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Sumatra - Geology, Resources and Tectonics - Barber & Milsom (2005) PDF
Sumatra - Geology, Resources and Tectonics - Barber & Milsom (2005) PDF
It is recommended that reference to all or part of this book should be made in one of the following ways:
BARBER, A.J., CROW, M.J. & MmSOM, J.S. (eds) 2005. Sumatra: Geology, Resources and Tectonic Evolution. Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 31.
BARBER, A.J., CROW, M.J. & DE SMET, M.J.M. 2005. Chapter 14: Tectonic evolution. In: BARBER, A.J., CROW, M.J. & MmSOM, J.S. (eds) Sumatra: Geology, Resources
and Tectonic Evolution. Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 31, 234-259.
Sumatra:
Geology, Resources and Tectonic Evolution
EDITED
BY
A. J. BARBER
Royal Holloway University of London, UK
M. J. CROW
Lately of the British Geological Survey, UK
and
J. S. MILSOM
Gladestry Associates, UK
2005
Published by
The Geological Society
London
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Contents
Preface
vii
Contributors
ix
Chapter 1.
Chapter 2.
Chapter 7.
J. S. MILSOM
Shallow seismicity
The Wadati-Benioff Zone (WBZ)
Toba seismicity
Relative horizontal movements
GPS data, the Enggano and Simeulue earthquakes
and Mentawai Fault
Vertical movements
9
9
10
11
Chapter 3.
16
13
15
Data sources
Regional gravity patterns
Toba-Tawar gravity low
Eastern Sumatra
Gravity effects of sedimentary basins
The forearc basin
Seismic tomography and the long-wavelength
gravity field
16
16
19
19
19
20
Chapter 4.
24
24
25
35
40
Chapter 5.
54
E. J. COBBING
Isotopic ages of Sumatran granites
The granite suites
Conclusions
54
56
61
Chapter 6.
63
M. J. CROW
Carboniferous volcanism
East Sumatra Plutonic-Volcanic Belt
(Permian volcanism)
West Sumatra Permian Plutonic-Volcanic Belt
(Early-Mid-Permian volcanism)
79
86
91
94
95
95
Chapter 8.
98
Tertiary volcanicity
M. J. CROW
Radiometric dating of volcanism and plutonism
in Sumatra
Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy
Major and trace element geochemistry of the
Tertiary volcanic rocks
Volcanism, plutonism and subduction beneath
Sumatra during the Tertiary: summary of
Tertiary volcanism and tectonic overview
86
87
88
98
98
109
110
22
A. J. BARBER M. J. CROW
Pre-Carboniferous basement
Tapanuli Group (Carboniferous - ?Early Permian)
Peusanguan Group (Permo-Triassic)
Woyla Group (Jurassic-Cretaceous)
Granites
68
68
71
71
71
72
77
Chapter 9.
Pre-Tertiary stratigraphy
Tertiary stratigraphy
67
63
63
64
Quaternary volcanicity
120
M. GASPARON
Quaternary volcanic arc and its relationship with
main tectonic features of Sumatra
Pyroclastic deposits
Quaternary arc volcanoes
Quaternary backarc volcanics
Volcanic hazard
120
123
124
125
130
Chapter 10.
131
J. CLURE
North Sumatra Basin
Central Sumatra Basin
South Sumatra Basin
Other Sumatran basins
131
135
137
140
Chapter 11.
142
L. P. THOMAS
Geology and coal deposits in Sumatra
Coal quality
Coal resources and production
142
145
145
vi
CONTENTS
147
214
147
147
148
234
175
149
158
159
159
159
159
159
165
174
Appendix
175
187
234
234
236
237
239
242
248
249
255
259
References
266
Index
282
Preface
The initiative for this Memoir arose from a series of field-based
geological studies in Sumatra by the Institute of Geological Sciences
(later the British Geological Survey) and the University of London
Group for Geological Research in Southeast Asia in collaboration
with the Indonesian Ministry of Mines, through the Geological
Research and Development Centre and the Directorate of Mineral
Resources in Bandung, and the Research and Development Centre
for Oil and Gas Technology (LEMIGAS) in Jakarta between 1975
and 1995. The Indonesian side selected Sumatra as a suitable area
for this programme of scientific and technical assistance in
geological, geochemical and geophysical surveys, inventories of
mineral potential and the training of geoscientists in pursuance of
successive five-year development plans (Pelita). The work
culminated in the publication by the Geological Research and
Development Centre of a series of 42 1:250 000 Geological Map
Sheets with Explanatory Notes covering the whole of Sumatra. In
compiling these geological maps the work of the Dutch geologists of
the Netherlands Indies Geological Survey, who commenced a
systematic programme of mapping in Sumatra before the Second
World War, and the work of geologists working for oil companies
with concessions in Sumatra, supported by the Indonesian National
Oil Company (Pertamina), and published since 1971 in the
Proceedings of the Indonesian Petroleum Association, were also
incorporated.
Map compilation, follow-up geological studies and the continuing activity of oil company and academic geologists resulted in the
accumulation of a vast amount of geological information which is
scatttered in diverse sources and has never been properly
synthesized. A group of geologists from the BGS and the University
of London, together with other collaborating scientists, agreed to
synthesise and review our current knowledge of all aspects of the
geology of Sumatra in the present Memoir to form the foundation on
which future geological work in Sumatra may be soundly based.
Credit is due to the foresight of Directors of the Indonesian
Ministry of Mines (Dr John A. Katili, Director General of Geology
and Mining), the Indonesian Geological Survey (Ir Johannas,
Ir Salman Padmanagara), Geological Research and Development
Centre (Dr H.M.S Hartono, Dr Rab Sukamto, Dr Mohamed Untung
and Dr Irwan Bahar) the Directorate of Mineral Resources
(Ir Salman Padmanagara, Ir Kingking A. Margawidjaja), and the
Director (Dr Rachman Subroto) and Chief Geologist (Dr Bona
Situmorang) of LEMIGAS, who initiated and provided administrative and logistic support for these various geological programmes
and saw them through to successful conclusions. Credit is also due
to the many Indonesian geologists from these various organizations
who worked on the geological mapping, geophysical and mineral
exploration programmes in Sumatra and acting as counterparts to
BGS and University of London geologists in gathering the basic data
and ensuring, frequently in challenging conditions, that expeditions
in Sumatra were brought to successful and safe conclusions.
On the British side, the contribution of geologists of the Institute
of Geological Sciences/British Geological Survey and the provision
of equipment and of scholarships was supported by the Overseas
Development Administration (ODA), and later the Department of
International Development, as part of a technical aid programme to
Indonesia by the British Government. The technical programme was
initiated by Assistant Director (IGS) Dr David Bleackley CMG, and
supervised successively by Regional Geologists Dr John V.
Hepworth, Dr Clive Jones OBE, Dr John Bennett and Robert
Evans. The North Sumatra Project (1975-1980) was managed in
Bandung by Dr Barry Page, the North Sumatra Support Project by
Dr Martin Clarke, the Nortb Sumatra Mineral Exploration Project
(1984-1988) by Frank Coulson, and the Southern Sumatra
Geological and Mineral Exploration Project (1988-1994), by
Dr Michael Crow. Sandy Macfarlane OBE managed the
North Sumatra Basin Project (1985-1990) and follow-up projects
(1990-1995) at LEMIGAS in Jakarta.
A. J. Barber
M. J. Crow
J. S. Milsom
November 2004
Dedication
This Memoir is dedicated to all Earth Scientists who have contributed to our knowledge and understanding of the geology of Sumatra
Contributors
A. J. Barber, Southeast Asian Research Group, Department of
~ ~
......
SOUTHEAST
ASIA
5~;,
~ ~
Conoc0 hillips
Rock units are separated into time bands based on palaeontological evidence of age for the sediments and radiometric dating for the
intrusives and the volcanics. The main sources for the compilation of this geological map were: 1:250 000 scale quadrangle geology
maps published by the Geological Research and Development Centre between 1975 and 1996; the geological map of Northern Sumatra
at l:l 500 000 by Stephenson & Aspden (1982); the 1:1 000 000 geological maps of Sumatra compiled by Gafoer et al. (1992a, b, d);
the 1:250000 map of Central Sumatra by Hahn & Weber (1981a) and the map of Sumatra in the geological compilation of
Indonesia-West at 1:2 500 000 by M. C. G. Clarke (Land Resources 1990). Earlier sources consulted include the Netherlands East
Indies Geological Survey maps (1927-1931) of southern Sumatra at 1:200 000 and the compilations of parts of Sumatra at 1: 1 000 000
by Zwierzijcki (1922a, b, 1930a).
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989) presented palaeontological evidence for a medial tectonic dislocation in Sumatra, which was defined by
Hutchison (1994). Outcrops of the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone (Barber & Crow 2003), the Kluet and Kuantan Formations, and the
Bohorok and equivalent formations in the Tigapuluh Mountains, shown on the map are based on published and unpublished descriptions
of the deformation, as discussed in Chapter 13 (2005, this volume).
The ages of granitic intrusions for Sumatra are from Chapter 5, and for the Tin Islands from Cobbing et al. (1992). The solid geology of
Bangka Island is taken from Ko (1986).
I
97
96E
, ,
I
98 o
9~1o
100
101 o
__
102
103
104
Lhokseumawe
SEDIMENTS
Holocene Pleistocene I
I
Pliocene Eocene
PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA /
Meulaboh
106
107
108
INTRUSIVES
/
vo,o
.,c
Sin
105
A N D A M A N SEA
pA A C E H
ang
LateTriassic EarlyJurassic
Permian
3 _
2-
Palepat, Silungkang
Mengkarang
Kluet
Lower Permian - ~
Kuantan
?Upper Devonian ~
gkalis LowerPermian ~
'
Lower Carboniferous ~
Nias
4 _
WEST SUMATRABLOCK
inas
Late
Cretaceous
Mid - Jurassic
Kualu
Tuhur
Lower Permian l
Pliocene-
Eocene
Woyla Group
l
Rawas,Peneta,Asai
MEDIAL SUMATRA l
TECTONIC ZONE
o o%
Banyak Islands
5 o-
Bohorok
Mentulu
~Tr-Jg~- 4Tr'Jg
1 o_
Islands
Natal
roPE
0
r"~
Batu , ~ Pini
Islands 1r
TIN ISLANDS
Singke
Tempilang
?DevonianPermian
~.~--~....~,
PADANG
o-
Bintan
Triassic?Cretaceous~
p~r-Jg~ -~,
>
Sifigk
\
1oS
{kngga
Siberut
INDIAN
Tr-Jg
2 -
Sipora
OCEAN
.3
,dip
.
l,...-~
SOUTHEAST
ASIA
..~sEA.c.
,, ~
cRouP
ConocoPhdhps
'~Bangka
_
Pag
3..
~llJTr.~gBukit Batu
BENGKULU
Modified from"
Stephenson & Aspden, 1982. Simplified Geological
Map of Northern Sumatra. Scale 1:1,500,000 Institute of
Geological Sciences, Keyworth, U.K.
Gafoer et al. 1992a. Geological Map of Indonesia, Padang
Sheet. Scale 1:1,000,000. Geological Research and
Development Centre, Bandung, Indonesia.
Gafoer et al. 1992b. Geological map of Indonesia, Palembang
Sheet. Scale 1.1,000,000. Geological Research and Development
Centre, Bandung, Indonesia.
96
1
97
I.
98
1.
99
1
100
Belitung
(Billiton)
Toboali
LS
4 _
JAVA SEA
Lake
5 .
LAMPUNG
0
Enggano ( : ~
o
101
1 _ _
102
103
104
~
105
Fit--.
, Krakatau'-"
_
"-1
1O0
200km
c'-- ~ .
~
107
s ,
108
The main sources of data for the Structural and Tectonic Maps were: the 1: 250 000 and 1:1 000 000 series of geological maps covering Sumatra
published by the Geological Research and Development Centre and the Tectonic Map of Northern Sumatra (1 : 1 500 000) by Aspden et al.
(1982a) for folds, faults and lithological boundaries in the solid geology. Sub-surface structural data shown in Tertiary and younger rocks
is taken mainly from publications of the Indonesian Petroleum Association. The location of the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone is taken
from Barber & Crow (2003) and Chapter 13, and segmentation of the Sumatran Fault System and the structures within the Present Accretionary
Complex follow Sieh & Natawidjaya (2000). Structures in the Forearc are taken from Izart et al. (1994) (Meulaboh Basin), Karig et al. (1980),
Milsom et al. (I 995) (Nias Basin), Samuel & Harbury (1996) (Nias), Samuel et al. (1997) (the other forearc islands), Yulihanto & Wiyanto
(1999), Hall et al. (1993) and Howles (1986) (Bengkulu Basin). The Mentawi Fault Zone is described by Diament et al. (1992) and Malod
& Kemal (1996).
Sub-surface structures in the North Sumatra Basin are taken from Davies (1984), Sosromihardjo (1988), Moulds (1989) and Tiltman
(1990); in the Central Sumatra Basin from Moulds (1989) and Heidrick & Aulia (1993); in the South Sumatra Basin from De Coster
(1974), Katili (1974a), Pulunggono (1986), Moulds (1989), Pulunggono et al. (1992), Rashid et al. (1998), Williams et al. (1995),
Yulihanto et al. (1995); and in the the Sunda basin from Bushnell & Temansja (1986), Wight et al. (1986).
The insert Tectonic Map is derived from earlier syntheses published by Van Bemmelen (1949, 1954), Westerveld (1952b), Katili (1973),
Hamilton (1979), Cameron et al. (1980), Aspden et al. (1982a), Pulunggono & Cameron (1984), Wajzer et al. (1991), Hutchison (1994),
McCourt et al. (1996), Metcalfe (2000), Barber & Crow (2000) and Chapter 13.
The reader is referred to the main text for a more exhaustive list of the references consulted.
,
99
97
98
,
101
100
,
102
1 O0
200km
"1
Aceh
,,A
!i
~iet
........
~ii~~iI~
PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA
\
\ Basin
Tao~tl
3
~i~ iii~
''~"
INDIAN
PLATE
I/i'~ ' : ;
TECTONIC MAP
st~
Nias
_1
"
> L _ ~ Bintan
Riau
',,, Islands
-0
INDIAN
OCEAN
~Lin
Batu ~ i Pini
Islands ~'~
Syncline
-
loS
ADANG
Anticline
Transcurrent Fault
Monocline
_ 2
Siberut
Normal Fault
Thrust
Volcanic Centre
TERTIARY
AND
QUATERNARY
JURASSIC
AND
CRETACEOUS
TRIASSIC- ~
CRETACEOUS
Conoco~hillips
-5
Volcanic Units
Sedimentary Units
Woyla Nappe
Continental Deposits
BENGKULU
PRE-TRIASSIC BASEMENT
Bentong-Belitung
Accretionary Complex
Sibumasu (East Sumatra) Block
Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone
Sunda Basin
96
I
97
I
98I
99I
100
I
01
' 102 ~
10301
1041
05o"~r" e
e=
Chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
elo
ANDAACEH
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1 O0 ~
108 ~
%
1MEDAN
,,,atun,o
o~
/
/
I
~'..
2~ "Anfimbas
~ Is
'/--.SINGAPORE
9 PEKAN BARU
9Tambelan
.o~, Is
Riau Is
Batu
Sunda Shelf
\
Indian
Ocean
2~
BILLIT ON
SO UTI--~ )"
k,, (,.
/.,
/
/
BENGKULU
J
Active Volcanoes
, a n d over
Land
Land
Land
Submarine
<o0o
Java Sea
I
BANDAR LAMPUNG
000m
1000-2000m
100-1000m
below 100m
contours in metres
Ao
Krakato~
0
1 O0
200
300
400
500km
9 6 ,,
98 ~
100 ~
102"
104"
106"
"
108"
Fig. 1.1. Topographyand bathymetryof Sumatra and surrounding areas with boundariesof administrativeprovinces and principal cities.
work carried out in Siberut, Nias and Simeulue and the other Outer
Arc Islands on behalf of the Nederlands Pacific Petroleum
Maatschappij and the Geological Service of the Baatafsche
Petroleum Maatschappij before WWII (Elber 1939; Den Hartog
1940a, b; Hopper 1940), were made available to van Bemmelen
(1949, 1970) during the preparation of his major synthesis of
'The Geology of Indonesia'.
Van Bemmelen began work on this comprehensive and masterly
summary, immediately before WWII. The first manuscript version
of this work was completed in Bandung between 1937 and 1941.
When Java was invaded by the Japanese in 1942 van Bemmelen
was taken into custody as a prisoner of war. There are reports
that during the war he was permitted by the Japanese authorities
to continue work on the volume. Van Bemmelen says that he
entrusted his manuscript to an official of the Geological Survey,
but after the war this official refused to return it (van Bemmelen
1949, 1970). On his release from captivity van Bemmelen returned
to the Netherlands, where he was commissioned to rewrite
the volume by the Director of the Netherlands East Indies
Bureau of Mines. Work commenced in 1946 and the first edition
was published by the Government Printing Office in the Hague
in 1949. A second edition was published in 1970. The volume
provides a complete summary of the state of knowledge of the
stratigraphy, structure, igneous history and mineral deposits of
the whole of Indonesia at that time. For Sumatra, van Bemmelen
(1949, 1970) developed a tectonic synthesis in which deformation
proceeded as a series of waves, across the island from NE to
SW, with the earliest cycle having occurred in the Malay
Peninsula during the Triassic, and the most recent continuing in
the outer arc islands at the present day.
INTRODUCTION
90 ~
l'-,
110 ~
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b,
CHINA
BANGLADESH
INDIA
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INDIAN Keeling
Is~176
i
OCEAN
Post-WWII
90 ~
100 ~
0
I
research
500
I
1000km
I
SEATAR Programme
In 1973 a meeting was convened by the United Nations Committee
for the Coordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources
in Asian Off-shore waters (CCOP) in Bangkok which established
the Studies in East Asian Tectonics and Resources (SEATAR)
Programme. At that time a review of the current understanding
of the tectonics of eastern Asia was prepared by Deryck Laming
on behalf of CCOP-IOC (1974). As a result of the meeting it
was proposed to concentrate research along a series of transects
across the island arc systems of East and SE Asia. Subsequently
A. J. Barber (University of London) and Derk Jongsma (BMR)
were engaged by CCOP as Technical Consultants to prepare a
report on the current state of knowledge along the lines of
these transects (CCOP-IOC 1980). One of the selected transects
ran from the Malay Peninsula across northern Sumatra and the
forearc island of Nias to the Sunda Trench. Although the final
report for this transect was never published, a great deal of
important research was carried out by American researchers
CHAPTER 1
INDIAN OCEAN
SW
01
i
km
'~
Nicobar Fan
.... n
.... m
.... n
....
NIAS
Present
BARISAN MOUNTAINS
Accretionary
Sunda Complex
Sumatran Fault
Trench
Ridge
Forearc Basin
Toba Caldera
~--._1.1.~~ , ~ ~ _.....
"
'.: ,'~'-.~-.__ ~-=~-,'-~_.'~:~
~ _,-~-~-,,-'~S~ ~
_~.-j:l
I I I ~ 1 ~
I l l
I I I I Ifl
y accretionary
- complexes
Z_LLL~L~I
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I I/I I I I I I I I
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:: ,,: ,, ,,: ,,,: ,. ,. ,.: ~ ~: ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ',:: , ,
~(I
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MALACCA STRAIT
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IIII
I I
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50
F i g . 1.3. D i a g r a m m a t i c section across the S u m a t r a n S u b d u c t i o n System from the floor o f the I n d i a n O c e a n to the M a l a y P e n i n s u l a , d r a w n to scale.
INTRODUCTION
96~
98 ~
102 ~
1 O0 ~
104 ~
106 ~
6 ~-
BandaAceh
Active Volcano
Sumatran Fault System
_4~
4 o.
~'yY
100
200
300
400
500km
..............
2 ~-
".:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.
Nias
............
|j
(-:-:.:-:-:-:-:-:.:-:.:[... ...-
:i:~i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:iQ:i
-0~
0 o-
L i n e of
Section
Fig.l.3.
2 ~-
Q
[ii:iil;i:::i:::i;i;i:~~::iiii~mbang
Bengku[
-4 ~
j~.'.i ::..~::!:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.
