
1. All four probes should be in contact with crystal surface.
2. Current through the crystal should remain constant through out the
experiment.
3. Temperature of oven should not be increased beyond 130
0
C.

Find the answers
1. What do you mean by resistivity of materials?
2. What are semiconducting materials?
3. What do you mean by energy band gap?
4. How does the resistivity of a semiconductor change with respect to
temperature? Is the behaviour same as metals?
5. Why a semiconductor behaves as an insulator at absolute zero?
6. Classify insulators, semiconductors and conductors on the basis of
energy band theory?
7. What are the typical energy band gap values for Si and Ge
semiconductors?

Experiment 4

Diffraction grating

Objective
To determine the wavelength of the prominent lines of Mercury by plane
transmission grating

Apparatus
Diffraction grating, spectrometer, mercury lamp, convex lens

Formula
The wavelength , of any spectral line can be calculated by the formula
(a +b) sin =n
=
n
b a sin ) ( +

where
cm
N
b a
54 . 2
) ( = + is the grating element
N is number of lines per inch drawn on transmission grating
is the angle of diffraction
N is the order of the spectrum

Figure 1: Experimental arrangement of diffraction through transmission grating

Experiment 4: Diffraction grating
15

Procedure
Adjustment of spectrometer
1. Telescope is directed towards a distant object and focused such that a
distant and clear image of the object is seen. Hence the telescope is
ready to focus all the parallel rays at the crosswire.
2. Align the telescope with the collimator such that the image of the slit
is seen through the telescope. Collimator is focused until a distinct and
sharp image is seen through the telescope. In this position light rays
coming out of the collimator will be parallel to each other.

Adjustment of grating for normal incidence of light
1. Take the reading (say, a) of the circular scale for above position of the
telescope given in step (2).
2. Turn telescope through 90 so that the reading of circular scale
become either (a +90) or (a- 90). In this position the telescope and
collimator axes are mutually perpendicular to each other. Clamp the
telescope.
3. Place the grating symmetrically at the centre of prism table. Rotate the
prism table gradually (but the circular scale must not rotate) so that
the reflected image of the slit is on vertical cross wire. In this position
the grating will make an angle 45 with the incident ray.
4. Keeping the telescope fixed turn the prism table 45 or 135 so that
grating plane becomes normal to incident rays.

Adjustment for determination of the angle of diffraction
1. Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image and observe the
different spectral lines (violet, green & red).
2. Now set the telescope cross wire on one of the spectral line, say red,
and note down the readings of the spectrometer from both of the
scales V
1
and V
2
.
3. Repeat step 2 for different spectral lines
4. Now rotate the telescope to the right of the direct image and repeat the
step 2 and 3.
5. Rotate the telescope further to obtain the second order spectrum and
repeat the steps 2-4.

Observations
No. of rulings per cm on the grating N =..
Grating element cm
N
b a
54 . 2
) ( = + =----------
Least count of the spectrometer:

Least count of main scale, x =..degree

16

No. of division of vernier scale, n =.
Least count (l.c.) of vernier scale,
n
x
=.degree

Calculations
1. Calculate the wavelength of different spectral lines using the formula for
1
st
and 2
nd
order spectrums
=
n
b a sin ) ( +

2. Find the mean value of the wavelength for 1
st
and 2
nd
order results for
different spectral lines separately.

Results
The mean value of for violet =.
The mean value of for green =
The mean value of for red =.
Percentage error in the observed vales of wavelengths are-----------------

Precautions
1. The telescope and the collimator should be separately adjusted for
parallel rays.
2. The height of the prism table should be so adjusted that the light must
fall on the entire rulings surface of the grating.
3. While taking observations the telescope and the prism table must be
clamped.
4. The convex lens should be used for taking readings on both the
verniers.

Telescope reading for
Left side of direct image
(a)
Telescope reading for
Right side of direct image
(b)

Order
of
spectrum

Colour
of
spectral
line

Vernier
scale
M.S.
(Deg)
V.S.

Total (a)
(Deg)
M.S. V.S.

Total (b)
(Deg)
Difference
= (b-a)/2
(Deg)

Mean
(Deg)
(Deg)
V1 Violet
V2

V1 Green
V2

V1

First
Order
Red
V2

V1 Violet
V2

V1

Green
V2

V1
Second
Order

Red
V2

17

Find the answers
1. What do you mean by diffraction of light?
2. What is transmission grating?
3. How grating is constructed?
4. What do you mean by different orders of spectrum?
5. What is the difference between diffraction and interference?
6. What is grating element?
7. What is the main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating
spectrum?
8. Why the prism spectrum is more intense then a grating spectrum.
9. What is the dispersive power of grating?

Experiment 5

Study of Hall effect

Objective
To determine the Hall coefficient, Hall voltage and charge carrier density of a
semiconductor crystal

Apparatus
Electromagnet, Electromagnet constant power supply, Hall probe, Gauss meter,
semiconductor crystal mounted on PCB, multimeter

Theory and Formulae
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular
to the direction of current then an electro motive force is developed
perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field applied. This effect is
known as Hall Effect and the voltage developed is known as Hall voltage

Figure 1: Hall effect

Suppose an electric current (I
x
) flows in the x direction and the magnetic field
(B
z
) is applied normal to this electric field in the z direction. Each electron is
then subjected to a force called Lorentz force perpendicular to the direction of
flow of electron as well as perpendicular to the magnetic field. It causes the
accumulation of electrons on one side of the crystal and is deficient on the
other side. Thus an electric field is developed in Y direction, which is called
Hall field (E
H
).
Under the equilibrium the Lorentz force on the electrons and hall force (the
force on the electron due to hall field) balance each other, i.e.
Z x H
B qv E q =
Where is the velocity of electrons in x direction.
x
v
Experiment 5: Study of Hall effect
19