I
::i~'-
"'-'" ""'""'"'"'""'"'-'"'"'-'"'"'-
4 ~-
Quaternary-Recent volcanics
pung
6 ~-
Pre-Tertiary Basement
96~
98 ~
100 ~
102 ~
104 ~
106 ~
Fig. 1.4. Simplified geological map of Sumatra showing the distribution of the main stratigaphic units and the active volcanoes. Toothed line marks the deformation
front of the Sumatran Subduction System. The line of section in Fig. 1.3 is also shown.
became increasingly concentrated in the forearc islands, where
a series of geological mapping and gravity surveys were
completed (Situmorang et al. 1987; Milsom et al. 1990; Harbury
& Kallagher 1991; Samuel & Harbury 1996; Samuel et al.
1997). At the same time LEMIGAS collaborated with the
French CNRS (Centre National pour Recherche Scientifique) in
a number of studies in the forearc region using the Indonesian
Marine Research Vessel Baruna Jaya III (Diament et al. 1992;
Izart et al. 1994). Outside the bounds of the NSP, University of
London Staff and research students with funding from NERC,
ODA and a Consortium of petroleum companies collaborated
with LEMIGAS on studies on the Ombilin interarc basin
in central Sumatra (Lailey 1989; Bartram & Nugrahaningsih
1990; Howells 1997b), the Woyla Group in North Sumatra
CHAPTER 1
106<'30
I ,
r./i/o:
[/Banda
Aceh
........
,, ,.
......" / ~" . Lhokseumawe
VZZZEZA
i~".._o4.2o U . / ;
<b
"rebingt!pggi'I
;
/Sidikafang,
" ~'(///"/~
t7
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/
siantar"
" Bagansiapiapi
." . / c - ~ / . / ' / / . / '
Padangsidempuan
NE Muarasiberut
., 0913 / ..."
Sungaipenuh'
and
Ketuan
6'-
~
t3
1O0
200
300.................
400
500kin
"
' " t
%'7
"
~ "
-~,.%.f~
Fig. 1.5. Coverage, sheet numbers and names of the 1:250 000 Geological Maps published by the Indonesian Geological Survey, the Geological Research and
Development Centre, Indonesian Ministry of Mines and Energy.
Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2
Central Domain
Northern Domain
Southern Domain
LINE --~l
42-43 Batu
1000 ~
pora N.
Elbow'
F i g . 2.1. Sumatra: the neotectonic setting. The figure has been oriented on the main fault direction. The India-SE Asia convergence vector changes significantly in both
direction and magnitude over the length of the island, from 52 mm a-1 directed at N10~ (at 2~ 95~ to 60 mm a - l directed at N 17~ (at 6~ 102~ Convergence
data (and mainland structural domains) are from Sieh & Natawidjaja (2000). Elongated rectangles in the forearc region indicate the locations of the zeros on the seismicity
cross-sections in Figure 2.3. The seismic image along Line 42-43 is shown in Figure 2.7. The white stars mark the epicentres of the Enggano 2000 and Simeulue
2004 Great Earthquakes. Bathymetric contours at 200, 1000, 3000, 5000 and 6000 m are from GEBCO (1997). Shading indicates sea floor deeper than 6000 m. I.F.Z.,
Investigator Fracture Zone. Onshore topography derived from the Global Relief Data CD-ROM distributed by the National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, Colorado.
Shallow seismicity
As in most active continental margins, shallow ( < 6 0 km depth)
earthquakes in Sumatra are distributed over wide areas of the
upper plate and are not restricted to the WBZ (Fig. 2.2).
Maximum shallow earthquake activity occurs within the sliver
defined by the Sumatran Fault in the east and by the subduction
thrust in the west and at depth, and is most intense along the
line of the forearc ridge. There must be considerable forearc
extension (see McCaffrey 1991 ) if the estimates of large variations
in rates of transcurrent slip (more than 400 km of offset in Aceh
but negligible displacements in the Sunda Strait; Curray et al.
1978) are correct (see also Bellier & Sebrier 1995). Although
there have been relatively few shocks of Magnitude 6 or greater
beneath the mainland, some have occurred, most notably in
the vicinity of the 'equatorial bifurcation' in the Sumatran Fault
identified by Prawirodirdjo et al. (2000).
The insets to Figure 2.2 attempt to show separately the distributions of events within the uppermost 40 km of the crust and
at depths of between 40 and 60 km. Because of the uncertainties
inherent in determining the depths of shallow earthquakes (see
discussion in Engdahl et al. 1998), there will be events on one
map that should properly have been plotted on the other, but the
overall differences between the plots are likely to be real. The
4 0 - 6 0 km events are concentrated in a narrow zone centred on
the forearc basin and most are probably directly associated with
the subducted oceanic lithosphere, i.e. with the WBZ. There are,
however, some similarities with the patterns of shallower events,
noticeably in the tendency for epicentres to be concentrated in
short linear zones at right angles to the trench, presumably due
to some form of forearc segmentation. The most obvious examples
can be seen around Enggano and western Simeulue, i.e. close to
the sites of the Great Earthquakes (defined as earthquakes with
MW magnitudes greater than about 7.8) in June 2000 and December 2004 respectively. Interestingly, the Simeulue events cluster
along the crest of a basement ridge that defines the northwestern
boundary of a marine and sedimentary basin (Simeulue Basin)
where maximum water depths exceed 1000 m. The trend of the
linear alignments changes slightly north of the Nias Elbow to
partly match the change in orientation of the trench but, surprisingly, N E - S W alignments of epicentres can be seen east of the
even more dramatic change between Sumatra and Java (Fig. 2.2).
A second feature of the shallow seismicity is the separation
of the shallowest earthquakes (Fig. 2.2; lower inset) into two
divergent zones, one along the forearc ridge (with a bend or
offset where the Investigator Fracture Zone enters the subduction
zone near the Batu islands), the other very approximately along
the west coast of Sumatra. The forearc basin itself is relatively
quiet seismically at these depths. The offset at the Investigator
Fracture Zone is interesting because Newcombe & McCann
(1987) noted that ruptures associated with Great Earthquakes do
not propagate across this region. In 1833 a Magnitude (Mw) 8.7
event faulted the plate margin for about 600 km from Enggano
to the Batu Islands, while the effects of the Mw 8.4 event in
1861 were confined to a 300 km segment between the Batu and
Banyak Islands.
km onJy
+ + + 4 o - 6o
200
100
%* **"
200
o qto
%~~
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.
.
~ - :, ~
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00
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.:
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T
100
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+ +++:+ +~+
........
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+
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, +
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o o
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"
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+++
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R
O
o
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oo
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9 oi~o.Oo
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.
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o, oo
.
clearer development of a linear W B Z but the scatter is still considerable (Fig. 2.3b). Sieh & Natawidjaja (2000), among others,
have claimed that the depth of the W B Z beneath the volcanic
line is considerably greater in this Central Domain (Fig. 2.1)
than to either the N W or the SE, although the m a x i m u m depth
of the seismic zone is actually smaller. The effect is not,
however, obvious in Figure 2.3.
The most intensely active part of the W B Z is in the extreme
south, near Enggano, where there are two main event clusters, at
about 40 and 70 k m (Fig. 2.3c). The seismogenic zone continues
down to at least 200 km. The two deepest shocks might be
associated with Java subduction but, if associated with Sumatra,
indicate a pronounced steepening of the W B Z between 200 and
300 km.
seismicity
~ ................
~>o
South
Magnitudes
Toba
I00
,e
...
/ o
o~
6+ ~
++ +?++++++++++++++++++++;
I +++++++++
+ ........ i oo
' % ~+++++++'++++++ +I. . . . . . . . .
9 ,'+::~:~+;++++++++:~++I
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",
+o
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~
o,,
. . . .
o
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....
300
,,'-,
/
-
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II
a)
300 k i n
F
100
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1200
- i
Simeulue
C O o "' ,
I
1 O0
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~:
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North
,i.
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./
300
o 0+~+.,
og~. o,~ ~ o+..++
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km
t e *
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100
2OO
c) .:~ 300
3 9
4 o
10
CHAPTER 2
~.Lake
%
Equator
Batu
IS.
I Indian ~
[Ocean/
SE Asia
convergence
......................
vector;
Sipor
52 mm/yr
k,
pNgrtaih~'~f~ S~
N
0
~l'~gal
300 km
....
[! ~
Contourson theWBZ
in the Tobaregion,after %.
Fauzi
* !~
. . et al.,
. 1996
. .
June 2000 Enggano earthquake
~
Main ~
Aftershocks~
~~"
shocks ~
k.'
~
December 2004 Simeulue &
"~
March 2005 Nias
,IL
earthquakes Mainshocks~
~
Indian.
Ocean/ I
SEAsia [ /
convergence
vector I
58 m m / v r / 7....
BengkulL
Engganc
o
0
..................................... 6"S
regions in which stress is increasing and may be released catastrophically at some time in the future. Because of the short time
intervals over which observations are made (typically 3 to 5
years), GPS measurements must always be considered in the
context provided by estimates of long term relative plate motions.
Most of the GPS site markers in Sumatra were established by
B A K O S U R T A N A L , the Indonesian mapping and geodetic survey
authority, working in collaboration with various US institutes, and
most are located between 2~ and 2~ (Prawirodirdjo et al. 1997;
Genrich e t al. 2000). Additional measurements were made at sites
near Bengkulu and Medan and on Nias and Billiton in the course
of the G E O D Y S S E A study, which covered the whole of SE Asia.
The G E O D Y S S E A results defined a 'Sunda' Block that includes
Borneo, the Malay Peninsula and Indochina and moves east relative to Eurasia at 7 - 1 0 mm a -1 (Chamot-Rooke & Le Pichon
1999; Michel et al. 2001). Billiton Island and Medan are clearly
within this block, as is much of Sumatra east of the Sumatran
Fault, but motions near and to the west of the fault are much
more complex. The main B A K O S U R T A N A L campaign (sites
shown in Fig. 2.4) began in 1989. Detailed analyses of the data
obtained to 1996 in the Central Domain (Fig. 2.1) have been provided by McCaffrey et al. (2000) and by Genrich e t al. (2000). To
supplement these analyses, Prawirodirdjo et al. (2000) also considered the results of conventional triangulation surveys extending
over a period of 100 years in the same area. These generally confirmed the GPS estimates of 2 0 - 3 0 m m a-1 of dextral movement
on this portion of the Sumatran Fault, but revealed very considerable differences in detail in both movement magnitudes and
directions.
Figure 2.4 shows the site motions relative to SE Asia as
interpreted by Prawirodirdjo et al. (1997) and (also relative to
SE Asia) the averaged long term Indian Ocean movement
vectors (Demets et al. 1990). Strain partitioning was evidently
only partially achieved, at least over the short time interval
involved, nor were movements confined to the main fault
systems. Sites east of the Sumatran Fault but within 50 km of it
were not stationary with respect to SE Asia but recorded small
but significant displacements to the north and NW. Similar patterns near other major strike-slip features have been interpreted
as recording stress accumulations in wide regions of deformed
rock that are ultimately released by faulting (e.g. Armijo et al.
1999).
Sites in the forearc experienced much larger trench-parallel
displacements, but McCaffrey et al. (2000) argued that only
about two-thirds of the necessary slip was accounted for and
that most of the remainder must have been accommodated oceanward of the crest of the forearc ridge. However, the situation
varied considerably from place to place. On forearc islands in
the Central Domain (between the Batu and Banyak Islands) the
trench-normal components were small, suggesting strong partitioning of convergent and transcurrent movements, but it seems
that the forearc was largely coupled to the downgoing slab everywhere to the south of the Batu Islands. The boundary between
the two regimes occurs in the region where the Investigator
Fracture Zone enters the trench. Prawirodirdjo et al. (1997) tentatively interpreted the northwestwards decrease in coupling as a
consequence of the subduction of thick, water-rich sediments of
the Nicobar Fan, resulting in high pore pressures in the forearc
wedge and weakening of the upper plate by the introduction of
hydrothermal fluids. The change in coupling would thus be due
to the barrier to sediment flow from the NW presented by the
Investigator Fracture Zone, rather than directly to its presence as
Trench-orthogonal
motion
Trench-parallel
11
motion
12
CHAPTER 2
dated by slip on the Mentawai Fault. Their proposed deformation history (which they emphasized was only one of a multitude of possibilities) involved arc-parallel stretching during the
Pleistocene but provided no role for the segment of the Mentawai Fault north of the Nias Elbow.
/'~
l"
"
(a)
9 2.5
!
Seismic sections from Diament et al. (1992)
"~
13
position within the forearc basin. This fact, and the image itself,
are more compatible with transcurrent than vertical motion.
Indeed, Schltiter et al. (2002) suggested that the transcurrent
function of the Sumatran Fault might be in the process of
shifting to the Mentawai Fault. This is an attractive hypothesis
but difficult to reconcile with the suggestion by Sieh &
Natawidjaja (2000) that the total offset on the Sumatran Fault is
rather small, despite the abundant evidence (including occasional
large earthquakes; Untung et al. 1985) for recent and continuing
offsets along it.
A further complication is introduced by a possible relationship
between the Mentawai Fault and the Batee Fault. The latter is a
dextral splay from the Sumatran Fault that trends offshore
near the Banyak Islands and was interpreted by Karig et al.
(1980) as displacing or terminating the Mentawai Fault near
Nias (Fig. 2.1). The Mentawai Fault is often shown as either
ending near Nias (e.g. Diament et al. 1992) or merging with the
Batee Fault, but a very strong gravity gradient indicates a major
structural discontinuity between the two westernmost islands in
the Banyak group (see Fig. 3.5). This is roughly the position
where a Mentawai Fault continuation would be expected if
the Batee Fault were not present. Moreover, the existence of
Mentawai-type structures still further north has been confirmed
by Izart et al. (1994) and by Malod & Kemal (1996) using
single-channel reflection data.
Additional insights into the role of the Mentawai Fault in
the Enggano area were provided in June 2000 by an Mw 7.9 earthquake followed by a train of strong aftershocks (Fig. 2.5). P and S
wave studies of the primary event suggested that this comprised
two subevents, involving strike-slip within the Indian Ocean
Plate followed by thrust motion on the subduction fault
(Abercrombie et al. 2003). The events were too deep, and in the
wrong plate, to be due to failure on the Mentawai Fault, but
they do provide important data on its relationship to the transition
between the accretionary wedge and the continental margin.
Matson & Moore (1992) suggested that this transition occurs
near the east coast of Nias in the Central Domain and that the
subduction fault originally reached the surface in this area. Its
subsequent migration oceanwards was interpreted as a consequence of the development of the accretionary wedge that now
forms the forearc ridge. This is consistent with the Malod &
Kemal (1996) interpretation of the Mentawai Fault along its
entire length as marking the transition between the wedge and
a rigid backstop of pre-existing basement. On this hypothesis,
14
CHAPTER 2
Vertical movements
It is more difficult to monitor vertical movements with GPS than
horizontal movements, both because of the generally smaller
displacements and because the accuracy is inherently lower.
At present, more reliable estimates of rates of vertical motion
are being obtained by observing short-term changes in relative
sea level. Natawidjaja et al. (2000) studied the submergence and
emergence of corals and deduced a pattern of progressive
landward tilting of the forearc ridge, with uplift within about
6~
~lc
oo-,\
oO~O-
....
%.,
,o~
(~)
. o
0o ::;:
.....................................................
\ ,
...........
...............~ .........................
\
.............
February, 2005
................... ~
........... ...............
............ .....
%
:
o o% ~
a,,,i,,,,~.,20osl
.....
o -w=.
"-,
~ ......~I
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., .
~'
. . . . . .
..................................................
.................-..~ , . ,
+
............... ..................~ .
.~
..........
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...........
,'4"N
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.
..................?....... ~
'
15
"l
f ...........................
"2
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.....
~. . . . .
d
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
'
I ~)
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o'o
......
~
.........................
~,....;
.............,,~
.......
,~
~:
............
;.: ........ i o ~
..................................
2~
A new train of events began still further south and just seaward
of Muara Siberut in the following weeks. There were a few relatively weak shocks in this area in the period immediately after
March 28 (Figure 28e), but the first major event (Mw=6.7) took
place on April 10, and was followed three quarters of an hour
later by another strong (Mw=6.5) shock. Once again, the Mentawai Fault appears to have controlled the location at which
failure was initiated. Both events were compressional but, in contrast to the two Great Earthquakes, the slip planes were much
steeper (from 30 ~ to 60~ There followed numerous weaker
events in the same area but, again in contrast to the pattern associated with the Great Earthquakes, there was no significant rupture
propagation (Fig. 28f). It is to be hoped that the earthquakes in
this isolated cluster will prove to be the last major events in the
current phase of southward-propagating unzipping of subduction
west of Sumatra.
Chapter 3
Data sources
The gravity field of Sumatra and the surrounding marine areas is
shown in Figure 3.1. Contours in the onshore area of Bouguer
gravity, but offshore are of free-air gravity. Terrain corrections
have not been applied. Although marine gravity measurements
have been made in the forearc basin and elsewhere on a number
of research cruises (e.g. Kieckhefer et al. 1981), the data from
these generally widely spaced lines have not been used in preparing the maps because free-air gravity values obtained from
inversion of satellite radar altimetry provide more systematic
coverage and can resolve anomalies with widths of as little as
7 km (Sandwell & Smith 1997). The onshore and satellitederived offshore data were matched at coastlines without undue
difficulty, as should be the case because both free-air and
Bouguer corrections are zero at sea level. However, gradients
tend to be steep at the coasts in the forearc region, partly
because of the change from free-air gravity, which is strongly
correlated with local bathymetry, to Bouguer gravity, which is corrected for local topography.
Figure 3.2 shows the locations of the onshore stations used in
preparing Figure 3.1, but not of the offshore estimates, distributed
on a regular 2 minute grid. Onshore data were obtained from a
variety of sources, but unfortunately the results of the many
detailed gravity surveys carried out by oil companies remain
confidential. The largest single available data set was assembled
as part of the collaboration between the British Geological
Survey (BGS) and the Geological Research and Development
Centre (GRDC) during the period 1988-1995. Almost all of
Sumatra south of the equator was covered at a reconnaissance
level, although there are significant gaps in a few areas where
access would have been especially difficult. In addition to the
Sumatra mainland, measurements were made on Bangka and
Billiton islands in the northeast and the Mentawai islands in the
west (Fig. 3.2). GRDC have published numerous Bouguer
maps at 1:250 000 scale showing contours, generally at 2 mGal
intervals, and station locations. There are also two summary
maps at 1 000 000 scale (Padang and Palembang sheets), contoured at 5 mGal intervals and without station positions. Terrain
corrections, of up to 12 mGal, were applied in preparing the
summary maps but were not used for any of the 1:250 000 detailed
maps. The two versions of Bouguer gravity are therefore slightly
different in the mountainous areas close to the Sumatran Fault
but gradients in these areas are in any case steep, and overall
patterns are very similar.
Coverage north of the equator, principally by GRDC and
LEMIGAS (the Indonesian Petroleum Research Institute), is less
complete than in the south but is progressing rapidly. Moreover,
Japanese universities working between 1977 and 1979 obtained
data along many of the more important roads in the Lake Toba
area (Fig. 3.2). In the northern forearc LEMIGAS collaborated
with the University of London in surveys of all of the major
islands (Milsom et al. 1991). Stations were mainly along the
coasts, except on Nias. L E M I G A S / U o f L stations on Siberut
were restricted to the southeastern corner, but the island was
subsequently covered at a reconnaissance level by GRDC.
In 1991 and 1992, stations were established along major roads
throughout Sumatra by BAKOSURTANAL, the Indonesian
GRAVITY FIELD
17
Fig. 3.1. The gravity field of Sumatra and the surrounding seas, based on data from sources discussed in the text. Contours are of free-air gravity offshore and Bouguer
gravity onshore. The Bouguer reduction density is 2.67 Mg m -3. Faint white contours are bathymetry, at 200 m and at intervals of 500 m thereafter, from the GEBCO digital
atlas prepared by the British Oceanographic Data Centre. The continuous black line running the length of Sumatra marks the approximate surface trace of the Sumatran Fault.
The yellow line crossing the forearc basin near the equator marks the location of the interpreted profile of Figure 3.6. The black outlines enclosing the letters 'O' and 'B'
indicate the locations of the gravity surveys of the Ombilin and Bengkulu basins shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4 respectively. The letter B also indicates the approximate
position of the town of Bengkulu. TS and T indicate, respectively, Lake Toba (including Samosir Island) and Lake Tawar. The letters 'IFZ' at about 97 ~ 30'E mark the central
trough of the Investigator Fracture Zone. The inset shows the GEM-T3 long wavelength gravity field in the Sumatra region (see Lerch et al. 1994).