Z x H
B v E =
The magnitude of current density
x x
v q n J = , where n is the number of charge
carriers per unit volume.
H x
x
x
R J
nq
J
v = = ,
here
nq
R
H
1
= is known as hall coefficient.
Z H x H
B R J E =
t
V
E
H
H
= and
t b
I
A
I
J
x x
x
= =
Substitute the value of E
H
and J
x
z x
H
H
B I
b V
R =
Here t is the dimension of the crystal in y direction and b is the dimension
of the crystal in z direction.
The number of charge carriers per unit volume i.e., charge carrier density is
given by
H
R e
n
1
=
If the conduction is primarily due to one type of charge carriers, then
conductivity is related to mobility
m
as
H m
R =

Figure 2: Experimental arrangement to study Hall effect

20

Procedure
1. Mount PCB (with crystal) and hall probe on pillars and complete all the
connections.
2. Switch on the Gauss meter and place hall probe away from the
electromagnet. Adjust the reading of the Gauss meter as zero (do not
switch on the electromagnet power supply at this moment).
3. Switch on the constant current source and set the current, say 5 mA.
Keep the magnetic field at zero as recorded by Gauss meter (do not
4. Set the voltage range of the multimeter at 0-200 mV. When a current of
5mA is passed through the crystal without application of magnetic field
the hall voltage recorded by the multimeter should be zero (do not
5. Bring the current reading of the constant current source to zero by
adjusting the knob of the constant current source.
6. Now switch on the electromagnet and select the range of the Gauss
meter as and measure the magnetic flux density at the center
between the pole pieces. The tip of Hall probe and the crystal should be
placed between the center of the pole pieces. For carrying out the
experiment the magnetic flux density should be maximum i.e. between
2000 to 3500 Gauss.
10
7. Vary the current through the constant current source in small
increments. Note the value of current passing through the sample and
the Hall voltage as recorded by the multimeter (do not change the
current in the electromagnet).
8. Reverse the direction of magnetic field by interchanging the + and -
connections of the coils and repeat the step 10.

Observations
Width of the specimen, b:
Length of the specimen, l:.
Thickness of the specimen, t:.
Magnetic flux density, B
z
:.. Gauss

S.
No.
Current
(mA)
x
I Reading of millivoltmeter
(mV)
Mean
value of
V
H
(mV)
V
H
/ I
x
(ohms)
BB
z
and I in
one
direction
B
z
and I in
reverse
direction

21

Calculations
1. Draw a graph between V
H
and I
x
and Find the slope of the curve
x
H
I
V

2. Calculate the value of Hall coefficient using the formula
z x
H
H
B
b
I
V
R
=
3. Calculate the carrier charge density using the formula
H
R e
n
1
=

Results
The value of Hall coefficient for the given semiconductor crystal is -------------.
The obtained value of carrier charge density is----------------------.

Precautions
1. The Hall probe should be placed between the pole pieces such that
maximum Hall voltage is generated.
2. Current through the Hall probe should be strictly within the limits.
3. Hall voltage developed should be measured very accurately.

Find the answers
1. What is Hall Effect?
2. What is Hall coefficient?
3. What is mobility of charge carriers?
4. What are the factors on which the Hall coefficient depends?
5. Can you identify whether a given sample is p-type or n-type using Hall
effect?
6. Name some practical applications of Hall Effect.
7. What do you mean by charge carrier density?
8. Can Hall Effect be observed in conductors?

Experiment 6

Determination of e/m using helical
method

Objective
To determine the specific charge (charge to mass ratio (e/m) ) of electron using
the helical method

Apparatus
Cathode ray tube, Power supply for CR tube, Solenoid, multimeter

Theory

Electron are emitted at the cathode of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and
accelerated through an accelerating DC voltage V towards the screen. In
addition a small transverse (AC) voltage acts across the pair of X plates.. Once
the electron leaves the plate region its velocity is constant and makes angle v
with Z-axis. The component of its velocity along Z-axis is v v v = cos
||
.
When the AC deflecting velocity is switched on, different electrons receive
varying velocity and hence a line gets formed on the CRT screen.
v

Figure 1

When the CRT is placed along the axis of the solenoid then there is a magnetic
field cos
0
nI B = (along the axis of the solenoid) which acts on the electron.
Here n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid, I is the current in
the solenoid and is the angle subtended at the center of the solenoid by the
outer edge of the solenoid and its axis.

Experiment 6: Determination of e/m using helical method
23

Figure 2

When the magnetic field is present, the motion of the electron in the CRT is
helical. This can be understood as follows. Viewed along the Z-axis with the
magnetic field coming out of the page, the magnetic field has the effect of
making the electron move in a circular path (see Figure 3). The centripetal
force is
B ev
r
mv
=
2
,
where r v =
, is the angular frequency of the circular motion of the

electron.
Substituting the value of , we obtain
v
m
eB
= .
The time period of evolution of electron
eB
m
T

2 2
= =

Figure 3
24

Along with the circular motion the electron has a longitudinal velocity v v =
||

which transforms the purely rotational motion to helical path (Figure 4). The
pitch of the helical motion is defined as longitudinal distance moved in one full
rotational period i.e
eB
mv
T v pitch
2
||
=

Figure 4

When the magnetic field is switched on, the line on the CRT rotates and
shrinks. The deflecting voltage produces a range of -values (both +ve and
ve) for the transverse velocities of the electrons. The radii of different electrons
will be different but all the electrons rotate through the same angle in the same
time causing the line on the screen to rotate. (Figure 5).
v

Figure 5

From Figure 5, it is clear that if each electron rotates through a full circle then
the line on the CRT screen will shrink to a point. For this to happen the
distance (from plate to screen of the CRT ) should at least equal to one pitch
of the helix . By adjusting B the pitch of the helix can be made equal to and
the lines becomes a point .This is called focusing action of the magnetic field.
x
l
x
l