18
CHAPTER 3
.............
-N(. {'~.,,
_~&7.
'
:t
")~>o
"
"\
"v.-<o
.ELF
?
.~
Lake
~ .
'
102
"
SOUT.
Natuna
.\
.~,.
?
Nias'~
.~.'V
:...;. .
Plnl
ll,.~t,, l e ~ " X l , ~
~ ]
4-.
"~
>'%..t>~"
.
"2%.~.~,
"~
;'.
:*.
':g""
~<'t.:.:"
. ~,.
,v,,~
.~-:.
\\
".'~{':..:
~:"" "'~,-ff
.... .22
"~ t ~
::
. ~ \ ~ . Y )I6"K~
-t%
2' 30"N
.....
::
{
tA>4-_~
........................
t:lllamallcs
"
~1~
OCEAN
"
~!
"
o"
Ban ,ka
"-'-, : "':-:-
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'~< "'~
" ~ ' . " t . , . . . . . "c';>
. . . ~a
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"/
.:."
S~H E L F
- ~
". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 N
"
~,t*~z-x~x
i
i
) \K,
,-~e
. '
',.
:~*'~'e/~,
~"
~3~\~,,~
-,
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i
....................................................
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SIN,;KEL
SE ,
<
.~
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imeu,ue
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.
occupy most of the width of the island (Fig. 3.1). Values below
- 6 0 mGal are associated with the Toba caldera and with an
even deeper low (or, rather, a deeper culmination of the same
low) that occurs farther north and extends as far as Lake Tawar
(see Figs 3.1 and 3.2). The junction between the two gravity
provinces (approximately along a line running N N W from
Bengkulu) does not correspond to any of the terrane boundaries
recognized in published accretion models of Sumatra (cf.
Pulunggono & Cameron 1984) or to those identified in Chapter
14, and may reflect entirely post-amalgamation processes. It is,
however, also possible that a major but hitherto unrecognized
suture is being recorded by the gravity field.
GRAVITY FIELD
precise where the basins are of only small lateral extent and
are often not apparent on regional maps. The examples of the
Ombilin intermontane basin and the Bengkulu forearc basin are
discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Eastern Sumatra
Away from the Barisan Mountains, gravity fields in the vast and
often swampy flatlands of eastern Sumatra are controlled by a
number of competing factors. The most obvious of these is
the subsurface presence in the region between the east coast o f
Sumatra and the eastern margin of the South Sumatra Basin of
the roughly north-south oriented Lampung Structural High
(Pulunggono & Cameron 1984). The high separates the South
19
20
CHAPTER 3
i
- 0" 3 0 ' S
9
~Bohiam"
o
100 ~ 45'E
IOF'E
102' 3{}'E
103E
3 30'S
PAGARJATI
30
Bengkulu
MASMAMBANG
4S
The forearc
KEDURANG
Manta
0_...........20 k,,
Fig. 3.4. Bouguer gravity of the Bengkulu Basin, after Yulihanto et al. (1991).
Contour interval 5 mGal (thick contours) and 1 mGal (thin contours). The overall
high level of Bouguer gravity is probably largely a consequence of crustal
thinning beneath the forearc basin. Local closed lows, indicated by stipple,
identify the locations of separate depocentres within the basin. See Figure 3.1
for location.
basin
GRAVITY FIELD
21
B a n y a k Is,
Interpretation simplified after Matson & Moore (1992)
ill
-b
X\x"X\.,
/.
.././/"
I~
///"
Pini
///"
///"
\
Equator
0
~ - T 7
50kin
~ s
~ ~2~l~I~E
'~
Batu Is.
98~
lies just north of the equator and straddles the forearc basin. The
high gravity is evidently not due merely to the presence of the
bathymetric high, since a gravity low is associated with similar
bathymetry in the Banyak group further north. A - 8 0 mGal
m i n i m u m was recorded on the most easterly of the Banyak
islands (Fig. 3.5).
There is an obvious geographical correlation between the Pini
high and high free-air gravity associated with the Investigator
Fracture Zone on the Indian Ocean plate immediately to the
south (IFZ; Fig. 3.1). A causal link between the two seems
likely. Subduction of the fracture zone, which is a prominent
bathymetric feature consisting of a deep linear trough flanked by
two high standing ridges, has been suggested as a possible cause
for both the change in strike of the trench and forearc north of
Nias (the Nias 'elbow') and the enhanced volcanic activity in
the Toba region (Fauzi et al. 1996).
In part the low Bouguer and free-air values in the forearc basin
reflect the presence of the water column, which is up to 1500 m
thick, but there is also a significant contribution from light
Neogene sediments The seismic stratigraphy of the area east
of Nias was first described by Beaudry & Moore (1985), who
recognized three main sequences and assigned these tentatively
to the Pleistocene (Unit 4), the Pliocene and uppermost Miocene
(Unit 3) and to most of the remainder of the Miocene (Unit 2).
Unit 2 was further subdivided into Units 2a and 2b, separated
by a generally continuous, high-amplitude seismic event. Older
stratified sediments (Unit 1) can be seen in places beneath a
strong regional unconformity at the base of Unit 2a, but elsewhere
this region is devoid of reflectors and may comprise igneous or
metamorphic basement or steeply dipping sediments.
With one exception, Beaudry & Moore (1985) illustrated their
discussion with oil industry seismic sections which were of
22
CHAPTER 3
reGal
-5O
Fig. 3.6. Interpretation of a gravity profile across the forearc basin and Sunda
Trench south of Nias, after Kieckhefer et al. (1981). White and black inverted
triangles show the locations of controls on depth provided by, respectively,
unreversed and reversed seismic refraction profiles. Densities on blocks in the
model are in Mg m -3. Unlabelled blocks are sediments or m61angewith densities
between 2.0 and 2.4 Mg m-3. The differences between the calculated and
observed curves are too small to be apparent at the scale of the figure. Profile
location shown as a yellow line on Figure 3.1.
GRAVITY FIELD
part of the active margin of SE Asia lay in this area during the Late
Cretaceous and Palaeogene (e.g. Wilson & Moss 1999). From
southeastern Borneo the line of subduction then curved sharply
to pass through western Java and on to Sumatra. Subducted lithosphere associated with this phase of convergence can be expected
to have accumulated beneath Borneo and the Malacca Straits.
Moreover, many theories of the evolution of Borneo require
there to have been subduction beneath its northwestern margin
during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene, leading to the complete destruction of a 'proto-South China Sea' and collision
between the Borneo block and attenuated continental crust rifted
from the South China margin (e.g. Milsom et al. 1997). The
extent of the long-wavelength gravity high suggests that it may
be recording effects from material subducted beneath Borneo
from the south, east and west (Milsom & Rocchi 1998).
In northwestern Sumatra, the margin of the long-wavelength
high curves to an almost northerly trend and peak values decrease
quite rapidly, suggesting that there is no significant deep subducted material beneath the Andaman Sea. This seems reasonable
since, although the plate boundary west of the Andaman and
Nicobar islands is marked by a (rather poorly defined) trench,
the local convergence vector is almost parallel to the trench axis.
Further light on the sources of the long wavelength gravity
anomalies has been provided by the improvements in, and
standardization of, seismic observatory instrumentation and the
dramatic increases in speed and memory of relatively cheap
computers. Thanks to these two developments it is now possible
to use observations of travel times for S and P waves from
remote earthquakes to model the variations of seismic wave
velocities in the mantle. This seismic tomography is providing
ever stronger evidence for the penetration of subducted lithosphere
through the discontinuity between the upper and lower mantle at
about 700 kin, below which it is not seismogenic. Because
Wadati-Benioff seismic zones marking the sites of subducted
lithosphere in the upper mantle are invariably associated with
23
Chapter 4
Pre-Tertiary stratigraphy
A. J. BARBER & M. J. CROW
24
It has proved very difficult to establish with certainty the stratigraphic relationships between the various rock units which
make up the exposed Pre-Tertiary basement of Sumatra. This is
due to the generally fault-bounded contacts between rock units
and the poor biostratigraphic control on their ages; over large
areas the rocks are apparently devoid of fossils. The varying
metamorphic grade of the basement units makes even lithological
correlations difficult. As a result, formations have generally been
defined locally. When these local units have been extrapolated
over broader areas they are found to include a wide variety of
lithological types, so that correlation with the original units
becomes more and more uncertain.
The spate of new data on the geology of Sumatra generated
by the systematic geological survey of the whole island has stimulated attempts at regional synthesis, e.g. Cameron et al. (1980) and
Pulunggono & Cameron (1984) in northern Sumatra and McCourt
et al. (1993) in southern Sumatra. These authors proposed a
stratigraphic scheme which distinguished a CarboniferousPermian Tapanuli Group, a Permo-Triassic Peusangan Group
and a Jurassic-Cretaceous Woyla Group (Fig. 4.1 ). This terminology is used in the present account, although it is strictly applicable
only to northern Sumatra where the units were defined.
In this account the basement rocks of Sumatra are described
from northern, central and southern Sumatra, as far as possible
in terms of their stratigraphic age, although difficulties in
establishing these ages will be fully discussed. Five age units
are recognized: Pre-Carboniferous basement, Carboniferous?Early Permian, M i d - L a t e Permian, Mid-Late Triassic and
Jurassic -Mid-Cretaceous.
Pre-Carboniferous basement
Eubank & Makki (1981 ) record shales interbedded with quartzites
from the boreholes, Pusaka-l, 85 km NE of Pekanbaru, and
Rupat Island, in the Malacca Strait, which yielded palynomorphs
lu
the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary, and used this
evidence to define an Upper Palaeozoic 'Quartzite Terrain' in
eastern Sumatra (Fig. 4.2). Some of these borehole records may
relate to quartz sandstones in the Triassic Kualu Formation and
its correlative Tembeling Sandstone of Bangka (Ko 1986).
However, Eubank & Makki (1981) also obtained R b - S r ages of
426 + 41.5 Ma (Silurian) and 335 + 43 Ma (Early Carboniferous)
from granites from boreholes put down into the basement beneath
the Central Sumatra Basin. Turner (1983) reports gneissose
rocks included as xenoliths in dykes intruding Carboniferous
slates near Rao, Central Sumatra. These xenoliths were presumably derived from an underlying crystalline basement. A granitic
clast from pebbly mudstone encountered in a borehole, Cucut
No.l, gave an R b - S r age of 348 ___ 10 Ma, of Vis~an, Early
Carboniferous age (Koning & Darmono 1984).
The occurrence of intrusive granites, possibly as old as Silurian,
indicates that an older basement into which these granites were
intruded underlies eastern Sumatra. This is highly probable, as
Proterozoic and Lower Palaeozoic rocks occur in the Malaysian
Langkawi Islands only some 300 km to the NE of Sumatra
along the strike (Jones 1961). Indeed, Hutchison (1994) has
asserted that the buried Kluang Limestone south of Palembang,
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
CENOZOIC
CRETACEOUS
JURASSIC
TRIASSIC
PERMIAN
CARBONIFEROUS
DEVONIAN
LOWER
PALAEOZOIC
PRECAMBRIAN
BASEMENT
for which a Cretaceous age had been suggested (De Coster 1974)
resembles the Silurian Kuala Lumpur Limestone in Malaya and
may therefore be of Silurian age. It has also been supposed that
high grade metamorphic rocks in the western part of northern
Sumatra within the Alas and Kluet Formations, and the Ngaol Formation of Central Sumatra, which do not appear to be directly
related to contact metamorphic aureoles around intrusions, may
represent outcrops of this Pre-Carboniferous crystalline basement,
but nowhere has this supposition been confirmed by fossil finds or
by isotopic dating. Alternatively it has also been suggested that
these high grade gneisses are due to intrusion and synkinematic
deformation of granites and associated sedimentary rocks in
shear zones during the formation of active magmatic arcs during
Permian to Late Cretaceous times. This explanation has also
been suggested for the Gunungkasih Metamorphic Complex in
the Bandarlampung area of southern Sumatra (Barber 2000).
The high grade metamorphic rocks of Sumatra require systematic
investigation with these alternative possibilities in mind.
25
26
CHAPTER 4
102 ~
96 ~
104 ~
106 ~
CARBONIFEROUS
Tapanuli Group
_8 ~
Bohorok Formation
Alas Formation
LANGKAWI~
_6 ~
;inaa
~3
ubang ~,
=asu
,rmation-~"~7/._
Formation
BANDA ACEH
"k,,
_4 ~
Kluet/Kuantan
Formation
TAPAKTUAN~t
Kreung Klue
Lake
SIDIK/
.%
_2 ~
~A~
x0 \
_0 o
Member
q;
_2 ~
Lake
Sinekar
NGKA
D u a b e l a s ~:~
T a r a n t a m Form;
P A L E M B A N G II
_4 ~
iG a r b a M o u n t a i n s
T ra0 Forma,ion)
~Gunungkasih
LZ~,',, ~
0
100
200
300
400
500km
KO
TA
G'--0
AGUNG ~...
Complex
~,TANJUNG
~ARANG
_6 ~
96 ~
98 ~
100 ~
102 ~
~o4o
I
11o6o
I/
Fig. 4.2. Distribution of Carboniferous to ?Early Permian rocks in Sumatra from GRDC geological maps. Dense tones indicate outcrops, the filled circles indicate
Carboniferous rocks encountered in boreholes, paler tones indicate subcrop beneath Late Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Tertiary and Quaternary sediments and volcanics.
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
99~
98 ~
97 ~
96 ~
27
Recent Volcanoes
Unit
Permo-Triassic Intrusions
,E~::~Ujeuen
tion
Sormation
Tawar " ~
Formation
LATE PERMIAN - LATE TRIASSIC
|N
(Peusangan Group)
Uneun Unit, Tawar Lst Fro,
Situtup Lst Fm, Sembuang Lst Fm,
Ujeuen Lst Fm, Kaloi Lst Fm,
Batumilmil Lst Fm (mainly limestones)
9 LANGSA
Simpang
Gnei
Kiri
Kaloi
Formation
,:-,,C.e-.-.<-
Bohorok Formation
(pebbly mudstones)
Atas Formation (Vis6an)
limestone member
Bohorok
i i lU... =.
Ktuet Formation
(metamorphosed)
9 6 <,
\
TA P A K T U A N
N alvvampu
Toba
tumilmil
Tufts
--.. (._~Kualu
Formation
lOOk~
Toba
Tufts
~ - ~ I~j
97 ~
Fig. 4.3. The distribution of Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic stratigraphic units in northern Sumatra, showing rock types and critical fossil localities, together with
Late Permian to Early Triassic intrusions (after Stephenson & Aspden 1982, with additions from GRDC map sheets, Cameron et al. 1982a, b, 1983). Areas left blank are
occupied by Late Mesozoic to Quaternary sediments and volcanics.
28
CHAPTER 4
/..,~
-,,-',,...z ~
- 2'>N
__
........
50
.'.'.'.
".
100km
...'"':",
L~.~:~;~:;~I BohorokFormation
[~i:~,~:~1 (Pebblymudstones)
~7,~.~
Alas Formation
(limestones)
Kluet/Kuantan Formati
Limestone Member (L
_
Equator
98o
I
"~
~
~N,
k,~
~
~'k~--~?~-~\ ~
_
~'~%'L~,~DANG S[ DEN P UA a
~'k
~
I
101~,
Ma'or Faults
".'." '.'.',"
9
~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ ~ "
9 9~
Pangunjungan
",'~\'N~N"~E.~%8. i" i'-".N~ki~,Sibagandidg ~ " " "~--dq:~.~li~_Member - t " Pal~ka ." ".'-LimestoneMemlSer'.
"~~"~%~aF~ir'.'.\:.'.'.-.#/~i!~~IRANTAUPRAPAT
~ue~-.'."~"A \ \ ' . ' . " % % " - ' . " - ~ ~ ~ ; ? "
Z~
~
-Formation_C~"~ \%-v--:7 "~k 9 9 .'~i~q./'-,~./~/ ~Y.?N.
e~aru
9." . . ,
.'.
9 ". ". ".
ozoaBed.
I
10~
lc-~ '~ ~
(".,~
~
Recent Volcanoes
Permo-Triassic
Imrusions
4
- ~'~'~
N\~
~ ' ~
" ~
2~
Bohorok Fm
encountered in
borehole
~ - ~ ' ~ ~
~'~Mbr
~ ........
\ 'i
~,~'#~.~'~a-'~ PAffARSIBUHAN
~,
kFg~,~t~_,~..n.~:~L s t ~ .
\
~ ~ ' ~ N ~ . LS~r~"-,~_
I PASIRPENGARAYAN
L,
\ ~',~.'~'Q"~
"~,~,"'~ _
"%
~
"~,,."~~
Pawan
[
~4"2\\
~ . ~ \
\
~ . "% Member
~ ' ~ a s i l ~ o n g i ~ " ~
\
a ~ - o ~ . ~ ' ~~
",,>,..%,.x,,~,
I'%Ui::lltli:l.ll
~.
1~
Formation
I
~ - - - ~
~t~-~
uhur
. . ~\~.~.'~'~'~/'~0rma!!..~ r
Fig. 4.4. Distribution of Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic stratigraphic units in north central Sumatra from GRDC map sheets, showing rock types and critical fossil
localities, as well as Late Permian to Triassic intrusives. Areas left blank are covered by Late Mesozoic to Quaternary sediments and volcanics.
at Pangururan in the Sidikalang Quadrangle, fossiliferous, calcareous, silty mudstones and limestones, with a rich shallow water
fauna are distinguished as the Pangururan Bryozoan Bed (Aldiss
et al. 1983) (Fig. 4.4). The limestones contain abundant shelly
debris, including brachiopods, fenestellid bryozoa and crinoid fragments and some pelecypods. Decalcified, fan-shaped fenestellids up
to 10 cm long are conspicuous on weathered bedding surfaces. The
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
' ~"
100{~Ex_,r~
EquatorJ
ur
- i - ~ ~~ ~ ~ "<1~t .':<-"-~Tuh
Formation
~,
29
1[~2~
PAYAKUMBUH~
BUKIT
O RENGAT
~~~--~~
~_~rigapuluh
raO,c,
Tabir Formation
-- " ~
PERMO-TRIASSIC \
'"*" ~ ii
%~ "'-~::!i!::ii!i:::
Triassic
,. ~
2o
P e r m i a n with
volcanics ~
C A R B O N I F E R O U S
)_~k ~
k
-
?EARLYPERMIAN
J
LimestoneUnits
100~'E
Certain
9 MUARABUNGO
Patepat
Formation
Formation
Duabelas S
Mountains
101~
(~
Major Faults
Recent
Volcanoes
Permo-Triassic
Intrusions
Serpentinite
2,"
100km
50
'
III
. . . .
103~
I
Fig. 4.5. Distribution of Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic stratigraphic units in central Sumatra from GRDC map sheets, showing lithologies and critical localities as
well as Late Permian to Early Triassic intrusives. Areas left blank are covered by Late Mesozoic to Quaternary sediments and volcanics.
30
CHAPTER 4
Tigapuluh Group
Pre-Tertiary rocks form the Tigapuluh Mountains, isolated as
an inlier 70 km long and 40 km wide among the surrounding
Tertiary sediments, east of the Barisan Mountains to the south
of Rengat (Fig. 4.5). Three formations have been identified: the
Mentulu, Pengabuhan and the Gangsal formations, interpreted as
different facies of the Tigapuluh Group. The distribution of
these units are shown on the Rengat and Muarabungo Quadrangle
Sheets (Suwarna et al. 1991; Simandjuntak et al. 1991) (Fig. 4.6).
Deformation increases in intensity from NE to SW and in the
aureoles of Triassic-Jurassic granitic intrusions the sediments
are converted to spotted slates or hornfels.
Mentulu Formation. The Mentulu Formation, defined from outcrops in the upper part of the Mentulu River, occupies large
areas in the northern and eastern parts of the Tigapuluh Mountains
(Fig. 4.6). The formation is characterized by pebbly mudstones,
similar to those of the Bohorok Formation of northern Sumatra.
The mudstones are interbedded with greywacke sandstones
and shales, the latter generally occurring as slates, or as hornfels
adjacent to granite contacts. The mudstone matrix contains irregularly distributed angular to rounded clasts of granite, silicified
basalt, vein quartz, slate, quartzite and feldspar. The clasts are
generally of pebble size, up to a few centimetres, but may reach
30 cm in diameter. The pebbly mudstone is usually deformed,
with the matrix altered to slate, and the clasts flattened and
elongated within the cleavage planes. Cordierite is commonly
developed where the pebbly mudstones have been converted to
spotted slates or hornfels within metamorphic aureoles.
The interbedded greywacke sandstones are massive, dense, grey
sandstones, sometimes conglomeratic, containing folded quartz
veins. The sandstones are poorly sorted and also contain irregularly distributed clasts, of the same rock types as those found in
the mudstones. The conglomerates are polymict and are composed
of sub-angular to rounded clasts. Finer sandstone units show
parallel lamination and may be poorly graded. Shale or claystone
units are well bedded and parallel laminated and contain scattered
matrix-supported fragments of quartz and feldspar. Some of
the sandstone units are tuffaceous and andesitic and basaltic
tuf~ distinguish the Condong Member in Bukit Condong and
Gunung Endalang (Fig. 4.6).
The pebbly mudstones of the Mentulu Formation, like those
in the Bohorok Formation in northern Sumatra are considered to
be of glacio-marine origin, and the lithology of the clasts indicates
a continental provenance.
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
102~
30'
TIGAPULUH
MOUNTAINS
45'
,"Ut/l
103*00'
45'
Formation;
--I
3!
45'
l 1
Inliers of
Gangsal
Formation
in Limau I-
Triassic-Jurassic
Granites
TIGAPULUH GROUP
Condong (volcanic) Member
~'~
Mentulu Formation
ld~:':~?:4 (pebbly mudstones)
[:~i::i::iiiii::i!t Pengabuhan Formation
~.,x,%..~
: Gangsal
:Formation
1ooo's
.'.-.-\'.-.--.-.-...N~...2I~Mentulu
.~.N[,"
~ _.,-,
~ %;
~,'-.'.:,~[ "15engabuhan
....
~\...
0
15'
10
15
:. : . . . . . . . . . . . - 7 . - - - .
20kin
to Jambi
15'
30'
lO3~OO'
Fig. 4.6. Distributionof stratigraphic units in the TigapuluhHills(alter Suwama et al. 1991"Simandjuntaket al. 1991). Areas left blank are covered by Tertiaryto Recent
sediments.
Pengabuhan formations in the southern part of the mountains
(Fig. 4.6). It is distinguished from the other Pre-Tertiary units in
this area by the predominance of argillacous material, usually as
dark grey or black slate, grey, white or green phyllite, by a
higher degree of deformation, and in the neighbourhood of intrusions, dark hornfels. The argillacous rocks are interbedded with
grey-green sandstones, composed of subangular to rounded
grains of quartz with lithic fragments, dark grey quartzites and
massive grey argillaceous limestones. All lithologies are extensively veined by quartz.
C o r r e l a t e d f o r m a t i o n s in s o u t h e r n S u m a t r a
32
CHAPTER 4
104'~00 '
Quaternary Sediments
QuaternaryVolcanics
Ptiocene
Qs
Qv
Late Miocene
Middle Miocene
Oligo-Miocene
Qs
,9
...F
MARTAPURA~/-
.,
o.,
Qv
Eocene
,J-'-:
,,,.
~ ...............
,%
%
%,
%`
%,
%,
"%
'%
"%"-."'%"'%~"
"-"
.~
..,
"
t'~ . . . . . .
..~
,,,,
,,..
,,.,.
.,
.Y
."
,'
i : ~
,"
,'
"%
."
,'
"%
,'
"%
,'
,'
-"
% ~.
,'
-,,,,,..w,
.rdununq
}~";"-"-"-"-"-~','.~-"::: :: ~ "
'~
"."
Qs
"-" ~ ."-"
O.O,Or
,_~
Mm 9
Melange
Situlanglang (chert) Member
Qs
0
10
t5
20km
'
Faults
4o30 ,
....
~
I
Fig. 4.7. The distribution of the Pre-Tertiary units in the Garba Mountains, South Sumatra, after GRDC geological map of Baturaja (Gafoer et al. 1994). The
Metamorphosed Palaeozoics are correlated with the Tapanuli Group and the Garba and Situlanglang Formations are correlated with the Jurassic-Cretaceous Woyla Group
of northern Sumatra (see below).
Interpretation
Stratigraphy. Because of poor exposure, scattered outcrops and
the large numbers of faults which disrupt the sequence, it has
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
33
104~
~45'
105~
Recent'Volcanoes
~'<-'~
"
- 5o15 ,
Menanga Formation
R i v e rm
~--~'~_~
p u n g ~ - ,,~ ~
<z;~ ~
(mid-Cretaceous)
Gunungkasih Complex_
(Palaeozoic)
%
"\\
~o
%,~%
~s
BANDARLAMPUNG
/~'~.-"--~,
KOTAAGUNG
atk
- 5~
'\
5~45 ' -
'
I ........................
104~
l
'
105~
...................
......................
50km
'
................................
Vis~an age has also been established for the Limestone Member of
the Kuantan Formation (Fontaine & Gafoer 1989; Metcalfe 1983;
Vachard 1989a, b). The record by Turner (1983) of plant remains
in the Nior member of the Kuantan Formation is compatible with
this age attribution. Turbiditic sandstones and pelites, similar to
those of the Kluet and Bohorok formations, occur interbedded
with limestones characteristic of the Alas Formation, suggesting
to the surveyors that the Alas is part of the same sedimentary
sequence as the other units (Cameron et al. 1980). They therefore
considered that the Bohorok, Alas and Kluet/Kuantan formations
are lateral facies variants of a coherent sedimentary assemblage.
Clasts in the pebbly mudstones of the Bohorok, and conglomerates in the Bohorok, Kluet and Kuantan formations and also in
the Tigapuluh Group of Central Sumatra, include the same range
of lithologies. Analysis of the composition of the clasts shows
that all these units were derived from a low-grade metamorphic
terrane composed of slates, phyllites, calc-silicate schists,
marbles and quartzites which were intruded by granitic rocks. A
K / A r age of 1029 Ma from a trondjemite clast from pebbly
mudstones in the Langkawi Islands (Hutchison 1989, p. 16) indicates that the source area included rocks of Proterozoic age. Some
argillaceous clasts show evidence from slaty cleavage and crenulation cleavages that they had already undergone multiple deformation. Locally the metamorphic grade in the source region was
higher, indicated by clasts of mica schist and granitic gneiss.
The granitic gneisses may have been formed by synkinematic
deformation of granites intruded into an active shear zones. Rare
chert clasts, may indicate the presence of oceanic rocks incorporated in a collisional suture and rhyolite clasts indicate acid volcanism. In fact, the palaeogeology of the area from which the
sediments of the Tapanuli and Tigapuluh groups were derived
resembles very closely the present-day geology of northern
Sumatra.
Cameron et al. (1980) report that, within the Bohorok
Formation, pebbly mudstones die out in a southwesterly direction.
With the loss of pebbly mudstones the Bohorok Formation
.......................
Fig. 4.8. The distribution of the PreTertiary units of the Bandar Lampung area,
southern Sumatra after GRDC geological
map sheets of Kotaagung and
Tanjungkarang (Amin et al. 1994b; Andi
Mangga et al. 1994a). The Gunungkasih
Complex is correlated with the Palaeozoic
Tapanuli Group and the Menanga
Formation with the Jurassic-Cretaceous
Woyla Group of northern Sumatra (see
below). In areas left blank the older rocks
are covered by Tertiary and Quaternary
sediments and volcanics.
34
CHAPTER 4
250
500km
I
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
35
36
CHAPTER 4
t0
9~o
918~
1~)0~ 14 Ch.uping. 1~2o ~
;,I['BAN DA ACEH
_^~o.-, g~ Limestone
l'~
~Uneuen
LHOKSUMAWE PENANGF,_)[~~
~
~. ~
L[nit(NF) .'O~..
~)~.~
... " e ~
Ujeuen (Lst)
.~k..~i
Situtup(Lst) ~
9 Formation (NF)
(~rj~~176
Formation
Sembuan{,st
(MP,M=LT)~,Tawa~rst)~ Formation (NF)
Formation e Kaloi Formation(Lst)(P LT)
' ~ ~'~
~O LANGSA
, r)~-"
-4~
"k~"
~N~"
Bat~umilmil(Lst) ~
Kodiang
"Nk ~
~ ~Formation (MP,T)
k,,Llmestone
"~ ~ \ k ~ ~ Kualu(Cl)Formation (M-L~
1~)4o
_ 2~
Pangururan~\'h '~
Bryo~nBed'~
v -
',~..~
~
~ [
- 0~
2~
~
~ -
(EP)
(NF)
_60o
~'~'~k
Late Triassic
Buklt
BENGKULU'~'~~ .
~
Early Permian
No age-diagnostic fossils found
300
~
2 o_
4oo
nendo~o(Lst)
Middle Permian
100 6 20o
Silungk.ang.(C~.~D\ Telukkido
" ~ 1 ~ KUNDUR "
t-ormat
on (M~')
. (LT-J)
Formation
__Cubadak(Ci)~%Formahon
,~Lrp~apan
(M-LT)
,Format o6 9 LUBUK~IKAPING
]
%~% LINGGA
0~
~
(M-LTI " \
%Tuhur Formation(CI) j . f
)\,~
,~
"
'~, \
(M-LT)
~
. , / q ~ " ~ (M-LT)
s Silungkang(CI,Lst)
Palepat(Volc).
'~/
Formation (M~St)~,Palr~natlon (EP)
- ~
P A D A N G ~ ,~\"~:.~,~. Barisan(CI)
(' \
Tuhur(CI)""~..'r
Formation
~. ~
F~
~B~inOMUAR.ABUNG~JAMBI~.
~BtmNGKA~sandstone
-,,..,_r
'
' ~ \
/~'%-.~a~epa~(vo~c) )
~-:.:.:.:-:-.~ p u
,.~
~ N,.,aoltCl~']~Formati0n (EP)
~
C::~r---::::::::::~
(M-LT)
2~_
~ ~
Pemali Group(Ch Ss)
I:,~
s
~
Mengkarang(cI)
J,.u....~v'"~:---:.i~
(MP~
~',,,, TnN
" ~,~
" (EP)
'
. . .~. .?. M
..P)
' ~ML LP) ~ ,
Formation
-Ir
!~
"~
(M-LT) Middle to
llm,-,efnntae / / e { ~
, .... ~ , ~ , ~ , , ~ ~L--,a,/
,~-%~ c-----. ~
"~
9
9
I~:....:....:iii::lTr,asslc
chert & sandstone (Ch,CI)_
1"~..~
Permian and T r i a s s i c
- K~al~(Ch.Ssl
~.~Form~on~_LT~_ r ~
~
~ .......... ~.:.:.:....:.:.=
1~)8o
,,.,.,-,,.,I - r ' D I A O O I f
etuu/n~t-~oo~u
P e u s a n g an G r o u p
'
~ ,
" ' o
1~6o
l~l--l")l~,/llAIkl
r~-nlvll~l,~
(MP)
~.
PALEMBANG
"":.Q ) o 'O
'ALEMBAI~G%
/)
)L
{
4~
~.~
"-~~
OOOkm
98~
100~
102~
Kualu Formation (Figs 4.3 & 4.4). The Kualu Formation crops out
as small isolated exposures among Toba Tufts to the south of
Medan (Cameron et al. 1982a) (Fig. 4.3) and over a much larger
area to the NW of Rantauprapat and to the south of Lake Toba
(Clarke et al. 1982a; Aldiss et al. 1983) (Fig. 4.4). Lithologies
typical of the Kualu Formation have also been encountered in
oil company boreholes to the SE of Rantauprapat, below Tertiary
sediments, and have been described under the name of the 'Mutus
Assemblage' (Eubank & Makki 1981). Similar rocks also occur in
the island of Kundur off the coast of east Sumatra where they are
called the Papan Formation (Cameron et al. 1982c) (Fig. 4.10).
At the type locality in the Sungai Kualu, the lithologies are thinbedded sandstones, wackes, siltstones and mudstones. The
mudstones are often carbonaceous and contain wood and plant
fragments. The upper part of the succession is more arenaceous,
with cross-beds, load and flute casts and slump structures in the
sandstone units. The Papan Formation on Kundur is more
conglomeratic.
The characteristic M i d - L a t e Triassic bivalve Halobia sp.
occurs at many localities, including H. tobensis and H. kwaluana.
of Mid-late Carnian and H. simaimaiensis of Norian age
(Fontaine & Gafoer 1989).
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
37
38
CHAPTER 4
(Vachard 1989a, b). The fauna has affinities with the fauna of
the Lower Permian of China and Central Europe (Fontaine &
Gafoer 1989). Fusulinids indicate that the plant beds are of
Upper Asselian age, possibly extending into the Sakmarian (Fontaine & Gafoer 1989, footnote on p. 55).
Conclusions
As presently defined (Cameron et al. 1980; McCourt et al. 1993),
the Peusangan Group includes units of both Permian and Triassic
age. Permian rocks occur throughout the island of Sumatra from
Aceh in the north to Bukit Pendopo in the south as well as in
Bangka and Billiton. Triassic rocks are known only from the
northern part of the main island of Sumatra, to the north of the
equator, but also occur extensively in Bangka and Billiton
(Fig. 4.10). The palaeontological evidence for the age of the
Permo-Triassic units in Sumatra as determined by Fontaine &
Gafoer (1989) is illustrated in Figure 4.11.
The only possible representative of the Lower Permian in northern Sumatra is the Pangururan Bryozoan Bed whose age, on
the basis of its fauna, has not been definitively established. In
southern Sumatra on the other hand Lower Permian rocks
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
STAGES
39
TETHYAN
STAGES
RHAETIAN
NORIAN
CARNIAN
LADINIAN
ANISIAN
SCYTHIAN
TATARIAN
KAZANIAN
UFIMIAN
KUNGURIA
ARTINSKIA
SAKMARI3
ASSELIAN
DORASHAMIAN
DZULFIAN
MIDIAN
MURGHABIAN
KUBEGANDIAN
BOLORIAN
YAHTASHIAN
SAKMARIAN
ASSELIAN
Fig. 4.11. Palaeontological evidencc for the ages of Permo-Triassic stratigraphic units in Sumatra (data from Fontaine & Gafoer 1989).
outcrop extensively in the Barisan Mountains southwards from
Muarasipongi and are also found in Bangka and Billiton.
Lower Permian formations in southern Sumatra include the
andesitic, basaltic and rhyolitic volcanics of the Palepat Formation
and the lower part of the Silungkang Formation. These volcanics
are frequently interbedded with limestones and clastic sediments,
and the limestones in particular, frequently contain large fusulinid
foraminifera and other fossils which have allowed precise age
determinations. Early Permian, Asselian to Kungurian ages,
have been established for the Barisan and Palepat formations,
and also for the Mengkarang Formation with its 'Jambi Flora'
(Fontaine & Gafoer 1989). Cameron et al. (1980) interpreted
these Lower Permian volcanics and the associated rocks as products of a Permian volcanic arc with its volcaniclastic sedimentary
apron and carbonate reefs.
Pulunggono & Cameron (1984) extended this interpretation into
northern Sumatra on the basis of the occurrence of volcanic rocks
in the Situtup Formation and volcanics of the Toweren Member
of the Tawar Formation. However, no fossils have yet been
found in the Tawar Formation so that its age is unknown, and fusulinids in the Situtup Formation have not been dated more precisely
than mid-Permian. As noted above, it is possible that the
epidotized basaltic rocks of the Situtup Formation and the
Toweren Member of the Tawar Formation, should more properly
be classified with the Jurassic-Cretaceous Woyla Group, cropping
out in the same area, which includes similar lithologies. On the
basis of the available evidence the case for the extension of the
Early Permian volcanic arc into northern Sumatra is unproven.
Geochemical studies and isotopic dating of the volcanic rocks
are required to resolve this problem.
Ages of deformation and metamorphism. During the Northern
Sumatra Survey a distinction was made between the
40
CHAPTER 4
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
9;~
9;~
1'00o
A
~ ;
41
Active Volcanoes
Quaternary-Recent Volcanics
.~k~,: >,
22~
'7:. 9 9 v v
'\.~
" o ~ ,
....
"",--...
NataI]~I~)~i
n~,,~,_.L,t"~
U N A NI~
~
Oo X k %.,.
\;~~
.,o.,
,~5 \
.~',,~
/
2~
i i i i i . O 2 ."~-3" (7.
i ~,.,,~X ; ~ . Rawas- 9. . . . . . .
7)
":..:'\,; ~'~,~'~l~,A~a~: : : : : : : : : .--. 7":.-,.
" ~ ~ .
j__~
\~.[-"._~
L:~?'~b
~.'-:-Gumai
.)
~A,~ ." . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
-~.~\:jv,~ ...........
~ -X~.
'~,~
.'~'.~.>: ............ /:~
-"X
"'~%......
7cm/yr /
"
Garba
..... ',
>%~O~n!ma;ung
"~.~
o?o
o?~
,oo0
Oceanic assemblage. The oceanic assemblage includes serpentinites, gabbros, either massive or layered, and often altered
to amphibolite, basalts, often as pillows, hyaloclastic breccias,
volcaniclastic sandstones and siltstones, bedded cherts, black or
purple shales and minor bedded or massive limestones.
,o,,0
~.:~
6~
,ooo
42
CHAPTER 4
6~
Cretaceous granites
WOYLA GROUP
~
Oceanic assemblage
Arc assemblage
Meukuk Gneiss
Undifferentiated
BANDA
Geumpang
Lamno
Bentaro
Volcanic~
5~ N
~ .
Larn M i n e t
Peridotite/serpentinite 5~
Teunom~
CALANG
, Batholith
Lke
Penarum
undifferentiated
MEULABOH
4~ N
~.
Faults
Thrusts
SFZ Sumatran Fault System
KL Kla Line
GL Geumpang Line
Babahrot
Meukuek
50
'~
100km
9
TAPAKTUAN
96 ~
I
97 ~
I
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
43
44
CHAPTER 4
I
00oe
Recent Volcanoes
Langsat Volcanics I~
Palaeogene granites
Late Cretaceous granites
0\
-,9
-..
- . . . - . - . -
BatangNatal
RiverSection,
Vlanunggal
Batholith
'Sorik
Merapi
9
WOYLA GROUP
QKOTANOPAN
NATAL
Limestones
I~ ~' ~
i ii!ii
M~langes
MuarasomaFormation
Belok Gadang Formatior
SikubuFormation
Peridotite/serpentinite
~
Kanaikan
Air Bangi,~
- O~ uator
Pasaman Ultramafic
L.~'~_
Complex
~--~" ~ )~~ ~l ( . T~a l a' m~ au ~ O X LUBUKSIKAPING
50km
99~
I
~176
100~
I
Fig. 4.14. The distributionof the WoylaGroup in the Natalarea, North Sumatra. ModifiedfromRock et al. (1983). KFZ,KanaikanFaultZone; SGF, SimpangGambirFault.
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
TH E BATA N G NATAL
BNL
Jambor Baru :.~
RIVER SECTION
0
Formation
3km
........
-.soma
BNM
...
~,
d~OMA
Limestone (BNL)
..,~: : :'.
BNL
Rantobi
Sandstone
Si Gala Gala
... :. :. :. :::
Schists
,~,~::: : :: : : :: : ::~
"'" !;fi~: i :~ ~""~~'m
:i:
; ~ :.N." Batang
Natal
Parlampungan
~.'......
.~:.~ Megabreccia
Volcanics (PV)
.::::::::::
.
(BNM)
,'5"iiiiiiiii:: ~ : STF
'
Panglong
Melange
Nabana Volcanics .~
~,,
BNL .,<,,^,,
45
'i:i:i:i:!:
~q:iiii
~ ~ i
9
. . : \
PV
....
9. : . : . .
Muarasoma Turbidite
..:.:.:.:..
"" :" :" :" :
Formation (MTF)
",,',~',, 87.0Ma, z ,
Simarobu
Turbidite
Formation
(STF) 44.8
MUARASOMA"
Ranto Sore
Formation
9 .
...,..
~!!
Betok Gadang
Siltstone
NATAL v v v v ,r "r -,
.:::::::GAMBIR~
".:::~ -...