At this value of magnetic field
eB
v m
pitch l
x
2
= =
25

The velocity of the electron can be calculated using the accelerating voltage V
as:
eV mv =
2
2
1

m
eV
v
2
= .
Now substituting the value of v in the expression of , we obtain
x
l
m
eV
eB
m
l
x
2 2
= .
This on simplification gives
2 2
2
8
B l
V
m
e
x
= .
The magnetic due to the current I in the solenoid is given by

cos
0
nI B = ,
Where n is the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid, I is the current
in the solenoid and is the angle subtended at the center of the solenoid by the
outer edge of the solenoid and its axis.
2 2
cos
D L
L
+
= ,
Where L is the length of winding of solenoid and D is the diameter of the
solenoid.
On substituting the value of B, we have

2 2 2 2
0
2
2
cos
8
I n l
V
m
e
x
= .
As Henry/meter and
7
0
10 4

=
L
N
n = , the above expression for (e/m)
becomes
Kg C
I l N
V L
m
e
x
/
cos
10 5
2 2 2 2
2 13
=
Formula
The e/m value of electrons is given by

Kg C
I l N
V L
m
e
/
cos
10 5
2 2 2 2
2 13
=
Where
2 2
cos
D L
L
+
=

L is the total length of winding of the solenoid (meters)
V is the accelerating voltage (volts)
N is the total number of turns of the coil
26

l is the distance of the screen from X-plates / Y- plates (meters)
I is the current through the solenoid (Ampere)
D is diameter of the solenoid (meter)

Figure 6: Experimental arrangement

Figure 7: Circuit diagram

Procedure
1. Keep the solenoid with its axis in the east west direction and place the CR
tube inside the solenoid at its center.
2. Switch ON the power supply and turn the potentiometer marked
accelerating voltage and adjust it to any desired value (say V).
27

3. A spot is observed on the CR tube screen. Make it as sharp as possible by
using focusing and intensity Knobs on the control panel of the power
supply.
4. The X OFF - Y switch is used to apply the voltage on either x-plates or Y-
plates of the CR tube. Set the switch to Y - position. As a result a vertical
trace is obtained on the screen. Using Y-shift adjust the length of the trace
(say 5 cm)
5. Switch ON the current through the solenoid and with the variation of
current the length of the trace changes and slowly it reduces to a spot. The
value of accelerating voltage and the solenoid current are noted down.
6. The accelerating voltage is set at another value. Now repeat the same
procedure to reduce the trace to spot. Note the value of minimum current
through the solenoid at which length of the trace reduces to spot.
8. Repeat steps 4-6 for X-plates.

Observations
Distance of the screen from X-plates =.
x
l
Distance of the screen from Y-plates =.
y
l
Length of solenoid L =..
Number of turns N =.
Diameter of the solenoid D =

S. No. Accelerating
voltage V (volts)
Solenoid current I
(amps)
2
I
Y-plates

X-plates

Calculations
1. Plot a graph between V and
2
I separately for X-plates and Y-plates
observations.
2. From graphs calculate the slope =
2
I
V

3. Calculate
2 2
cos
D L
L
+
=
4. Calculate the value of e / m using observations of X-plates
Kg C
I
V
l N
L
m
e
x
/
cos
10 5
2 2 2 2
2 13

5. Calculate the value of e / m using observations of Y-plates
28

Kg C
I
V
l N
L
m
e
y
/
cos
10 5
2 2 2 2
2 13

6. Find the average value of e / m
7. Calculate the percentage error

Result
The e/m value of electron is ..C / kg
Standard value of e / m =1.756 10
11
C/kg

Precautions
1. CR tube should be placed at the centre of the solenoid.
2. Solenoid must be placed with its axis in the east west direction.
3. There should not be any magnetic material near the setup.
4. The value of solenoid current must be recorded very accurately because
it appears in square of I.

Find the answers
1. Why this method is known as helical method?
2. What is cathode ray tube?
3. What are different fields applied on electron?
4. What is Lorentz force?
5. How the electrons are accelerated in CRT?
6. What is solenoid?
7. The magnetic field produced by solenoid depends on which factors?

Experiment 7

Determination of wavelength of He-Ne
laser

Objective
To determine the wavelength of He-Ne laser beam using a metallic scale as a
reflection grating.

Apparatus
He-Ne laser, Metallic Scale, a meter scale, graph paper or A-4 size paper and
screen, optical bench.

Theory and Formulae
A polished steel scale such as vernier caliper can be used as a reflection
grating. When light strikes at the grazing incidence, it is diffracted into many
orders depending on the spacing and accuracy of the graduations. The
diffraction pattern is observed on the screen. The pattern arises due to the
diffraction at the engraved lines on the scale and is governed by the grating
equation. The grating equation is expressed in terms of angles and in the
form
m d
m
= ) cos (cos
where
i =
0
90 and
m
=
0
90
i is the angle of incidence
d is the grating constant
The distance between the region of incidence at the ruler and the screen is .
The diffraction pattern is taken along y-axis and the position of m

z
th
spot is
represented by . For 0
m
y
th
order =

. Therefore,
cos ( )
2
1
2
sin 1
2
1
1
m m
=

2
1
2
0
1
=
z
y
m

Using Binomial expansion
cos +
=
2
0
2
2
1
1
z
y
m
m

Similarly
cos =
=
2
0
2
0
2
1
1 cos
z
y
m

Experiment 7: Determination of wavelength of He-Ne laser
30

Figure 1: Diffraction pattern.