-,,~
'
"
vvvv,~,vvvv"H""
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lfi
"-:-:
}~Langjsat
Tambak Baru
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Volcanic'
"~ ~
,.,~^r
. . .%,". .",d'. . V. . %"
-r ~o %"
%P V
%'. %'.
"~' "o,P %" %," %" ~g' ",/ %~ ",d' %," %-" Nr ",r
%,- -,,e %g %,- %,- v
;4::::::~!:i:Turbidites:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
v , Langsat , # , v , Volcanics v v
SIMPANG
GAMBIR
_,~,O
v. . . .v. . .v.+
"S"vv
: , ,:, , viiii!i!i!i
,
,
10
%'29.7Ma-"
",r v
20km
.i
Fig. 4.15. Geological map of the Batang Natal river section, North Sumatra. Inset shows isotopic dates, from Wajzer et al. (1991). S is serpentinite.
46
CHAPTER 4
Table 4.1. Correlation of formations in the Woyla Group in the Natal area from
Rock et al. (1983) with the lithotectonic units defined by Wajzer et al. (1991)
Rocket et al. (1983)
1. Langsat VolcanicFormation
2. Sikubu Formation
1. Langsat VolcanicFormation
2. Si Kumbu Turbidite Formation
3. Tambak Baru Volcanic Unit
4. Simpang Gambir Megabreccia Formation
5. Nabana VolcanicUnit
6. BelokGadang SiltstoneFormation
7. Panglong M61angeFormation
8. Ranto Sore Formation
9. ParlampunganVolcanic Unit
*units are listed in approximate order upstream from Langsat with no age
relationship implied.
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
47
Table 4.2. Lithology, environmental setting, structure, metamorphic grade and age constraints for units in the Batang Natal section (in order upstream from west to east,
see Fig. 4.4), from Wajzer et al. (1991
Unit*
Lithology
Environment
Structure
Metamorphism
Age constraints
Langsat Volcanic
Unit
Porphyritic basic
volcanics
Arc volcanics
No ductile deformation
Prehnitepumpellyite
Si Kumbu
Turbidite
Formation
Volcaniclastic debris
flows, proximal and
distal turbidites
Submarine fan--apron
to volcanic arc
Prehnitepumpellyite
Tambak Baru
Volcanic Unit
Andesitic volcanics
Simpang Gambit
Megabreccia
Formation
Nabana Volcanic
Unit
Fragments of volcanic
arc and proximal
volcaniclastics
Proximal sediments
derived from volcanic
arc, with olistostromes
Ocean-floor basalts,
seamount
Prehnitepumpellyite/
greenschist
Prehnitepumpellyite/
greenschist
Prehnitepumpellyite/
greenschist
Panglong
M61ange
Formation
Belok Gadang
Siltstone
Formation
Volcaniclastic siltstones
with few fine sandstones
and rare conglomerates
Ranto Sore
Formation
Volcaniclastic
cross-bedded and
channelled sandstones
and unsorted
conglomerates (lahars)
Porphyritic andesites
Parlumpangan
Volcanic
Unit
Si Gala Gala
Schist Unit
Banded quartz,
muscovite,
chlorite schists
M61ange
(olistostrome)
of ocean-floor
materials and
pelagic sediments
Unconformable on
Panglong M61ange;
?lower trench slope
basin fill
Fluviatile intra-arc
deposits
Prehnitepumpellyite
Unmetamorphosed
Fragments of
volcanic arc
No ductile deformation
Metasediments
derived from
acid-intermediate
volcanic arc
province
Ocean-floor or
trench deposit
Prehnitepumpellyite/
greenschist
Greenschist
Simarobu
Turbidite
Formation
Volcaniclastic turbidites
with minor calcareous
siltstones
Batang Natal
Megabreccia
Formation
Melange formed as
olistostrome or as
mud diapirs in
accretionary
complex
Rantobi
Sandstone
Formation
Forearc basin
deposits
Jambor Baru
Formation
Volcaniclastic conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone,
limestone and tuff
Thin bedded volcaniclastic
turbidites with a
coarser-grained member
Massive recrystallized
limestone, rare fossils
Muarasoma
Turbidite
Formation
Batu Nabontar
Limestone
Unit
D i strong foliations ( $ 1 ) ;
D? open folds and
crenulations (F:)
No ductile deformation
Greenschist
Cut by undeformed
microdiorite dyke. K - A t
49.5 +_ 2 Ma (NR 7)
Slate grade
Slate grade
Prehnitepumpellyite/
greenschist
Prehnitepumpellyite/
greenschist
Recrystallized
Intruded by Batu
Mandingding Diorite.
K - A r 84.7 + 3.6 Ma
*All units are cut by numerous faults and thrusts. Vertical faults often show horizontal slickensides indicating wrench fault movements. * K - A t age of Manunggal
Batholith from Kanao et al. (1971). All other K - A r ages from Wajzer et al. (1991).
48
CHAPTER 4
~.i
.~q~-~
100~
J
~ ~ 0 0 ~ 9
~ .
::::::::::::::::::::::::
PADANG
l~
TALANG
~A, 2579~
Dibawah
C? : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
. . . . . . . . . :. :. : :
4
--lO15 '
~l
Tertiar~
:.::
~~nn/~'/~/'-'~'~.,~,~
~
~ ~ / D
'~ 1'oJ3o'0~,,,-,.~ ~ ~
Volcano
i~st~cs
Indarung Formation
~
~
SigunturFormation Permo-Carboniferous
from the local Palaeozoic basement. Sandstone units show turbiditic characteristics. Argillaceous units have a slaty cleavage
striking N W - S E . Fossils, including corals and ammonites,
especially from the limestone members, show that these sediments
range in age from Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Suwarna
et al. 1994).
From the presence of locally-derived clasts all these sediments,
although subject to later deformation, were evidently deposited
in situ on the Sundaland continental basement. Pulunggono &
Cameron (1984) suggested that these units were deposited in a
foreland basin, but a forearc basin, related to an Andean volcanic
arc represented by the volcanics lava flows and tufts in the Rawas
and Tabir Formation, is a more probable environment of deposition. The presence of basaits, dolerites and sepentinites in the
Rawas and southern parts of the Peneta Formation suggests that
these sediments extended out onto oceanic crust.
PRE-TERTlARY STRATIGRAPHY
Golok Tuff
Formation
49
(schematic)
III
I
I ~ I ~ I ~
i
i
i
I
iul
i i
Pc+~r162
I
i
+ ~+';
+++~:+:C~++:~+o<)+:++~:+,+
No exposure
I i i i i i i i i i,,, I I l l
i
i
i
i
i
i'
I
i
i
I
!
i
i
I
i
i
i
i
i
Lubuk Peraku
Formation
50
CHAPTER 4
, ~ ~
104
"Tigapuiuh~
, ~
105
106~
Mountainsl i i i i...~L~
"
PADANG
-1~
,i,i-i-i-i-i,i..-->
50
100km
9. . . . . . . . _
9 ...........#1.o.
B]
.o.7.2\
(,bj,
BANGKA
. . . . . . .
,o \
',:":':'i:":'i'::'s
O:'''...j
au,ts
Taboali
NIKN Thrusts
PERMO-TRIASSIC
Pemali, Tempilang, Papan, Kualu,
Tuhur and Silungkang Formations
EARLY PERMIAN (PEUSANGAN GROUP)
[ ~
Palepat and Mengkarang Formations
CARBONIFEROUS - ?EARLY PERMIAN (TAPANULI GROUP)
Kuantan Formation
104~
I
~i~
-v\
105~
I
106~
I
Fig. 4.18. Distribution of the subcrop of the Pre-Tertiary stratigraphic units in southern Sumatra, including the Jurassic-Cretaceous Woyla Group. Borehole data is from
De Coster (1974). Boreholes marked 'L' bottomed in the 'Kluang Limestone' regarded as Cretaceous by De Coster (1974), but considered more likely to be part of the
Kuantan Formation in this account. The distribution of Permian (P) and Triassic (Tr) units on Bangka is from Ko (1986).
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
51
103~ '
103o00'
Lm
Qv
Qv
Qv
to Bengkulu 60km
9
--
3o45'
Qv
Qv
9 .
._.,_____-.- F
.
Quaternary Volcanics
Late M i o c e n e
Lm
,
Pliocene
PI
9
Tom
9, ,
Middle Miocene
.,,
.,,
-..,,
Oligo-Miocene
Eocene
,.,
,,.
::
- ' - F ~ ~
~iiilil
Qv
.
............
.%<..:..
Late C r e t a c e o u s G r a n i t e s
Sepingtiang Limestone Formation
Qv
Lingsing ( s e d i m e n t a r y ) F o r m a t i o n
Saling (volcanic) F o r m a t i o n
=
|
Pyroxenite
-------
Faults
~
0
.J
10
15
20km
I
103o00'
103o15'
Fig. 4.19. The distribution of the Saling, Lingsing and Sepintiang Formations, correlatives of the Woyla Group, in the Gumai Mountains, South Sumatra, after GRDC
map of Bengkulu (Gafoer et al. 1992c).
(Gafoer et al. 1994). Neither the cherts nor the limestones have so
far yielded age-diagnostic fossils.
The Garba Formation has been compared to the Woyla Group
of Natal (Gafoer et al. 1994) and certainly lithological descriptions of this formation and its Insu and Situlanglang members,
correspond very well with those from Aceh and the Batang
Natal section. The basaltic and andesitic lavas of the Garba
Formation correspond with those of the Bentaro Arc, and may
similarly be interpreted as part of a volcanic arc sequence.
Limestone blocks within the m61ange may represent fragments
of fringing reefs or the collapsed carbonate cappings of seamounts,
the latter now represented by volcanics in the Garba Formation, as
has been suggested for the Natal and Indarung areas (Wajzer et al.
1991; McCarthy et al. 2001).
Descriptions of the m61anges of the Insu Member of the Garba
Formation (Gafoer et al. 1994) are identical to those from Natal
(Wajzer et al. 1991). The interlayering of the Insu Member with
lavas, chert and m61ange (Gafoer et al. 1994) suggests that these
rocks are deformed and imbricated in the same way as the
Woyla Group in the Batang Natal section, and similarly represent
an accretionary complex formed by subduction of an ocean floor.
It may be that some of the low-grade metamorphic schists mapped
within the Insu Member as Tarap Formation, are part of this accretionary complex, as metamorphic rocks, up to greenschist facies,
are incorporated in the accretionary complex at Natal 9 Rock
units within the Garba inlier are cut and bounded by N W - S E trending faults. Although these faults are parallel to the Sumatran
Fault System they do not appear to affect significantly the Tertiary
rocks and must be largely of Pre-Tertiary age.
Intrusions in the Garba lnlier. Both the metamorphic Tarap and the
Garba formations are intruded by the Garba Pluton (Fig. 4.7), a
composite body in which an older component has been dated
by the K - A t method at 115
and 1 0 2 _ 3 M a
(midCretaceous) and a younger component at 79 1.3 Ma and
89.3 + 1.7 Ma (Late Cretaceous) (Gafoer et al. 1994). Since the
Garba Pluton (115-79 Ma) intrudes both the Tarap and the
Garba formations, the accretion of the Garba Formation to
the margin of Sundaland took place before the mid-Cretaceous.
The age of the younger component of the Garba Pluton is comparable to that of the Sikuleh Batholith in Aceh (98 Ma) and the
Manunggal Batholith (87 Ma) in Natal.
52
CHAPTER 4
dioritic rocks into gneisses and deformed the basic dykes. The
alternation of acid and basic intrusion, with contemporaneous
deformation, are characteristic features of the basal parts of a
magmatic arc, where acid and basic magmas are intruded into
an active strike-slip fault zone. This situation is similar to that
which exists beneath Sumatra at the present day where the
modern volcanic arc is built on the active Sumatran Fault Zone.
However, the sense of movement along the present arc is
dextral, in the opposite sense to the sinistral movement along
the Cretaceous arc.
Interpretations o f the W o y l a G r o u p
PRE-TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
53
Chapter 5
Granites
E. J. COBBING
54
GRANITES
96OE
55
98,~
102~'
\ X "}
104"-'
106"
t 08~
6<,N
BANDA ACEIt
~ . ~""S ik u Ie h.,._.._~
, ,{JL.~ Batholith
~
\ q l
o
o
GeuXfit'~eu~ ~ ~
_~
. .
Granodiorite\'~
;~ ?LSerbadjadl
,
Kuantan-Dungun
.... i i
~\. L
4 o
Unga
Diorite
MALAY
PENINSULA
~....
,,[,u,on,
i
2 c'
Sibolg,~
Batholith,
~' HataPang'x~-N-'~
~~
'
--
0<
(~
Muarasipongi
-~Rokan
RIAU
ISLANDS
~anjung ~; "~lsahanU~'\"-P'---~ \
,Gadang <,,,
_North
O JAMB.]
I~IL Bungo Batholith
~:
~I'L~ South .
BANGKA
BILLITON
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96"
.
1 ..................
100
200
98~
i
300
..................
400
F
ranjong'
Pandang'-~'---'Pluton
BENGKUI.U
~.e
"--.
Garba
LIN Batholith
Padean
oguru
rbamba
*/Jatibaru
Pluton
~ng~
"X>~.~'~On~;~Sulan T~
4 ~--
BANDAR
LAMPUNG
v,/
tti
500km
100~
l ..........................
102~
I
104~
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
Fig. 5.1. The granites of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and the Tin islands of Bangka and Billiton. Data from Beddoe-Stephens et al. (1987), Clarke & Beddoe-Stephens
(1987), Cobbing et al. (1986, 1992), Sato (1991), McCourt & Cobbing (1993), Gasparon & Varne (1995). Broken line shows the eastern limit of the Western Province
Granites in Sumatra.
for the Tiga Puluh region, Clarke & Beddoe-Stephens (1987) for
the Hatapang Granite, Sato (1991) for three I-type and S-type
plutons in central Sumatra, Gasparon & Varne (1995) for selected
plutons of mainly volcanic arc character from the whole island,
McCourt & Cobbing (1993) who provided a complete data set
of their collection for the southern half of Sumatra, and
McCourt e t al. (1996) giving selected data from that data set. It
is however useful to interpret the ages and affinities of other granites in Sumatra within the framework provided by these recent
studies, using the field and petrographic characteristics provided
by earlier studies.
56
CHAPTER 5
t08,~,
t 06~
NGAPORE
AR~MUN ~
Eastern Province
(I-Type) Granites
-% \- ~-j oBatholith
X~Loban 229Ma
,~ Laut
Akat
"~
~~
%~
_ 0o
st Central
Sungai
lsahan [~,~
_ Paku~-/SINGKEP
"~--"~
-2os
S UM ATRA
BANGKA
\,~
,. Tanjong Raya
100
200
--~ IIIIIIIIII
1 0 4 '~
I
213Ma \
PALEMBANG 0
Z'-
.....\
f _ j ~ %
~"
o ~
Tanjong BILLITON
.......... ?f
Pluton ~ ~
n n Man
216Ma(~
g p'' 4 /)- ~ '"'~ u ~
~
/r., 2 0
%27nong
Legau
. Bukit L Toboali
~,~"-5--Batu
2 2 5 M a ~'-~
Nama Parangb~h gP Kelumpang
300km
/
(/
\
106 ~
/I
T h e T i n - a s s o c i a t e d suite
1 0 8 ~;`
I
GRANITES
)L;
,,,
l&o
100 ~
",,
57
1000
110 ~
tt
Wuntho
200
400
600
800
1000km
WPG
~i~i~'84184
ili~,'!~i:!~.~'
~':.i!~,
I O0
o.
E
Q.
0.
'
ooOO:
=J
9 . ".--
C7
~!.?#~e ~ , "',,_
Oo
syn-COLG
9.
"~,~. ~ / "
..2../
t
. . . .
~Ol , ~lJll
9
//I I ,Ill
t0
I I ~lltl
100
1000
Log Y ppm
1000 --
~yo COLG
-=_
oo~ ~176
~illi;:~:iii
_
100
9
#
9
o
.J
elDOO
9""
VAG
//
go
;'.'"
9
ORG
i!
z
o o
lg~
10
100
1000
Log Y + Nb ppm
[aub C o m p l e x
95OE
100 ~
105 ~
"~--.110~
Fig. 5.3. Granitic provinces of Sumatra and adjacent areas (modified after
Cobbing et al. 1992 and McCourt et al. 1996).
Clarke & Beddoe Stephens (1987) suggested that this suite
continued southwards in central Sumatra, thus bringing stanniferous granites of younger age into an area dominated by older tin
granites. The geochemical data from the Hatapang Granite
suggests that it may have some alkali affinity, since it falls
mostly within the 'Within Plate Granite' (WPG) field on Pearce
diagrams (Fig. 5.4a, b) and in or close to, the alkali feldspar
field on the QAP Le Maitre diagram (Clarke & Beddoe Stephens
1987) (Fig. 5.5). They also plot above the calc-alkali field of Kuno
(1969 fig. 6.7). Such an affinity is compatible with the compositional range present in the granites of the Western Province
(Cobbing et al. 1992).
The Volcanic Arc Suite
It is however, the Volcanic Arc Suite (Fig. 5.1) that has provided the
main focus for granite studies in Sumatra. The volcanic-arc affinity
Fig. 5.4. (a) Nb/Y and (b) Rb/(Y + Nb) discfiminant diagrams for syn-collision
(syn-col), volcanic arc (VA), within plate (WP) and normal and anomalous ocean
ridge (OR)granites after Pearce et al. (1984). Volcanic Arc granites, South Sumatra
(filled circles; McCourt et al. 1996), the Hatapang granite (open circles; Clarke &
Beddoes-Stephens 1987) and Bukit Batu (squares; Gasparon & Vame 1987).
58
CHAPTER
[]
[]
~ ~ ~
//0 /
.,:
IO
o4
"~
.........
,-i
~ J'~ ~
O0
..~,I
i fi~
8.
A/
8,,/'
' v
+.
Ov
9ov
O \ , 7 x , , x10 ~,
Fig. 5.5. South Sumatran Volcanic Arc Granites (filled circles), Hatapang
Granite (open circles and Bukit Batu Granites (squares) plotted on the QAP
modal diagram of Le Maitre (1989).
They also plot within the volcanic arc field on Pearce diagrams
(McCourt & Cobbing 1993; McCourt et al. 1996) (Fig. 5.4) and
in the calc-alkali field in Figs 5.6 & 5.7.
At about the same time Gasparon & Varne (1995) published a
study of selected granites and volcanic rocks from widely dispersed localities from the whole of Sumatra. They provided 16
analyses of granitic rocks ranging from 50 to 77% SiO2. Eleven
of these analyses were from southern Sumatra and seven from
northern Sumatran granites, including the Sikuleh Batholith at
the northwestern tip of the Island (Fig. 5.1) from which two
samples were taken, a monzogranite and a granodiorite. This is
a large, complex and in part deformed and foliated batholith, for
which until now only been field observations have been available.
The data of Gasparon & Varne (1995) confirms the volcanic arc
nature of all these granitoids.
The majority of granitoids of the volcanic arc suite are undeformed, or only weakly foliated. Some however, are strongly
deformed and some show clear evidence for deformation during
crystallisation. During field work in 1992 five phases of synplutonic deformation were recognised from the Aroguru Pluton in
southern Sumatra (Fig. 5.1). This body lies close to the present
trace of the West Sumatra Fault Zone, it is however older than
FeO*
Na=O+K20
MgO
Fig. 5.6. Compositions of the Volcanic Arc granites of southern Sumatra plotted
on the AFM diagram of Irvine & Baragar (1971).
50
60
70
............
80
SiO2(Wt%)
Fig. 5.7. Compositions of the granites of southern Sumatra plotted on a total
alkalies vs. SiO2 diagram, dashed lines denote the calc-alkaline field of Kuno
(1979). Symbols as in Figure 5.5
the fault, which was initiated during the Miocene, and it is most
likely that the deformation developed as a result of emplacement
processes. Barber (2000, p. 732) has suggested that it was
emplaced in an active sinistral strike-slip shear zone. Elsewhere
along the West Sumatra Fault, particularly to the north of
Padang, strong cataclastic deformation has been observed from
plutons which were fully crystalline before the initiation of the
fault. This is particularly the case for some K-feldspar megacrystic
granites which are representative of the tin-associated granites.