Figure 2: Schematic for determination of wave length of He-Ne laser

Therefore
cos =
( )
( )
2
0
2 2
2
0
2
2
0
2
2
2
1
cos
z
y y
z
y
z
y
O m O m
m
=

Substituting in the grating equation

( )
m
z
y y d
O m
=
2
0
2 2
2

or
31

( )
2
0
2 2
2mz
y y d
O m

=

Where m is an integer (diffraction order), and are measured from the
projection screen.
0
Y
m
y

Procedure
1. Switch on the laser and adjust the leveling screws of the holder in such a
way that the laser tube is little bit tilted.
2. Place the metallic scale on a mount. Adjust the height of the platform so
that laser light falls on the metallic scale at a grazing angle.
3. The diffraction pattern is observed at a distance of 1-2 meter away from
the metallic scale.
3. Mark the position of the various orders and direct spot (without any
diffraction) on the screen.
4. Switch off the laser and note the distances of the spot from the
intersection point O as shown in Figure 1. Note also the distance
between the screen and the metallic scale.

Observations
Least count of the metallic scale (d):
Distance of screen from region of incidence on the metallic scale ( ) =

0
z
S.
No.
Order
m
Position of Spot
in cm.
m
y
2 2
O m
y y
in cm
2
m
y y
O m
2 2

in cm
2
.
Mean
m
y y
O m
2 2

in cm.
2
1 m =0 y
0

2 m =1 y
1

3 m =2 y
2

4 m =3 y
3

5 m =4 y
4

6 m =5 y
5

7 m =6 y
6

8 m =7 y
7

9 m =8 y
8

10 m =9 y
9

11 m =10 y
10

Calculations
Calculate the value of wavelength of He-Ne laser using the formula
( )
2
0
2 2
2mz
y y d
O m

=
Result
The wavelength of He-Ne laser obtained is ----------------------------------------.
32

Standard value of the wavelength of He-Ne laser is 6328A
0
Percentage error is--------------------

Precautions
1. Do not look directly at laser beam, it is hazardous to the eyes.
2. Properly adjust the position of screen.

Find the answers
1. What is LASER?
2. What do you mean by the stimulated emission?
3. What are the properties of a laser source which are different from any
ordinary source of light?
4. What do you mean by population inversion?
5. How is population inversion achieved in He-Ne laser?
6. What are metastable states?
7. What do you mean by level of a laser?
8. What are the applications of laser?

Experiment 8

Determination of wavelength using
Michelson Interferometer

Objective
To determine the wavelength of sodium light with the help of Michelson
interferometer.

Apparatus
Michelson Interferometer, Sodium Lamp, Convex Lens etc.

Theory
The Michelson interferometer uses light interference to measure distances in
units of the wavelength of light from a particular source. It was developed by
Albert Michelson in 1893 to measure the standard meter in units of the
wavelength of the red line in the cadmium spectrum. It is also known for its use
in demonstrating the non-existence of electromagnetic wave-carrying aether
Contemporary uses of Michelson Interferometer include precision mechanical
measurements and Fourier transform spectroscopy. In laboratory, we use a
Michelson interferometer to (a) measure the wavelength of light from a Sodium
light source / Ne-He laser, (b) measure the index of refraction of air.
A simplified version of the Michelson interferometer is shown in Figure
1. The basic idea is to split a beam of light into two beams; delay one with
respect to the other, and then recombine them to observe their interference.
Light from a monochromatic source is directed at a half-silvered" glass plate
i.e. a mirror with a very thin metallic coating. Approximately half the light
intensity is reflected to Mirror 1 (M
1
) and half transmitted, so it strikes Mirror 2
(M
2
). The light reflected by these mirrors goes back to the half-silvered plate
and half the intensity of each beam then goes to an observation device either
telescope or naked eye. If the light source is a point source we can easily find
its images made by the combination of mirrors. This is shown in Figure 2. The
image of a point source is located behind the mirror at the same perpendicular
distance as the object.
In this case, A is the image of the source made by the half-silvered plate.
B is the image of A made my Mirror 1. C is the image of the source, for rays
transmitted by the half-silvered plate made by Mirror 2 and D is the image of C
made by the half-silvered plate. If the distances between the half-silvered plate
and Mirror 1 and between the half-silvered plate and Mirror 2 are the same then
images B and D overlap. But now suppose the Mirror 1 is closer by a distance
d to the half-silvered mirror than Mirror 2, then C becomes C and D becomes
D, which is a distance 2d closer. The observer then sees two point sources of
Experiment 8: Determination of wavelength using Michelson interferometer
34

light separated by a distance 2d. There will be interference of these sources; it
will be constructive interference if
d m 2 =
where m is 0 or a positive integer, and is the wavelength of the light. The
two light sources emit light over an angular range. An observation point at an
angle with respect to the sources will be at constructive interference if
cos 2d m =

Figure 1: Michelson Interferometer

The resulting image on the observation device will be a series of concentric,
circular bright and dark rings. As Mirror 1 is moved, the fringes will change
from bright to dark etc.

Formula
The wavelength of sodium light is given by

( )
N
x x
1 2
2
=
Where
X
1
is the initial position of mirror M
1
of Michelson Interferometer
X
2
is the final position of mirror M
1
of Michelson Interferometer after N
number of fringes appeared / disappeared at the centre.
35

N is the number of fringes appeared or disappeared at the centre when the
mirror M
1
moves by a distance d =x
2
x
1
.

Figure 2: Schematic of Michelson Interferometer

Procedure
1. Calculate the least count of the micrometer screw attached to mirror M
1
.
2. Turn on the lamp and look through the observation device. If you see the
ring pattern (alternate dark and bright) and if it can be changed by
turning the micrometer screw then the apparatus is aligned or set.
3. If it is not the case then first of all try to make mirrors M
1
and M
2

perfectly perpendicular to each other by adjusting the screws behind the
mirrors. For this purpose a screen with a pin hole is placed between the
half-silvered plate and source. When observed from the observation
device four images of the pin hole are seen, two of them are faint and
two are intense. Adjust the screws behind M
1
and M
2
in such a way that
we observe only two intense images of the pin hole. This happens only
when the mirrors M
1
and M
2
are perfectly perpendicular to each other.
Remove the pinhole screen.
36

4. Now move the mirror M
1
such that you observe a bright spot at the
centre.
5. Turn the micrometer either clockwise or anti-clockwise for about 1
rotation. Then turn it in the same direction enough to see N fringes
appear or disappear at the centre. N should be at least 10.
6. Note down the reading of coarse adjustment knob, let it be m.
Multiply this reading with least count 0.01mm.
7. Take the reading of the fine adjustment knob, let it be n. Multiply this
reading with least count 0.0001mm.
8. Add the above two readings of coarse and fine adjustment knobs, let it
be x
1
. Now rotate the fine adjustment knob to count the number of
fringes appearing or disappearing at the centre of the fringe pattern.
Note the observations after rotation as explained earlier. Let the final
reading be x
2
.
9. Measure the distance traveled by mirror M
1
when N number of fringes
appear / disappear at the centre using initial (x
1
) and final (x
2
) readings of the
micrometer screw. Find the value of distance move by mirror M
1
i.e. d =x
2

x
1
.
Observations
Least count of coarse adjustment:--------------------

Least count of fine adjustment:------------------------

S.
No.
No. of
fringes
Initial reading x
1
cm Final reading x
2
cm
Coarse
adjustment
Fine
adjustment
Total Coarse
adjustment
Fine
adjustment
Total

d=x
2
X
1
1.
2.
3.

Calculation
1. Calculate the wavelength using the formula
( )
N
d
N
x x 2 2
1 2
=
=
2. Calculate the mean value of wavelengths ( ) obtained from various
observations.
3. Standard value of for sodium light is 5893 A
0
.
4. Calculate percentage error =(calculated value standard value / Standard
value ) % 100

Result
The wave length of sodium light obtained is--------------------------- and the
error is--------------%

Precautions
1. Mirror M
1
and M
2
should be perpendicular to each other.
37

2. The fine adjustment knob should be moved in one direction.
3. Glass plates and mirrors should not be touched or cleaned.
4. The screws behind mirror M
1
should be rotated through a very small
angle.

Find the answers
1. What is interference of light and what do you mean by interferometer?
2. Are two mirrors simply plane mirrors?
3. What type of glass plates are G and C?
4. What is the role of compensatory plate C?
5. What is the shape of fringes you get in this experiment?
6. How do you get circular fringes?
7. Where are the circular fringes located?
8. What will you observe with white light source?
9. What are localized fringes?
10. When the mirror M
1
is moved through a distance 2 distance, how
many fringes appear or disappear?

Experiment 9

Determination of Plancks constant

Objective
Determination of Plancks constant using light emitting diode (LED)

Apparatus
Variable voltage source (0-2 V DC), Ammeter (0-20mA/2000uA),
Temperature controlled Oven (0-60.C), LED (Red / Yellow) soldered with
connecting wire, Oven connecting lead

Theory
A light emitting diode (LED) is a p-n junction semiconductor diode that gives
off light when it is forward biased.
The basic idea in this measurement is that the photon energy, which from
Einsteins relation
h E = is equal to the energy gap E

g
between the valance
and conduction bands of the diode. Energy gap is in turn equal to the height of
energy barrier eV
0
that electrons have to overcome to go from the n-doped side
of diode junction to the p-doped side when no external voltage V is applied to
the diode. In the p-doped side they recombine with holes releasing the energy
E
g
as photons with
0
V e E h E
g
= = =
thus a measurement of V
0
indirectly
yield E and Plancks constant (if is known or measured). However there are
practical and conceptual problems in the actual measurement. Let us consider
the LED diode equation:
1 exp exp
0
t t
V
V
V
V
I
Where
RI V V
m
= and
e
T k
V
t
=
K is Boltzmann constant
T is absolute temperature &
e is electronic charge
V
m
is voltmeter reading in the external diode circuit
R is the contact resistance
is material constant, which depends on type of diode ,location of
recombination region etc.
The energy barrier eV
0
is equal to the gap energy E
g
when no external voltage
is applied. In the LED equation the factor 1 is negligible if I 2nA. The diode
equation then becomes
Experiment 9: Determination of Plancks constant
39

t
V
V V
I
0
exp
T k
V V e
I
) (
exp
0

The height of Potential barrier is obtained by directly measuring the
dependence of diode current on the temperature by keeping the applied voltage
and thus the height of barrier fixed. The external voltage is kept fixed at a value
lower than the barrier. In our experimental set up the variation of current I
with temperature is measured over about a range of about 30
0
C at a fixed
voltage V (=1.8 volts) kept slightly below V
0
. The slope of
T
vs I
1
ln curve
gives ( ) k V V e /
0
. The constant may be determined separately from V-I
characteristic of the diode at room temperature from the relation
=
I
V
T k
e
ln

The Plancks constant is then obtained by relation
0
eV
c
h h = =

c
V e
h

0
=

Figure 1: Circuit diagram of a forward biased LED

Formulae
The current across the forward biased LED is given by the relation
1 exp exp
0
t t
V
V
V
V
I
Where
RI V V
m
= and
e
T k
V
t
=
K is Boltzmann constant
40

T is absolute temperature &
e is electronic charge
V
m
is voltmeter reading in the external diode circuit
R is the contact resistance
is material constant, which depends on the type of diode ,location of
recombination region etc.
eV
0
is the height of energy barrier