GRANITES
59
Sample
Si02
Age (Ma)
Geological age
no.
63.28
Saloga
Belimbing
Sulit Air
63.77
65.09
63.42
SSG l 0
SSG 12
SSG13
142 + 5Bi
149 5H
138 +_ 4H
183 4H
203 + 6Bi
Cretaceous
Trias
50.8
75.3
57.7
74.9
63.8
61.0
52.6
68.7
52.9
53 1.5
53 1.4
53 1.7
65.6
7 I. 14
5 1.2
ll + 1
76.37
60.76
60.97
73.18
75.61
129 4Bi
54 2
148 4
Lower Cretaceous
Eocene
Upper Jurassic
Bungo South
Sungai Siwai
Dusunburu
Kalan
Dusunburu
Dusunburu
70.08
60.39
65.2
64.15
64.18
169 5Bi
Jurassic
154 + 2Bi
Jurassic
71.46
69.46
86_+ 3 Bi
117 3Bi
Cretaceous
65.6
89.2
Cretaceous
SSG54
SSG55
SSG58
S SG59
SSG59a
Eocene
55 1.6
57 1.5
Miocene
Miocene
156 5H
73.69
73.53
74.08
74.61
74,67
75.15
83 2Bi
Cretaceous
82 2Bi
Cretaceous
84 +_ 2
Cretaceous
SSG87
55.3
151 + 4Hb
Jurassic
(i) Sulan Tonal#e, and the Jatibaru, Wayambang and Brant granite plutons
Cretaceous
Sulan Tonalite
SSG83
69.31
111 _+ 3Bi
SSG85
69.2
113 _+ 3Bi
SMO4
69.95
Jatibaru Pluton
SSG88
75.6
55 1.5Bi
Palaeocene
63 IBi
Waybambang Pluton Tcl7A
70.3
20 i 1BiHb Miocene
Brant Pluton
Sm79
70.62
86 3Bi
Cretaceous
H, hornblende; Bi, biotite.
60
CHAPTER 5
GRANITES
I-type and stanniferrous S-type granites termed the Bebulu Suite
(Pitfield 1987; Cobbing et al. 1992). The only logical explanation
for the mixed granite population of these islands, especially of
Bangka and Billiton, is that the contrasted granitic suites have
different source regions. It may be that in the arcuate region to
the east of Sumatra the suture was imbricated into a m61ange of
deep crustal wedges derived from adjacent Gondwanan and Cathaysian blocks, providing a complex of compositionally contrasted
source regions for both S and I-type granites. These compositional
differences are reflected in the geochemical and isotopic characteristics of the granites derived from them (Cobbing et al. 1992).
Pulunggono & Cameron (1984) proposed a similar interpretation with the Bentong-Raub Line running through Singkep and
Bangka, following the southern margin of the Klabat Batholith
(Fig. 5.2). They also commented that the suture zone is 'more
complex than shown and is occupied by lensoid fragments of
both microplates'. Similarly Gasparon & Varne (1995) considered
that 'the boundary between the Central and the Eastern Granite
Provinces may run through the Tin Islands'.
Within the stanniferous granites of the Tin Islands, the Tanjong
Pandang Pluton on the island of Billiton, is the only body in which
the tin has behaved as a decoupled element, in that the tin content
does not increase with magmatic differentiation (Lehman &
Harmanto 1990). In this respect it corresponds to granites belonging to the Kuantan-Dungun stanniferous granites of the Eastern
Province of Peninsular Malaysia, where tin contents are low and
are similarly unrelated to differentiation, but increased during
the hydrothermal stage (Schwartz & Askury 1990).
The distribution of stanniferrous and non-stanniferous granites
on these islands suggests that the Bentong-Raub Line, or perhaps
a strand of that structure, runs through or close to central Bangka
and northern Billiton. Moreover, the location of the Main Range
type S-type granites in the northern half of Bangka and the Itypes of the Bebulu Suite in the southern half (Cobbing et al.
1992) have a distribution which is the reverse of that in Peninsular
Malaysia and Thailand. This reversal of the normal pattern provides additional reason to support the concept of the nearby
location of a structurally complex Bentong-Raub Line or Zone.
Host rocks for granites on the islands of Bangka and Billiton
include limited outcrops of pebbly mudstone facies and larger
occurrences of mainly terrigenous sedimentary rocks of Carboniferous-Permian age, overlain by Triassic sandstones (Ko
1986). According to Priem et al. (1975) country rocks on both
these islands are low-grade meta-sedimentary rocks of Stephanian
to Norian age. These sequences are similar to those present in the
Eastern province of Peninsular Malaysia. The host rocks to the tin
granites of the Main Range Province in Peninsular Malaysia
consist mainly of Lower Palaeozoic formations of Ordovician to
Devonian age and consist mainly of pelitic rocks of low to moderate metamorphic grade with subordinate limestones. The observed
sequences are essentially the cover to middle and lower crustal
material present at depth.
As noted above the composition of granites within the region is
not confined to S- and I-types but A-types are also sporadically
developed. These however, except in the Tin Islands, are not
common in Sumatra (Cobbing et al. 1992). Only the Hatapang
and Bukit Batu plutons can be viewed as approaching an A-type
composition and these may be very highly evolved examples of
S and I-type lineages, respectively. However, the isolated location
of the Bukit Batu Pluton in relation to the main outcrop of the Volcanic Arc Suite at the western margin of the island does not
support such an interpretation for that body.
Most of the granitic rocks of Sumatra can be accommodated
within the framework of granitic belts established in earlier
studies, e.g. Mitchell (1977), Hutchison & Taylor (1978),
Beckinsale (1979). McCourt et al. ( 1 9 9 6 ) correlated the Volcanic
Arc Suite with the Central Valley Province of Burma, the
Tin-Associated Suite with the Main Range Province of Peninsular
Malaysia and Thailand, and the Tin islands with the Eastern
61
Conclusions
The granites of Sumatra have developed through two contrasting
geological cycles, a Carboniferous-Permian cycle of convergence and collision followed by a younger Triassic-early Jurassic
cycle in which a new subduction zone was formed along the
southwestern margin of the new continent (Hutchison 1994;
McCourt et al. 1996). During the first, collisional cycle, the
different accreted terrains, distinguished by their stratigraphic
and faunal assemblages, were host rocks to granites which,
because of their contrasting geochemical and isotopic characters,
seemed to mirror the lower crustal regions from which they were
derived. These terrains are distinguished most clearly in
Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand as contrasting belts which are
additionally characterised by stanniferous S-type and generally
non-stanniferous I-type granites (Beckinsale 1979). The second
cycle generated granites having a wide compositional range
from diorite to monzogranite, associated with the development
of a late Triassic-early Jurassic volcanic arc along the southern
margin of Sundaland. McCourt et al. (1996) suggested that the
two cycles overlap in Sumatra.
The association of the Main Range Province granites with sedimentary rocks of Gondwana affinity and the Eastern Province
granites with those containing Cathaysian floras provided a
further strand of evidence for the disparate geological histories
of those crustal segments which eventually formed the southern
borderlands of Eurasia during the Permo-Triassic (Hutchison
62
CHAPTER 5
Chapter 6
96OE :,
,, I i i l l l l i ,
I. \ .
ii
6~
i
6~
llll,,,,,ll
III
iS/BUMASU:.
~ I ~ T T T T I
EAST SU MATR,~,
,,\,Iiii
~-.',','.~.
9
"I I I
lllllll
)lllll
".',',',
III
ill
II
]
I I I I I I\1
IIIIlll
.>1-.I I I I I I~
Sibolg
N \ % , .'Y~ I r
Pakanbaru
Panti F m
~~--:..-.N~DI
ii
, ,
Silungka
'Barisan'
=~'/____~,~r
,~,.,~,,,.~,.~,.,,
~__(b~.~..~.~
b(
"in(kep
[.'
:12,ond ong..':.." 9'. ". .
~ , M e m b e r ~ ' < . ~ : . :.
-e~;,'ff, i"..".'.'.~.q.:.:
~ 2' ' ~' ' ' - ' '.-.'~..;..~..~...-...k.
~'~'~'k.'.~
"."~.J..~'-" "- ". "- ". ".~'-'-
'Kluet' Formation
l l~
3~
ill
M4..-'>
.".'t~'N.xlo1 ' ' ' '
.-//,,, ...~).....~-~-N~[TtLingg a
INDOCHINA BLOCK
(and I n d o n e s i a n Islands)
...ff~..Permian&Carboniferous
I I I
9:.2.O..'~'N]Sugil ill
I
. ~-'~,.. t,~'%.'%51 I I I I
III
III
I I I
III
9.~'~--~'4-.2%k1-, ,x, 1 I I
9 9"_'t~'~x"~'.'P I ]xJI I I
Muarasipongl~
0~
I I I
NDOCHINA1 I
l l J ! i l l llll
:~BLOCK I
.~i-'!~!"~i~i~iNi"~::::
Tapaktuan
II
"4
II
IIIII
I\ I I I I I I I I
I~lll
,11111111
I
I
I
i
~
I
i i i i
Bangka:
~I I I I
..
~"~ mi n e~-
i ~..~....
Alas Formation
Quartzite Terrain and Pcrsing Complex(Singkep)
Hippogri
WEST SUMATRA BLOCK
Carboniferous-M id-Permian
l
t"--"
6~
300km
i
99 ~
102 ~
105 ~
6~
Fig. 6.1. Simplified Pre-Triassic geology of the West and East Sumatra Blocks and the Indochina Block of Peninsular Malaysia showing the principal Palaeozoic
volcanic units and localities discussed in the text.
63
64
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.1. Pre-Tertiar3, Volcanic and Volcanic-Plutonic Belts, Arcs and occurrences in Sumatra
Ma
Duration
Description
120-75
Aptian-Campanian
Mid-Cretaceous
Early Cretaceous
Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous
Triassic onwards
169-129
Mid-Jurassic-Early
Cretaceous
224-180
Mid-Permian-Mid-Triassic
Early-Middle Permian
Early Permian
Carboniferous (Vis6an)
Devonian-Late Permian
Accretionary Complex forms behind subduction zone beneath East Malaya and
Riau-Billiton sections of IndochinaBlock interface with Palaeo-Tethys
Ocean; accretionof volcanicsof oceanic origin
270-255
c. 270
Carboniferous volcanism
65
ona~
oyla
openir
Meso(a) EARLY PERMIAN PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
Fig. 6.2. Cartoons illustrating significant volcanic events in the geological evolution of Sumatra from its dispersal from Gondwana to the collision of the Bentaro-Saling
Oceanic Volcanic Arcs. (a) Gondwana Margin Break-up Volcanicity (V, volcanic localities) at the Gondwana-Cathaysia interface after the opening of Meso-Tethys in the
Early Permian. In this reconstruction the West Sumatra Block is still in position between Cathaysia and the Greater Sula Spur. Figure based on Figure 4.21 and Charlton
(2001). (b) The advances and retreats of Gondwana shown by the palaeomagnetic record for Australia (after Klootwijk 1996). Gondwana reconstruction by Charlton
(2001). (c) Palaeogeographic reconstruction of Sumatra and the Malay Penisula in the Mid-Late Triassic (from Fig. 4.25). The Pahang Volcanic Belt (V, volcanic
localities) is shown in the Semantan Basin. (d) Sumatra in the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous showing the Plutonic Arc, the Woyla Foreland Assemblage, the Meso-Tethys
and the Bentaro-Saling Arc with the Woyla Accretionary Complex. (e) In the Late Cretaceous the Bentaro-Saling Oceanic Arc has collided with and has been overthrust
onto Sumarta as the Woyla Nappe. Collision was followed by the resumption of subduction in the Late Cretaceous.
66
CHAPTER 6
Formation
Kluet
Kuantan
Age
Description
Reference
Probable Carboniferous-Early
Permian
Hippogriffe rocks
Local
Phyllite and Shale Member
Carboniferous-Early Permian
Lower Member
Vis~an
System Stage
Changsingian
uJ
~9 Wuchiapingian
I I
tl
I
i
!
I
[ l l l l l l [ l l i
II,l~',~]J~
~L
.......
- r -r "-i--r
r
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
l
i
I
I
Wordian
Guguk Bulat
Bukit Pendopo
._1
Roadian
Kungurian
<~ Sakmarian
Asselian
Gzhelian
Kaloi,
Batumilmil Formations
%, ~
Calcareous Member
ILl
ii
II l l l l l l l l l
>5, Artinskian
I
I
II
I
i
1
i
I
I I
I
I
I
I
I l l ! I l l ! I l l
..........
O0
INDOCHINA BLOCK
Basalt
13_
Verbeek (1897)
Rock et al. (1983)
Silitonga & Kastowo (1975)
_J
Capitanian
Kusimovian
.........
Kluet Formation
Basalt
Condong Member
'Pebbly mudstone'
Bohorok and Metulu
Formations
I%
k.
% %-. % ~'%N
", _%2"~
~.J,
Riau-Billiton
Accretionary
Complex
(shales,siltstone
basalt and
serpentinite)
Gangsal Formation
Muscovian
....... ,
Bashkirian
Serpukovian
...............
Visean
Tournaisian
,9
Limestone Member
iL:!~-!~ !:!i
Alas Formation
Lower Member
,.t
Fig. 6.3. Simplified composite Carboniferous and Permian stratigraphies of the East and West Sumatra Blocks and the Indonesian islands in the Indochina Block.
67
Mentulu
Age
Description
Reference
Probably Asselian-Artinskian
Permian Stages
Condong Member
?Asselian-Artinskian
Permian Stages
Bohorok
Pebbly Mudstone Facies
Permian age. In their reconstruction of the geology of the PreTertiary basement Eubank & Makki (1981) show an area of
tufts encountered in boreholes to the NW of Pakanburu that may
be related to a volcanic centre, and are similar to those of the
Condong Member.
In the Langsa Quadrangle Bennett et al. (1981 c) describe 'some
crystal tufts and other tuffaceous rocks' belonging to an unnamed
volcanic unit within the Bohorok Formation. Cameron et al.
(1980) recorded rhyolite clasts within the Pebbly Mudstone
Facies of the Bohorok Formation in Northern Sumatra, indicating
the presence of rhyolitic volcanics in the source region from
which the pebbles were derived. These rhyolites could be of any
age prior to the Permian.
SIBOLGA
System
Stage
Ua
SILUNGKANG FORMATION
PALEPAT FORMATION
KUANTAN FORMATION
i UJ Chansingian
IWuchi piogian
~.
Capitanian
. ~ 3_,j.,,..L~ Guguk Bulat
2.
W Wordian
Shale
s
uji~
Basalt
Silungkang
256.1
n
Kungurian
l---
259.7
Artinskian
1268.8
,~ Sakmarian
U.l
Asselian
Gzhelian
Bukit Pendopo
Tabir Formation
Roadian
i281.5
Sibolga Granite
264+_6
Ngaol Formation
Limestone
lvv vv v v v l
Volcanic Member
iv v v v v v v I Palepat Volcanics
Shale
!290
Kusimovian
Muscovian
Bashkirian
Serpukovian
Visean
<
O
~ J ~ ~JLimestoneMember
Lower Member
Tournaisian
Fig. 6.4. Stratigraphy of units within the West Sumatra Permian Plutonic-Volcanic Belt.
68
CHAPTER 6
Unit
Area
Age
Kluet
(uncertain
affinity)
Sibolga
Early Permian
Panti Volcanic
Lubuksikaping
Probable Permian
Silungkang
(correlation)
Lubuksikaping
Mid-Late Permian
SE Danau
Singkarak
(type area)
Sakmarian-Wordian
stages of Permian
Silungkang
Calcareous
Member
Volcanic
Member
Thickness (m)
c. 1500
Outliers:
Near Tanjung
Gadang
Lubukkarak
?Roadian- Wordian
Tabir
S. Tabir
Mid Permian
150/450
Palepat
B. Palepat
Artinskian-Wordian
stages of Permian
1100
Silungkang
(formerly
Kuantan)
Mengkarang
Calcareous
Member
B. Tabir
> 800
B. Tantan
>200
B. Mengkarang
Asselian Stage
S u m a t r a Fault Z o n e , but Z w i e r z i j c k i (1930a) s u b s e q u e n t l y attributed these outcrops to the Cretaceous, so that they are currently
c o n s i d e r e d to be part o f the W o y l a Group.
In the southern outcrop, the p r e d o m i n a n t l y volcanic Palepat
F o r m a t i o n ( S u w a r n a e t a l . 1994) interfingers with the l o w e r
parts o f the terrestrial to shallow m a r i n e M e n g k a r a n g F o r m a t i o n
?500
Description
Reference
Simandjuntak et al.
(1991)
69
100o45'E
L i m e s t o n e s with
intercalations of
s a n d s t o n e & slate
t=
Basaltic extrusives
Undifferentiated
Lower Permian
o
___O
O
[i.ili![i][i[i~!ii[i[![ii!~i[iil H o r n b l e n d e andesites
(tufts) with silicified
shale intercalations
~__
_ _ _ .-.....-
.'.,
Augite andesites
E
~
O
NNN
Meta-andesites
::
__o
..-.
9
li:
,':-.S I L U N G K A N G
Meta-dacites
Plutonic Intrusions-Undifferentiated
2kin
_ 100045'
--
Fig. 6.5. (a) Lithologies and members in the Silungkang Formation. (b) Geological map of the Silungkang Formation (after Katili 1969).
70
CHAPTER 6
(a)
BASALT
BASALTIC
ANDESITE
ANDESITE
100
DACITE
3
SHOSHONITIC SERIES
K20
(wt%) 2
HIGH K
CALC-ALKALINE
....~?? ............................
CALC-ALKALINE
57
63
(a)
La
Ce
Nd Sm
Eu Gd
Dy
Er
Yb
o ............. 9 S I L U N G K A N G FORMATION
68
Volcanics
9 Silungkang Formation
FeO
Pr
Si20 (wt%)
(b)
/ 0 .....
10
LOW K SERIES
53
",.,.
........
45
-..@...... B .....0...
Palepat Formation
PALEPAT FORMATION
1000
LU
~m
nra
Z
0
-io
o
O
n-
(b)
100
10-
,0"
0.1
Ba Rb Th K Nb
I I
La Ce Sr Nd P Sm Zr Hf
I
Tb
Fig. 6.7. (a) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the Silungkang and Palepat
Formations. (b) Chondrite-normalized spidergram for the Silungkang and
Palcpat Formations. Adapted from Suwarna et ell. (2000).
Metavolcanics
Sumatra
Na20+K20
and
Tectonic
serpentinites
in the Medial
Zone
MgO
Fig. 6.6. (a) Potassium-silica diagram for the Silungkang and Palepat
Formations. (b) AFM diagram for the Sih,ngkang and Palepat Formations.
Adapted from Suwarna et al. (2000).
4 8 - 5 8 % , with a rhyolite sample at 85%, and in the Palepat Formation is 4 7 - 6 2 % . The composition of the rock samples analysed
varied between basalt and andesite (Fig. 6.6a), showing both
tholeiitic and calc-alkaline differentiation trends (Fig. 6.6b).
K20 contents in the Palepat Formation are higher than those
in the Silungkang Formation and fall in the potassic alkaline
field, while K20 values in the Silungkang Formation are lower
and the rocks more calc-alkaline. The magnesium number
(Mg# = 100 M g / M g + Fe 2+) for the Silungkang Formation was
calculated at 4 0 - 5 6 , while the range for the Palepat Formation
is 31-56, indicating that the basalts were out of equilibrium
with the mantle (Mg# -- 6 8 - 7 5 ) due to the fractional crystallization of olivine and pyroxene. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns
(Fig. 6.7a) for two samples from each formation have moderate
Eu anomalies, indicating some plagioclase fractionation. The
rock/chondrite normalization diagram (spidergram) (Fig. 6.7b)
shows that the range of values for the two formations overlap,
but the samples from the Silungkang Formation show a greater
range and fall between the normal and enriched values for
MORB. Suwarna e t al. (2000) concluded that the analysed
samples showed evidence for fractionation, differentiation and
possibly contamination processes, and noted that the volcanics
had geochemical similarities with those from an island arc
setting, although a continental margin, fault-related, origin has
also been proposed.