The Plancks constant is obtained by relation
0
eV
c
h h = =

c
V e
h

0
=

Procedure
(a) To draw V-I characteristic of LED:
1. Connect LED in socket on set up and switch ON power.
2. Switch the twoway switch to V-I position. In this position the 1
st
digital
panel meter (DPM) would read voltage across LED and 2
nd
DPM would
read current passing through LED
3. Increase the voltage gradually and tabulate the V-I reading. Note that
there would be no current till about 1.5 voltage

(b) Dependence of current (I) on temperature (T) at constant applied
voltage:

1. Keep the mode switch to V-I side and adjust the voltage across LED
slightly below the band-gap of LED say 1.8V for both yellow and red
and 1.95 for green LED.
2. Change the mode of two-way switch to T-I side.
3. Insert LED in the oven and connect the other end of LED in the socket
provided on set up. Before connecting the oven check that oven switch
is in OFF position and temperature knob is at minimum position. Now
1st DPM would read ambient temperature.
4. Set the different temperature with the help of temperature knob. Allow
about five minutes on each setting for the temperature to stabilize and
take the readings of the temperature and current.

Observations

(a) Determination of material constant

LED: RED / YELLOW
Room temperature:-------------- K

41

S. No. Junction Voltage v (Volt) Forward current I
( A )
I ln

(b) Determination of temperature coefficient of current
LED: RED / YELLOW
Voltage 1.8 (constant for whole set of readings)

S.
No.
Temperature
(
0
C)
Temperature
(K)
Current
(mA)
3
10
1
T

I ln

Calculations
1. Determination of material constant
Find slope of the V- curve - I ln
I
V
ln

Calculate using the formula
=
I
V
T k
e
ln

2. Determination of temperature coefficient
Find slope of the
3
10
1
ln
T
vs I curve -
) 1 (
ln
T
I

3. Calculate Plancks constant (h) using the formula

c
V e
h

0
= =----------------- Joules. Sec
Where
42

( )

=
e
K
T
I
V V
3
0
10
1
ln

Result
The obtained value of Plancks constant is --------------------- Joules. Sec.
Standard value of Plancks constant is J.S
34
10 23 . 6

Percentage error is---------------------------------

Precautions
1. V-I characteristic of LED should be drawn at very low current up to =
1000 A only, so that disturbance to V
o
is minimum.
2. In T-I mode, make sure that the oven switch is OFF and temperature
knob is at minimum position before connecting the oven.
3. On each setting of temperature, allow sufficient time for the temperature
to stabilized, between 5-6 minutes

Find the answers
1. What is LED?
2. What is the principle of light emission in LED?
3. What do you mean by a semiconductor?
4. What are p and n type semiconduting materials?
5. What do you mean by forward bias of a diode?
6. What is material constant?
7. What is the nature of temperature coefficient of voltage?

Experiment 10

Study of p-n junction

Objective
To determine the reverse saturation current, material constant, temperature
coefficient of junction voltage and energy band gap of a P-N J unction

Apparatus
P-N junction, voltmeter, ammeter, oven, thermometer, constant power supply.

Theory and Formulae
The current I in a p-n J unction is given by
= 1
0
kT
qv
e I

,
where
Q is the electronic charge =1.602 coulomb.
19
10
is material constant =1 for Ge and 2 for Silicon.

k is the Boltzmann constant=1.381 J /K.
23
10
T is temperature in Kelvin
V is J unction Voltage in Volts

The reverse saturation current is usually too small to be measured directly. An
indirect graphical method may be obtained by taking logarithm of the above
junction equation for
1 >>
kT
qv
e

T k
V q
I I
+ =
0
ln ln
The above equation shows that if a graph between V and is plotted then it
comes out to be a straight line having a slope
I ln
kT
q
and intersecting the

axis at . Hence material constant
I ln
0
lnI can be obtained using the slope and
reverse saturation current can be obtained using the value of intercept.

( ) Slope kT
q
kT
q
=
=
lnI
V

Experiment 10: Study of p-n junction
44

Figure 1: Sample graph between V and I ln

The reverse saturation current is given by

T
Go
V
V
m
e kT

=
0

where Energy Band gap =
Go
V
q
kT
V
T
=
and the diode forward current is
T T
V
v
v
v
e e

0 0
1
=

T
Go
V
V V
m
e kT

=

Where for Si : m=1.5, =2
Ge : m =2.0, =1
By taking logarithm of above equation and differentiating w.r.t. T, we obtain
( )
q
kT m
dT
dV
T T V V
Go
=

Procedure
(a) Determination of reverse saturation current and material constant:
1. The diode to be studied is connected to the terminals of junction points
with polarity in forwards biasing.
2. Oven should be kept off during these observations.
3. J unction voltage is recorded by varying the current.

45

(b) Determination of temperature coefficient of junction and energy band
gap:
1. The diode is put in the oven and its forward current is set to low value
(say 1 mA. ) to avoid heating.
2. J unction voltage is recorded by varying the temperature of the oven.

Observations
(a) Determination of reverse saturation current, and material constant

Room temperature:-------------- K

J unction Voltage S.
No.
Forward Current
I in A
I ln
V in Volt

(b) Determination of temperature coefficient of junction voltage and energy
band gap.

Current through the junction I:--------------------

S.
No.
Temperature K T
0
J unction Voltage
V in Volt

46

Calculations
1. Obtain the slope of the curve between V and , i.e. I ln
V
I
ln
and the
value of intercept on axis, which is I ln
0
lnI
2. Calculate the value of material constant from the following relation
( ) Slope kT
q
kT
q
=
=
lnI
V

3. Obtain the slope of the curve between junction voltage at a temperature
T, i.e.
dT
dV
, which gives the value of temperature coefficient.
4. Calculate the value of energy band gap from the following relation at
any temperature T
( )
q
kT m
dT
dV
T T V V
Go
=

Results
The reverse saturation current is
0
=Amps.
The material Constant of the given p-n junction is =.
p-n junction energy band-gap is ..
Temperature coefficient of junction voltage is .

Precautions
1. Set the temperature knob at minimum position before connecting the
oven.
2. On each setting of temperature, please allow sufficient time for the
temperature to stabilized, between 3-4 minutes.

Find the answers
1. What is P-N junction?
2. What do you mean by energy gap of a P-N junction? Is it different from
the energy gap of semiconducting material?
3. What do you mean by potential barrier?
4. What is reverse saturation current?

5. What is the nature of temperature coefficient of junction voltage?
6. What do you mean by ohmic contacts? Is diode an ohmic device?
7. Name two P-N junction devices?

Experiment 11

Determination of height of distant object
using sextant

Objective
To determine the height of a distant object with the help of sextant

Apparatus
Sextant, Measuring tape, Magnifier

Theory
Sextant is an instrument that measures the angle, which a heavenly body (star,
planet, sun, moon) / distant object makes with the visible horizon. It can also
be used to measure the height of distant objects by measuring the angular
separation between the object under consideration and a reference object of
known height. It derives it's name from the arc at the bottom which is one sixth
of a circle. The principles of a sextant are easy to master but its use requires
some skill and practice. The sextant basically consists of a telescope, a half
silvered horizontal mirror which the telescope "looks" through and a moving
arm on which the index mirror is fixed. By manipulating this arm a star, other
celestial body or any distant object can be made to appear on the horizon.
Accurate adjustments are made by means of a micrometer knob. The angle can
then be read through the arc and micrometer. The filters are to use when the
object being looked at is bright - such as the sun.

Figure 1: Sextant
Experiment 11: Determination of height of distant object using sextant
48

The sextant relies on the optical principle that if a ray of light is reflected from
two mirrors in succession then the angle between the first and last direction of
the ray is twice the angle between the mirrors and this angle can then be read
off the arc. To use the sextant the telescope must be focused on the horizon /
reference object. Bring the image of the top of the distant object down to the
horizon by moving the arm along the arc and then clamp the arm. Using the
micrometer knob make small adjustments while gently swaying the instrument
slightly from side to side until the heavenly body just brushes the horizon.

Formula
The height of a distant object is given by

c
h
d
H +
=
cot cot

Where
d is the distance between the two points of observation
is the angular elevation of the object from one point of observation
is the angular elevation of the object from a point having distanced from
the previous point towards the object
h
c
is the known height of the reference object

d
3
h
c
d
2
d
1
C
H

Figure 2: Schematic for determining height of a distant object

Procedure
1. Find the least count of sextant.
2. Identify the reference object with known height and note down its
height as h
C
.
49

3. Using the measuring tape mark three different points A, B and C on the
ground at proper distances and note down the distance between A and B
as d
1
, B and C as d
2
and A and C as d
3
.
4. Keep the sextant with stand on point A with its plane vertical and point
the telescope towards the top of the reference object.
5. Adjust the index arm of the sextant so that the top of the object is also
seen in the right half of the field of view. Adjust with the help of finer
adjustment such that the top of the reference object is seen at the same
level in the two halves of the field of view.
6. Note down the reading of sextant in this position. This is known as zero
reading.
7. Now rotate the index arm so that the upper parts move down in the right
of the field of view till the top of the distant object is seen in the right
half, then adjust with the help of finer adjustment such that the top of the
reference object in the left half and the top of the distant object in the
right half coincide.
8. Note down the reading of the sextant in this position. The difference of
this reading and zero reading gives angle of elevation of the distant
object at point A.
9. Repeat the steps from 4 to 8 at points B and C.

Observations

Least count of the sextant:

Value of one Main Scale division:
Value of one circular scale division:
Least count of Instrument / Vernier scale:

Zero reading (a)

Elevation reading (b)
Location
of
Sextant
S.
No. M.S. C.S. V.S. Total M.S. C.S. V.S. Total
1. A
2. B
3. C

Calculations
1. Elevation of the distant object with respect to the reference object at
point A is =b - a
point B is =b - a
point C is =b - a
4. d
1
=distance between point A and B, d
2
=distance between point B and C
and d
3
=distance between point A and C
50

5. Height of the reference object, h =---------
C
6. Calculate the height of the distant object using the following formulae
c
h
d
h +
=
cot cot
1
1

c
h
d
h +
=
cot cot
2
2

and

c
h
d
h +
=
cot cot
3
3

height of the distant object, H =(h
1
+h
2
+h
3
) / 3

Result
The height of the distant object is ----------------------------------------.

Precautions
1. The plane of the instrument should be kept vertical during measurement.
2. The axis of the telescope should be horizontal and in line with the
reference object.
3. Zero reading should be determined separately at all three points A, B
and C.
4. The bottom of the distant object and all three points A, B and C should
be in straight line.

Find the answers

1. Why is this instrument called sextant?
2. On what principle does the working of sextant depend?
3. Why do you see two images in the telescope when the sextant is pointed
towards an object?
4. What is the purpose of different colored filters used in sextant?
5. What are the uses of sextant?
6. What do you mean by zero error of sextant?
7. What are the principles of reflection?

Experiment 12

Determination of velocity of ultrasonic
waves

Objective
To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given liquid and the
compressibility of the liquid

Apparatus
Spectrometer, sodium lamp, R.F. Oscillator, glass cell filled with experimental
liquid, spirit level, convex lens etc.

Formula
The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid is given by

n d
D f
v
n
= ,
where
f is the frequency of R. F. oscillator
D is the distance of the cross wire of the eye piece from the objective lens of
the telescope
is the wave length of the light source used
n is the order of diffraction
d
n
is the distance of the n
th
order diffraction image from the 0
th
order image
The compressibility of the liquid is given by

2
1
v
C
= ,
where
is the density of liquid
v is the velocity of ultrasonic waves in the liquid

Procedure
1. Determine the least count of the scale fitted in the telescope.
2. Switch on the sodium lamp and adjust the slit, collimator, telescope and
height of the prism table in such a way that a sharp and a clear image of
slit is observed in the telescope.
3. Fill the glass cell with the experimental liquid and place it on the prism
table of the spectrometer.