Bentong-Billiton
Accretionary
Complex
71
Age
Description
Reference
Pawan Member
(Kuantan Fm)
Ganggsal
Alas Fm
Carboniferous-Early Permian
Carboniferous-Permian
Vis6an or younger
10/o E - , ~ . , ~
l ~ ~ g o ! ~
", ...,..-,...~,~ ~
~"---~~-':
"-.. .... .,
CITILIM
~ ~
,-, ','.~,,
k.iiiii..k,
c7
~.
%~
I I I I I I I-b-,,.
SUMATRA
centre ~ ~ ; ~
2) 0
"-~
TRIASSIC ~
CARBONIFEROUS[]~]
0o_
~ ~ _ ~ I ~
Volcanics
~,
~ ! ~ A ; i i ~
, ~ ~
Sediments
PERMIAN
Iiiiiiiii
Riau-Billiton
C~(E]2~ ~ J'~
Accretionary Complex
FK@d
Persing Complex and
Tapanuli Group
"-"
Ill
II
LI INL.~L~
",',',', ;,\
l~iHi
,ii[i K
50km
104~
I
Fig. 6.8. Simplified geological map of the Riau and Lingga Archipelagos. Granite typology after Cobbing et al. (I 992).
"":" '
SINGKEP
Sl
72
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.6. Metavolcanics and meta-ultrabasic rocks in the Riau-Billiton Accretionary Complex in the Tin Islands Archipelagos
Island
Litbological description
Reference
Batam
Grey and violet sericite-schist, quartz-sericite-talc phyllite and silicified, sericitized, kaolinised metavolcanics
with altered former plagioclase phenocrysts
Radiolarian cherts and metavolcanics are recorded from the NW corner ?in situ
Talc schist is present on Pait between Sugi and Combol lslands
Narrow zone of talc schists and mica-chlorite schists south of the Klabat Batholith on both sides of Klabat Bay
Serpentinites exposed in Belinyu No. 17 pit; 100 m of serpentinite encountered in a borehole at the
Permali Mine
Skarns at Pemali mine: idocrase-actinolite-diopside-epidote; diopside-wollastonite-calcite-quartz;
hornblende-quartz-muscovite; diopside-quartz-chlorite-plagioclase; hornblende-muscovite-quartzepidote-plagioclase
Permali Group: Volcanic Chert Facies with sills or stratified basic to intermediate volcanics, tufts, cherts & shales
Lenticular masses of ?original fayalite in the Seloemar lode
Nam Salu lithologies: metasandstone, metasiltstone, radiolarian chert, metavolcaniclastics and skarns
The Schachtader lode (currently inacessible) a 2 - 3 m skarn composed of green amphibole (?actinolite),
pyroxene, andradite, ilvaite, iron sulphides and cassiterite overlain by + 10 m of radiolarite beneath shales.
Manganese-facies ironstone is reported in boreholes
Siantu Formation: Metabasalts, agglomerates and breccias at Cape Siantu
Sugi
Pait
Bangka
Billiton
Malay Peninsula through the Tin Islands and beneath the Triassic
graben on Bangka, rather than a discrete line as illustrated by
Pulonggono & Cameron (1984) (see Fig. 14.2).
The accretionary complex is well known in Malaya where it
consists of severely deformed sediments, volcanics and slivers
of ultrabasic rocks ranging in age between Devonian and
Upper Permian (Metcalfe 2000). In the Tin Islands, where
fossils are scarce, Bothe (1925a,b) distinguished Pre-Triassic
(?Carboniferous-Permian) volcanics and sediments, from
similar, but also deformed, Triassic volcanics and sediments, on
the basis of their more intense deformation and metamorphism,
their basic and ultrabasic (as opposed to acidic) composition,
and the absence of associated granitic plutons. One fossil locality
on Bangka yielded Permian fossils, and on Billiton, fossils spanning the Sakmarian to Kungurian stages have been identified
(Fontaine & Gafoer 1989). The Permian rocks in the Tin Islands
are considered to have a Cathaysian affinity (Indochina Block)
on the basis of the identification by Jongmans of poorly preserved
105~
V~I
,I.
.~,~,~a,
TRIASSIC ~
LOWERMIDDLE ~
PERMIAN
PERMIAN ~ ' ~
Penjabung
107~
Tempilang
Sandstone
Oceanic Facies
Undifferentiated
Pebbly mudstone
Facies
(S type)
~}]q:FF~ Main Range (Stype)
:::::::::::::::::::(
GRANITE PROVINCE~_q
/
i
9 ""'"''"'"'"'""'"'"'"'"'""
50km
,
Bebulu Batholith
CARBONIFEROUS-EARLY PERMIAN
iii:iiii:iii ii:iii
Thrusts
Ko (1986)
See Adam (1960, Fig. 26)
Schwartz and Surjono (1990b)
See Adam (1960, Fig. 24)
lo6 ~
Cape
""~
_ ~
:'1
@
3 ~_
106~j
TOBOALI
107~
R H Y O L ~
0.1
]TRACHYANDES~
ANDESITE
U
0.01
_ 9 9 nn -
SUB-ALKALINE BASALT
o.ool
O.Ol
_
;,
A
o.1
I
i
I
9
i
1
lO
Nb/Y
Fig. 6.10. Zr/TiO2-Nb/Y discrimination diagram showing fields for volcanic
rocks based on immobile elements (after Winchester & Floyd 1977). Both
ratios are indices of alkalinity but only Zr/TiO2 ratio represents a differentiation
index. Small squares represent element ratios in the metasomatised Nam Salu
'phyllite'. Adapted from Schwartz & Surjono (1990b).
73
were the source of the tin. The Nam Salu ore body is a layer of
iron formation, corresponding to the silicate facies of Algoma
Type, mixed with tuff which was metasomatized into micaceous
phyllite. Schwartz & Surjono (1990b) concluded that the Nam
Salu phyllite was chemically a 1:1 mixture of basalt and
silicate-facies ironstone; the bulk of their analyses (Fig. 6.10)
correspond to the sub-alkaline basalt field of Winchester &
Floyd (1977) in a discrimination diagram using immobile
elements. The mineralogy of the Schachtader lode indicates it
is either a metabasalt or even a meta-serpentinite, although
Schwartz & Surjono (1990b) describe it as an altered volcaniclastic rock.
Table 6.7. Volcanic lithologies in the Pahang Volcanic Belt in the Tin Islands Archipelagos
Island
Formation
Description
Reference
Karimun Besar
Malarco
Bintan
Citilim
Lingga
CHAPTER6
74
99~
I.~DA
102 ~
105 ~
WOYLA ASSEMBLAGES
ACEH
Jurassic-EarlyCretaceous
TA PAKTUAN
\
Jurassic-EarlyCretaceous
Plutono-VolcanicArc
te Cretaceous Plutonic
Arc
Parlumpah!
NATA
Kanaikan
&'~,
0o -
Maninja
Indaru
lanki
Lubukg~
Kerinc
~ %%'"%
i","-.","',."
"~----,,--- Thrusts
Faults
100
200
300km
99 ~
102 ~
105~
75
Table 6.8. Volcanic lithologies in the Oceanic Assemblage o f the Woyla Group.
Formation
Lithological description
Reference
Aceh Province
Geumpang
Lam Minet
Penarum
Situtup
Undifferentiated
Woyla Group
Babahrot
Cameron et al.
Diabases and basalts, associated with turbidites and a large limestone body
Limestone, quartzite, slate, schist, tuff, igneous breccia, tuff breccia, metavolcanic,
diabase and serpentinite
Barber (2000)
Padang area
Indarung
Siguntur
T e m b e s i - Rawas Mountains
Rawas
'Mesozoics with mafics'
Lampung area
Menanga
Table 6.9. Volcanic units and volcaniclastic sediments of oceanic and continental affinity within the Woyla Group Accretionar~, Complex in the Natal area
Formation
Lithological description
Environment
Ref.
76
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.10. Volcanic units in the Oceanic Volcanic Arc fragments of the Woyla Group
Formation
Litbological description
Ref.
Porphyritic basalts and basalts and agglomerates with andesine, associated with mafic dykes,
Basaltic vents surrounded by tufts, breccias and volcanic sediments were found near Lam No
and north of the Bentaro river
Volcanic wackes, subordinate sandstones and siltstones, mafic volcanics and limestones
Massive, partly epidotised, frequently porphyritic andesites, subordinate basalts with
feldsparphyric varieties and coeval dykes. Agglomerates, breccias and tufts are present in the
southeast. Subordinate shales and slates containing volcanic debris and purple to red tuffaceous
sandstones
Biotite-hornblende-andesineschists & biotite amphibolites interpreted as syntectonic deformed
Tapaktuan Volcanics associated with concordant gneissic leuco-granites
Bentaro arc
Bentaro Volcanic
Lhoong
Tapaktuan Volcanic
Meukuek Gneiss
Complex
l
2, 3
Sise
Kenyaran Volcanic
Epidotized intermediate to mafic lavas which are frequently amygdaloidal and porphyritic and
agglomerates
2,3
Chloritised and prophylitised andesitic and basaltic lavas, tufts and breccias with local limestone
intercalations
Basalts and andesites interbedded with claystone, siltstone, calcilutite and chert
(?) amygdaloidal and porphyritic lavas of basalt and andesite, crystal tufts, chert and rare
serpentinite
Basalt and andesite lavas with minor lenses or intercalations of chert
Boulders and clasts of limestone, chert, schist and andesite similar to the andesite lava in the Garba
Formation, all within a scaly matrix
Saling
Saling
Lingsing
Garba
Insu Member
M~lange Complex
4
5
5
5
References: l, Bennett et al. (1981a); 2, Cameron et al. (1982a); 3, Barber (2000); 4, Gafoer et al. (1992e); 5, Gafoer et al. (1994)
A c e h P r o v i n c e ( r e f e r to Fig. 4 . 1 3 )
N a t a l a r e a ( r e f e r to F i g s 4 . 1 4 a n d 6 . 1 2 )
Oceanic rocks of the Woyla Group in the Natal area were first
mapped by Rock et al. (1983) as part of the Lubuksikaping
Quadrangle. The rock units and their relationships were described
in detail from the Batang Natal river and road sections by Wajzer
(1986), with a more accessible summary in Wajzer et al. (1991).
The section shows imbricated slices of massive limestone, serpentinite, volcaniclastic sandstone, sometimes turbiditic, pillow
basalt, radiolarian chert and m~lange, composed of blocks of
these lithologies in a clay matrix, arranged in an apparent
3km
Jambor Baru
Formation
BNL
ioma
BNM
\',,.
BNL
.:..
.~..:.:.:.:.:.:
9
:..
PV
: ::~.~i ,i;i~i ii !i i,.i!i~i:.!~) i:.!.:~: " ~ ~ i "i i .Megabr
. ecciaBata~.TI
ng(BNM)Natal
Parlampungan
Volcanics (PV)
Batu Nabontar
Limestone (BNL)
SOMA
Sandstone
Si Gala Gala
Schists
77
..:.:.=.
9
Muarasoma Turbidite
Formation (MTF)
".:.:.:.:.:..
" ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' N
-.'.:.:.:,-
.%..-.....,
. . . , % , % , ..., 4 /
-~L-L~z'Manung
J
al'x",,"
,."x"x~xBatholitgh,"x~',,'
,"x"x"x 87.0MaJ'x"-,'
SimaroOu
Formation
(STF)
Panglong
Melange
N a b ~ a Volcanics 4
BNL -~":"L'."
Ranto Sore
Formation
%,-,.'%..%.,
9 9. . . .
:.:.
.
~ k: :
NATAL
Siltstone
i b;>
~30
%" %" " " %" %" " " " " " " " "
"V" %" "," %" %" %" "," %" V
%" %" ",~ %" %" V
~"
Tambak Baru
Volcanics
"" %'~..,..,..
%"%"%"~,~f ~i:.iiiiiiiiiiiii:.--:~i!iiii Si'l<um'lou'!i!i!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~
:Langsat ~!:!~::....:.
~:.--iiii::i::i::.T:ur:b!d:!!e.siiiiiii!i!i!i!i!i!!!!i!i!i!i:i:::
S'"PANG GA,B,R
- . V o l c a n i c s . . v %" 9
FAULT
9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
" ,~LANGSA1
~..- , , . %" %" %" 4... %" %" ,...
9......
-..........-.-.....%....-
"'='=':.'=':';-:-='=-=-:'.':"-:':-:'":-=':':-='?:'
.. ....
":""
"
V
"...
%"
Jgcan,c
v
'..~ v
"4
.......
v --,." %.' %"
-.,.' %" %" %" -,.. ".,~ %" %,' %" %" %" v
%-"
Location
9~
with
of
Late
limestone
Triassic
Locations
for
bl
....- v
foraminife~
K/Ar
dates
%'. . . . .
} ~" ".29.7Ma"
~5'
.-~. v
%" .... v
"
% " ~," V
........,
i
Fig. 6.12. Simplified geological map of the Batang Natal river section. Adapted by Barber (2000) from Wajzer
et al.
~
i
.~- . . . .
%" .4....... v
-,.- -v- -
AIR
(1991). S, serpentinite.
9v
..-
%',
%"
"v'O ;~
%"%"
v
78
CHAPTER 6
In the Padang Quadrangle, to the north of the Danau Maninjau volcanic centre, the northern margin of the Woyla Accretionary
Complex is truncated by the Sumatra Fault Zone (Kastowo &
Leo 1973). Here a zone of serpentinite pods aligned along faults
has been emplaced in massive limestones, phyllites, metasandstones and metasiltstones, occasionally with mafic greenstones.
Jurassic fossils were collected from the limestones at Palembanjan
by Volz (19 ! 3).
To the east of Padang, McCarthy et al. (2001) recognized
thrusting in the volcanic-sedimentary sequence in the Indarung
Formation of Yancey & Alif (1977) and identified Mid-Jurassic
radiolaria in cherts, indicating that part of the accreted ocean
crust was of Jurassic age. The Golok Tuff Formation composed
of crystal tufts which lies above the Lubuk Peraku Limestone
(Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous, Yancey & Alif 1977) has
been dated using the K - A r method at 105 _+ 3 Ma (Koning &
Aulia 1985). McCarthy et al. (2001) interpreted the massive
Lubuk Peraku Limestone as part of a fringing reef to a seamount
which collided during subduction with the Accretionary
Complex and was imbricated within it.
The Limestone Member of the Siguntur Formation, on strike
to the SE at Surian in the Painan Quadrangle, is described by
Rosidi et al. (1976) as similar to the Indarung Limestone and
possibly also capped a former seamount. The main outcrop of
the Siguntur Formation south of Padang includes quartzites
(McCarthy et al. 2001). Rosidi et al. (1976) remark on the
cherty nature of quartzites, which suggests that they may have
an oceanic origin. The diverse origins of sediments are typical
of the Oceanic and Accretion Complex, and this poorly exposed,
but extensive unit includes distal terrestrial, volcaniclastic,
pelagic and chemical oceanic sediments, probably juxtaposed by
thrusting and movement along strike-slip faults.
D a n a u D i a t a s to G u n u n g Kerinci
79
. . . . . . .
0
'~0oo~',
. ~
. ~ .
~-k
C~
~ - ~
~
cq
cq
oo
C~
o~
.,-...,
%
Z
~ - - ~
k~
>
m
80
CHAPTER 6
100OE,.,
102~
101 ~
,Singkarak
1os
Siguntu
%,/
103~
106~
105~
50
ah
100km
I
~ukgadang
~Tabir
BANGKA
2~
9 PALEMBANG
3~
Pendopo
Faults
121 +2Ma
""
JAVA
SEA
Thrusts
BENGKL
WOYLA
~
GROUPASSEMBLAGES
BATURAJA
Lampung
High
Accretionary Complex
(ocean-floor material)
Foreland assemblage
Palaeozoic basement
102~
103~
104~
Fig. 6.13. The distribution of the Woyla Group Assemblages in Southern Sumatra and localities mentioned in text.
(Table 6.8) is a tectonic composite of oceanic and foreland
lithologies.
>-
_Q
z
2
0-20
0-10
Zr/P205
o~
o4 3
0
I-2
;2
,~
10
Y/Nb
81
100
'
200
300
Zr ppm
'
400
Fig. 6.14. Geochemical discrimination diagrams for basaltic rocks after Floyd &
Winchester (1975) showing the affinityof the volcanics collected from the Saling
Formation, Gumai Mountains. Diagram after Gafoer et al. (1992c).
82
CHAPTER 6
Ma ~
-240~
_(2
~_
-250
-260 z
_
STAGE
ANISIAN
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA SEA
boreholes ILEVEL TIMOR
SIBUMASU
EAST SUMATRA BLOCK
'
I Calcareous
Member
(-9z
<=o_
VVVVV
ARTINSKIAN
KLUET
FORMATION ~ u . .
con on
-~O
VvV
V
Member
/,,,,,'
ABSELIAN
-290--
"
Ice
',
i
i VolJne
i
GZELIAN
Gondwana
Margin Events
II
GHANGHSINGIAN V
WUCHAIPINGIAN
V
CApITANIAN
V V
WORDIAN
ROADIAN
V V V V
a. S A K M A R I A N
BLOCK
-270 iiirr
1280
WEST SUMATRA
SCYTHIAN
KUNGURIAN
"-
--
PENGABUHA
FORMATION
BOHOROK
& MENTULU
FORMATIONS
'Pebbly
Mudstones'
VV
V
V
(Tabir
Formation)
Volcanic
Gondwana
retreats to
Volcanicityaccompanies south
Sea-floor spreading in
Meso-Tethys (Phase 2)
I Separationof
Sibumasu and
Baoshan Blocks
, Member
(Palepat
! Formation)
II
Opening of
Meso-Tethys
(Phase 1)
tk
Mengkarang
Formation
volcanicity
Gondwana
Glaciation of Sibumasu advances
'"
to north
GANGSAL
FORMATION
-300
KASIMOVIAN
MUSCOVIAN
-310
ii
cc
-330
LU
SERPUKOVIAN
IJ_
ii
09 B A S H K I R I A N
-320
,,
O
[]
-340
<
n-
I Limestone
Member
VISEAN
-350
V VV
TOURNAISIAN
......
Lower
Member
-360
Opening of Palaeo-Tethys
Fig. 6.15. The Permian sequence in Timor after Charltonet al. (2002) showingvolcanichorizonsrelated to the break-up of the Gondwanamargin and seafloorspreading
in the Meso-TethysOcean. Sibumasu is understoodto have broken from Gondwana at the close of the Sakmarian (Metcalfe 1996) and the West Sumatra Block in the
Triassic.
83
dolerites and amphibolites from the Dili area of Timor (Berry &
Jenner 1982).
The timing and chemistry of the West Sumatra Permian
Plutonic-Volcanic Belt suggest that it was linked both with subduction and continent margin faulting/seafloor spreading, but
the chemical data do not discriminate which process was dominant
at any particular time. This might be explained by the palaeogeographic setting of the West Sumatra Block between Cathaysia and
Gondwana, where the Cathaysian margin subduction regime
appears to have been affected by the break-up faulting of the
Gondwana margin. This palaeogeographic setting ended when
Sibumasu collided with the Indochina Block of Cathaysia in the
Changsingian and Scythian (Metcalfe 2000).
B e n t o n g - B i l l i t o n Accretionary Complex
84
CHAPTER 6
took place in Malaya and in the Tin Islands off Sumatra. The only
volcanic units related to this phase of plutonism which have survived, form the Pahang Volcanic Belt associated with the
Eastern Granite Province of Peninsular Malaya.
At the same time Meso-Tethys commenced subduction beneath
Western Sumatra creating the continental margin West Sumatra
Triassic Plutonic-Volcanic Arc. Some of these Triassic arc
plutons were intruded into the (formerly) extensive limestone
platform which formed at the Meso-Tethys ocean margin
but few associated volcanics have been recognized (Cubadak
Formation).
OCEANIC
ISLAND ARC
(arc assemblage)
Andesitic volcanics
and volcaniclastic
sediments
(Tambak Baru and
Parlumpangan
Volcanic Units)
r ' . . . , . . . .
" ' ' "
.