Experiment 12: Determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves
52

Figure 1:Arrangement of the experiment

d
2
d
1

Figure 2: Diffraction pattern

4. Clamp the quartz crystal on the stand and dip it in the experimental
liquid along the side wall of the glass cell in such a way that one of the
faces of the quartz crystal is parallel to the side wall of the cell. This
will ensure that the ultrasonic waves produced in the liquid will travel
perpendicular to the direction of incident light.
5. Connect the leads of the crystal to the R. F. oscillator.
6. Now switch on the R. F. oscillator and adjust the frequency of the
oscillator through its dial such that the frequency matches with the
natural frequency of the quartz crystal. At this point the quartz crystal
starts oscillating and ultrasonic waves are propagated in the liquid.
7. As a result the diffraction pattern is observed in the telescope.

8. With the help of the scale fitted in the telescope measure the distances
between the diffracted images appear on the both sides of the central
image. It is done separately for the first and second order images.

Observations
Least count of the scale fitted in the telescope:-------------
Wavelength of the sodium light source:---------------
Distance of the cross wire of the eye-piece from the objective of the telescope
(D):---------------------------
Density of the experimental liquid:--------------------
Experiment 12: Determination of velocity of ultrasonic waves
53

Frequency of the R. F. oscillator in resonance:

Position of diffracted
images
S. No. Order of
spectrum
(n) Position of
left image
(a)
Position of
right image
(b)

d =b=a

d
n
=d/2
1. 1
2. 1
3. 2
4. 2

Calculations
1. Calculate the value of velocity for different orders using the formula
n d
D f
v
n
=
2. Take the average of all four values of velocity obtained in step 1.
3. Calculate the compressibility of the liquid using the formula
2
1
v
C
=
Results
1. The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid (name of the liquid)
is ----------------------------------------.
2. The compressibility of the given liquid (name of the liquid) is -----------
-----------------------------.

Precautions
1. The crystal should be placed parallel to the incident beam.
2. The crystal should not touch the wall of glass cell.

Find the answers
1. Define ultrasonic waves?
2. What are the frequency and velocity ranges of ultrasonic waves?
3. Why do you mean by diffraction?
4. How is diffraction pattern generated in this experiment?
5. What are the conditions for diffraction in this experiment?
6. How are the collimator and telescope adjusted?

Appendix I

Units and physical constants

Fundamental units:

S.No.

Physical Quantity

S.I.Unit

1.

Length Meter
2.

Mass Kilogram
3. Time Second
4.

Electric Current Ampere
5.

Temperature Kelvin
6. Luminous Intensity Candela

Derived units

S.No. Physical Quantity S.I. Unit
1. Area m
2
2. Volume m
3
3. Density Kgm
-3
4. Velocity ms
-1
5. Angular velocity rad s
-1
6. Acceleration ms
-2
7. Force Kgm
-2
8. Work Nm
Appendix I: Units and physical constants
55

9. Power J s
-1
(watt )
10. Rigidity Modulus Nm
-2
11. Magnetic Flux Weber (volt second)
12. Magnetic Intensity Am
-1
13. Magnetic moment Am
2
14. Magnetic Induction Wb m
-2
(tesla)
15. Magnetic Permeability Hm
-1
16. Mag. Susceptibility Kg
-1
m
3
17. Charge C (Coulomb)
18. Resistance Ohm
19. Inductance H
20. Capacitance F (Farad)

Physical constants

Physical constant Substance Value
Water 1000 kgm
-3
Kerosene 830 kgm
-3
Castor Oil 970 kgm
-3
Density
Glycerin 1260 kgm
-3
Crown Glass 1.5
Flint Glass 1.56
Dense Crown Glass 1.620
Refractive Index
Dense Flint Glass 1.650
Aluminum 2.510
10
Nm
-2
Brass 3.5 10
10
Nm
-2
Cast Iron 5.0 10
10
Nm
-2
Wrought Iron 8.0 10
10
Nm
-2
Steel(cast) 7.6 10
10
Nm
-2
Rigidity Modulus
Steel (mild) 8.9 10
10
Nm
-2
Ethyl alcohol 7610
-11
m
2
/N
Methyl alcohol 10
3
10
-11
m
2
/N
Benzene 9110
-11
m
2
/N
Kerosene 7510
-11
m
2
/N
Compressibility
Castor oil 4710
-11
m
2
/N
Appendix I: Units and physical constants
56

Universal Physical Constants
Gravitational constant (G) =6.6710
-11
newton-m
2
/kg
2
Boltzmann constant (k) =1.3810
-23
joule/k
Mass of H atom (m
H
) =1.6739910
-27
kg
Mass of proton (m
H
) =1.6739910
-27
kg
Mass of electron (m
e
) =9.108310
-31
kg
Charge on electron =1.610
-19
coulomb
Velocity of light in vacuum =310
8
m/s
Plancks constant G =6.6310
-34
j-s

Some standard values
Wavelength of spectral lines (A
o
)

Mercury Sodium
4047v, 4078v, 4358v
4916bg, 4960g,5461g
5770y, 5791y, 6152o
6322o
(D
2
)5890o
(D
1
)5896o

where
v-violet, bg-bluish green, g-green, y-yellow, o-orange,


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PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

, is the angular frequency of the circular motion of the

h E = is equal to the energy gap E

Percentage error is---------------------------------

is material constant =1 for Ge and 2 for Silicon.

and intersecting the

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