ACCRETIONARY COMPLEX
(oceanic assemblage)
To the margin of
>
SUNDALAND - subducted
beneath the Woyla Nappe
in the mid-Cretaceous
UPPER TRENCH
SLOPE BASIN
greywackes LOWER TRENCH COLLAPSING
(Muarasoma
SLOPE BASIN
SEAMOUNT
Turbidite
(Belok Gadang
with olistostrome
Formation)
Siltstone
(Panglong
Formation)
Melange
TRENCH Formation)
(Simarobu
I
Turbidite
]
Forr~ation)
$
, ' v v v
FOREARC BASIN
volcaniclastic sediments
and reefs
(Rantobi Sandstone and
Jambu Baru Formations)
(Triassic- mid-Cretaceous)
oceanic lithosphere, ocean floor
and pelagic sediments
(Nabana Volcanic Unit
Pasaman Ultramafic Complex)
Fig. 6.16, Cartoon reconstruction of environments of sediment and volcanic units within the Woyla Accretionary Complex of the Natal area. Sediment environments are
as interpreted by Wajzer et al. (1991) and in Table 6.9, but do not represent a specific time frame.
85
the collision, the arc was detached from its oceanic basement,
ramped onto the Sumatra continent margin, and so overlies thin
continental lithosphere. This is demonstrated by the continent
margin-type mineralogy of the Late Cretaceous (97.7 0.7 Ma)
intrusion of the Younger Complex of the Sikuleh Batholith into
the Bentaro Arc and the subsequent (Late Tertiary?) molybdenum
mineralisation and drainage tin anomalies (Bennett et al. 1981b).
The debate over the oceanic or continental origins of arcs
is complicated by the discovery of a fragment of a continental
arc within the Woyla Oceanic and Accretion Assemblage. In the
Batang Natal section, severely deformed Si Gala Gala Schists
represent volcanics with a more acidic (continental) source than
the intermediate composition volcanics and volcanogenic sedimentary units of oceanic origin in the assemblage. The intense
deformation in the Si Gala Gala Schists, compared to other
units, may have been the result of a collision of a continental
island arc with the accretionary margin (Wajzer 1986). Alternatively, and believed to be more likely, the Si Gala Gala Schists
represent a relatively autochthonous fault-sliver of a local
Sumatran volcanic centre, deformed as a result of fault movements. The intermediate composition Parlampungan Volcanic
Unit is adjacent, and may be related to the Si Gala Gala Schists,
but is not deformed. Wajzer (1986) suggested that it was a fault
sliver transported from the continent margin Sumatra Arc by
strike-slip faulting and became incorporated within the accretionary complex, but alternatively it is a variably deformed local
volcanic centre with intermediate volcanics differentiated from
oceanic basalts.
In conclusion, the reconnaissance study of the Pre-Tertiary volcanics of Sumatra has already provided fascinating data assisting
the understanding of the geological evolution of Sumatra.
Further study of the volcanic rocks of Sumatra will lead to a
better understanding of the history of the break-up of Gondwana,
and the rearrangement of crustal blocks during collision and
accretion processes throughout the Permian and the Mesozoic,
with implications far outside Sumatra.
Chapter 7
Tertiary stratigraphy
M. E. M. DE SMET & A. J. B A R B E R
Stratigraphic review
The review of the stratigraphic terminology which has been
used over the past hundred years for Tertiary sedimentary and
volcanic units in Sumatra is a formidable task. More than 200 stratigraphic groups, formations and members have been described
and defined in the Tertiary of Sumatra; the majority of these
names have been introduced as the result of the GSI mapping
programme during the past few decades. Fortunately only about
15% of these names are in common use. Often, the regional
relations of these units are not fully clear due to poor outcrop
conditions and the difference in style of definitions used by the
various research and exploration groups. Many of the units have
been described only from localized areas and were never incorporated in the regional picture. A further problem is that names,
definitions and classifications have been continually altered or
revised as a result of subsequent work, and because of improvements in biostratigraphic age dating. Some of the changes in
nomenclature and classification for the backarc, forearc and
intra-arc basins are illustrated in Figures 7.2-7.4. Particular problems have arisen where units, which were originally described
and defined from field outcrop, have been adopted by oil companies for time/rock units, defined by reflectors in seismic sections.
During this process, facies variations that originally were regarded
as separate formations on the basis of lithological data in the
field outcrops, were incorporated within a single unit in seismostratigraphy. The ages of the earliest Tertiary sediments in
Sumatra are generally poorly constrained, as the oldest units are
commonly terrestrial deposits in which body fossils are exceedingly rare and palynological dating has often proved inconclusive.
The earliest sediments are generally considered to be of Oligocene
to earliest Miocene age, but in the absence of definitive fossil
evidence an Eocene age is not precluded, and has been suggested
in some areas.
During the proliferation of stratigraphic terms for the Tertiary
sediments of Sumatra, attempts have been made to simplify
and rationalize the classification by developing hierarchical stratigraphic schemes. Oil companies use their own schemes of groups,
formations and members in their concession areas, but these are
rarely used consistently, and cannot be easily extended to cover
broader areas. A scheme of classifying formations into groups
and supergroups was developed during the GSI mapping programme and is used on the published GRDC maps. The scheme
follows the recommendations of Hedberg (1976) and Whittaker
et al. (1991). Groups are defined in a vertical stratigraphic
sense, incorporating several successive formations, and are confined to the area of a single basin, while Supergroups link together
units considered to belong to the same tectono-stratigraphic
stage throughout Sumatra. In principle this may be a sound
method of classification, but in practice the scheme was initially
poorly applied, as the Tertiary II Supergroup covers what could
be more sensibly classified as two distinct tectono-stratigraphic
stages, awkwardly designated Supergroups IIa and IIb. The
scheme has not proved sufficiently flexible to incorporate the
flood of new data and continually revised interpretations.
In the present account stratigraphic units are considered only
at the formation level using the stratigraphic terminology given
in Figures 7.2-7.5. Formations are described in terms of the
tectono-stratigraphic stage that they represent in the history of
the backarc, forearc or intra-arc basin in which they occur. Four
distinct tectono-stratigraphic stages have long been recognized
in the Tertiary sediments of the Sumatran backarc basins, and
this scheme may readily be extended to cover the intra-arc
basins within the Barisan Mountains. It may, however, only be
TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
~P
94 ~
87
96 ~
98 ~
ANDAMAN
SEA
"~
GULF
................................................... ....
/ ~..... /
-6 ~
oF
[ NORTH . . . . . : ' : /
SUMATRA 9
BASIN
Banda
"X
MALAY~"
NA,TUN A"
ISLAND'S
-- 4~
N
N
_2 ~
NA TUNA
"~
SEX
\
\
\
\
,~
Ni
A~
ISLANDS
/
_0
BATU
ISLAND
LINGGA
ISLANDS
~\
2~
),N
t~
"5
~"
M EN TA ~W-#~
ISLANDS
k__.
4,,
N
N
\~,
a,
Volcanoes
~.
6 ~
\
"~
Subduction zone
100
200
94 =
96 ~
L._
INDIAN
OCEAN
B'A\SIN >.. =
s IBERU~T
%\
_4
M ' B 1L 1N ~
<
300
400
ENGG2
500km
98 ~
1 00 ~
1 02 ~
Fig. 7.1. Structural sketch map of Sumatra showing the Tertiary backarc, forearc and intra-arc basins and localities mentioned in the text.
applied in modified form to the forearc basins, and is only applicable in the most general way to the forearc islands. The stratigraphic relations between this scheme and the most commonly
recognized formations in Sumatra are shown in Figures 7.6-7.8.
88
CHAPTER 7
APPROXIMATE
AGE
QUATERNARY
~
o
PLEISTOCENE
'
Julu Rayeu Fm
'~
Rotalia Sst Fm
Keutapang Formation
tu
Robulina Clay
Intervening Sst
~,
~
Border Clay
Peunulin Sst
MULHADIONO et al.
1978
~ J u l u
Rayeu Fm
Seureula
Formation
Baong Fm
Peunulin Sst
Peunulin Sst
~
Peutu
Formation
Peutu
Formation
Belumai
Formation
Mica
Sandstone
ILl
Seureula
Formation
Keutapang Formation
Baong Formation
Seumpo Sst Mb I
Black Mudstone
,,,,~
Present report,
in part adapted from
KIRBY et al. 1989
CAMERON et al.
1980, 1983
--
Seureula
Formation
~.
z~O~
t,,
~
~
Ii
F
m
Lignite Zone
Fossiliferous Marl and Sst
Early GDRC
publications
m ~,
~
~'~
~ _~
:~
"~
< ~=
KeutapangFormation
Z
O
'r
D
09
v
O
Baong Formation
Seumpo Sst Mb I
Baong Formation
Peunulin Sst
Peutu
" = Formation/
=
%
= ~~
~ ~
~
E'~
-=
Seureula
Formation
KeutapangFormation
[
SecuraiShale
Baong Formation
~
~
~==
"E
~-~
a.
Peunu|in Sst
O
Peutu
(.9 ~
Formation /
UJ 2=~
J
~ ~o ~=
.-~
0
~~
; z
.~ ~
N~
~~ =
=
,,=,
~
Parapat
Parapat
Bampo Formation
Bampo Formation
Formation
Formation
Bruksah Formation
Bruksah Formation
~
Formation
Meucampli ~
Formation
~
"x...F.ormation
Meucampll"-~.
Formation " ~
-I
I1,1
e,
nl
Reefal Limestones
~
Formation
Meucam.pli ~
Formation
~
~~
N
D ea:
~
and Dolomite
Meucamph~"'~-~
Formation
Fig. 7.2. The development of the stratigraphic terminology for the Tertiary of the North Sumatra Basin.
TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
89
APPROXIMATE
AGE
QUATER"
NARY
PLEISTO"
CENE
i
J ~
! !
~-~J~"
(STANVAC)
~ ,
~ ~i J ~ -!-
e r
Palembang Beds
Nilo
Formation
,,,
Middle
Palembang Beds
Korinci
Formation
zm m
m
Lower
Palembang Beds
Binio
Formation
m
w
MERTOSONO
& NAYOAN 1974
(PT CALTEX)
DE COSTER 1974
,,,
-~
Petani
Formation
Bangko Fm
(restr. marine)
- ~
Minas
Formation
Minas
Formation
Petani
Formation
Telisa
~
Mica
Sandstone
Formation
Minas
Formation
Telisa
Formation
PRAPTONO etal.
1989
CAMERON etal.
1983
Petani
Formation
Telisa
Formation
~
! <
~
~
Pematang
Formation
Telisa
F o r m ~
~
I
~
(with several
members)
Pematang
Formation
~
~
r
Sihapas
Formation
TransitionFormation
Menggala
Formation
Breccia
i I
Fig. 7.3. The development of the stratigraphic terminology for the Tertiary of the Central Sumatra Basin.
rock derived from the nearby basement. Lake sediments from this
stage reach thicknesses of several kilometers, often indicating
euxinic bottom conditions, and play a major role as source rocks
in the Sumatran petroleum province.
The age of sediments of the Horst and Graben stage is everywhere problematic as due to their terrestrial origin, age-diagnostic
fossils are exceedingly rare. Palynological schemes have been
used for stratigraphic correlation (e.g. Morley 1991) but due to
reworking, age-dating based on palynology has often proved
inconclusive. The age of the Horst and Graben sediments is
constrained at a regional scale by underlying Eocene marine
platform limestones and by overlying Early to Mid-Miocene
marine shales. Published stratigraphic schemes show a range in
age for the Horst and Graben deposits from Late Eocene to earliest
Miocene. Age interpretations are rarely supported by biostratigraphic data other than by the age of the overlying marine
shales. There may also be regional variation in the age of
formation of the grabens but, for reasons mentioned above, this
is difficult to prove. In the present account it is assumed that
graben formation in Sumatra commenced in the latest Eocene
and ceased in the Late Oligocene (Figs 7.6-7.8).
In the North Sumatra Basin the rift sediments comprise the
Bruksah and Bampo formations (Cameron et al. 1980) (Figs 7.2
& 7.6). Graben deposits from North Sumatra form an exception
to the rule that most sediments from the Horst and Graben Stage
are terrestrial in origin. Before the NW displacement of the
forearc area along the Sumatran Fault System, commencing in the
Mid-Miocene, the northern Sumatra area lay along the margin of
Sundaland and subject to marine influences (see Chapter 14). The
Bruksah Formation rests unconformably on the Pre-Tertiary basement and commences with thick basal breccio-conglomerates,
representing alluvial fans, followed by light to dark grey, micaceous, poorly sorted quartz sandstone, siltstone and mudstone, with
90
CHAPTER 7
APPROXIMATE
AGE
PLEISTO-
QMATER-NARY CENE
d
m
I/A
o 8 g.
"
MARKS
1956
SPRUYT
1956
DE COSTER 1974
(STANVAC)
III ~ -
II ] I J ~ '
Upper
Palembang Beds
Palembang Mb
N
~
Middle
Palembang Beds
Middle
Palembang Mb
~~
~
x~
Lower
PalembangMb
~
%
e.
Lower
PalembangBeds
Kasai Tuff
Formation
Blue Mb
Limestone
Wood
Horizon
~
r~
] ~ .~ ~
~ ~ %
~
Brown Mb
Air Benakat
Sandand Clay
Formation
Upper
Telisa Mb
Telisa Beds
J
C~
,~
~
~
Gumai Shale
Fomaation
] WelisaMb
Lower
Telisa Mb
~
.[2-
Palembang
Kasai
Formation
Middle
Palembang
Muara Enim
Formation
Lower
Palembang
Air Benakat
Formation
Telisa
Formation
Gumai
Formation
] Lilnestone Fm
Transition Mb
Gritsand Mb
~.~
Telisa
Limestone
c~
]Formation
~ "~
~=
~
~ ~
9
Talangakar
Formation
~
~
Talangakar
Formation
m<
2E55EEEXEEE
Upper Kikim Tufts
...... ~
~"i
i
i
.iiii
!iI !
II
Lemat
Formation
...... ~
__
"Granite Wash"
Tuff-breccia
Fomaation
Comple~
|
Lahat
Formation
;i
ii
~i~
i
:
i ]
I~,1 i
ijii
] 'I :I~
IKiki
:1i11: Iii
KikimTuffs
Fig. 7.4. The development of the straligraphic terminology for the Tertiary of the South Sumatra Basin.
TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
91
APPROXIMATE
AGE
QUATER-NARY
PLEISTO"'
CENE .
dO
i'(='
.a
~ :~i = i,I
SIBERUT ISLAND
e.g. Andi Mangga &
Burhan, 1994
i i i ~~ i I' I J I~11 i , J i !
Simatobat Formation
! lJj
TELLO ISLAND
e.g. Nas &
Supanjono, 1994
II''
'i
unnamed
i ~I I I : ! I =! ~
Raparapa Formation
Kaleo Formation
Batumonga
"'
[ '~
NIAS ISLAND
e.g. Djamal et al. 1994
j ~.
. i . I.
~ ~1 l : i '
~
z
Saibi
Formation
Maonai
Formation
Sipika
Formation
Dihit
Sst Fm
~,~
I i i
I I
!1 i
lii
I'l:~
Layabaung
/ Sorit Fm
:4
Z
Ai Manis
/ Sibigo
Limestone
Sigulai
Formation
2.2
m
i="
Sinabang Formation
Hilihego
Formation
Lelematua
Formation
Formation
II
aomo
,~
Ii
Gunungsitoli Formation
Formation
Sagulubek
/ Marepan
Formation
SIMEULUE ISLAND
e.g. Endharto & Sukido. 1994
Situmorang et al., 1987
Pinang
Conglomerate
Basal breccia?
tll
z
8
w
o
i
Melange
with Ultramafics
Tarikan
Melange
Sigala Ultramafic
Complex and
Tanahbalah
Metamorphic
Complex
X
Melange and
Ophiolite
Complex
~
9
~
9
9
ul
LII
Fig. 7.5. Stratigraphic terminology for the Tertiary of the Sumatran Forearc Islands.
92
CHAPTER 7
REGIONAL
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHIC
STAGES
NORTH
SUMATRA
BASIN
CENTRAL
SUMATRA
BASIN
SOUTH
SUMATRA
BASIN
REG!
S
!merger
Mount~
~creasin
Ma
Tran~
Marine: Clays with minor intercalations of ....--~
RANS
S"
bmerge
untains
eld ~ead~
clas
Start of
tnd first~
betwe=
~4ountair
and ba(
pRST ,~
S"
Deltaic
sandstones
.. Reefal
limestones
Start (
PRE
:inal sta
ci
Fig. 7.6. Generalized tectono-stratigraphy of {he Tertiary in the backarc basins of Sumatra. The diagram is highly simplified as most units interfinger and most boundaries
are diachronous.
TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
93
AGE
STAGES
HIGH
BARISAN
INTRAMONTANE
OMBILIN BASIN
QUATER- PLEI:
PLEISTONARY
CE
CENE
d
o
.a
tit
E - BARISAN
FOOTHILLS
REGRESSIVE
STAGE
Emergenceof Baris;
Mountains leads tc
increasing clastic inl:
__
Maximum
Transgression
TRANSGRESSIV
STAGE
Submergenceof Bari~
Mountainsand of Mala
Shieldleadsto reductio
clastic input
LU
,,=,
8
HORST AND GRAB
STAGE
Start of faulting
uJ
PRE-RIFT
Erosion / non-deposition
94
CHAPTER
SUMATRAN
REGIONAL
TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHIC
STAGES
AGE
QUATERNARY
PLE1STO
REGRESSIVE
a. [
STAGE
f -
I---I
tu ~
m ]~ I
Transgression [
T R A N S G R E S S VE
STAGE
]~ ,
I ~ [
Submergence of Barisan
Mountains and of Malayan
,,', i
I
I
[ ~. [
I , ~ ~ ".
Z [
[
,~
tu
o
0
7.8. G e n e r a l i z e d
,,,, ,
f'~r';.~r'~'ie"t~'~aC
it
-~'.."-Lu:_q
LI
I t'fftl
l till
.I.'. / L e m a u
, ' : . ~ . ~
=..--. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . .
"'~':*'~'/~:':':':"Basai
i
~ ~
"--""
Ittllllttlllllllllll:":':':..:
I I ltllllllllllllllt
Illtll
:[I [I [ [
[t I t [I
Ii
1=:.:-:.'.'.'.'*',','.:.:,:.:,1
nasu 1 ~..,...
/'.'.'.'. . . . . . Seblat
...
C]astics":':':':-'~-":~:::::"-:':':" E u e n ' -':::-'":::[
:..'::':':':':t.":':'.":O:':':':
It111I
ultrabasic rocks
PRE RIFT
~
.
:::':.;" :":":"
.
.
J
.
_
.
~
.
I t:
Bathya!and shelfalse.q,ences.
,., ~.,
'
:t
"
.ro..,o,,;
/ r -t-
I
Erosion / non-deposition in much of the forearc area,
I Ememenceof }
[ forearc slands9 [
'
T a m p u r Lst /
.
/ Slm0metl
I
~ro~ o,~on~e ~a.o~saod~ s
Metange formation in
forearc islandsarea
u ~
~ ~1 ~ 1-1-r-tq-!3-~
.
"
, :;
| ~ : Nummuh.tcs
Est.'.
.r ~
"
,.,
, non-deposition ] l l l
t~ ~
r
""............
"'"r-.'.,'~ "."
|
~:'/':':1111
~
.
''"
'.,
IlllllrTPr-re_.2.ql
~ - I
['1
STAGE
,f,,
IIII
barus :':':':':1
I I FI ]hl';.~.'.'.'.'.'-'-'." 4
theBarisanUountains
I llll
~..:::::::':::::::.:...-~.
....
rrt1r
' ' ' ',--' " !' ' ' , " ' I I I I I II I I I
I betweenBarisan !------~,J...
]Mountainsandforearc|
teclono-stratigraphy
t................ 7, "'''~-" /
, . - - . . . - - . . - - t ~ - ~ - ~ : . . - - . - - . , ~ ~ ~
l lltIItllllll
= & : : . ~ ~ r, ,v~. ~ . _ . T e l i s a / G u m a i ]
]
clastic input
'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig.
,, ,
1UJ.LL-'eL~"':~'r~,',-z=-'""='='r
'" [
wm
.';"~, "=;.=z~,.;-=.'~,.'~..-~. . . . . . . . . .
v':'sequences~::sequences~Turbidite
}.}:" ShelfM :4:'7":':'5,
""~;'". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . .
~
N-"
-*,1",'-'.'.,." tJ I I I
" " ~ " ~ " ' - " ~ ' " ' " .'-'.'.',','.'-',Wscouences ~.'sequellces ,'1",'.','.'." "4 I I
SCHEME
W - BARISAN
FOOTHILLS
~
/
d
U I Ill
:...-v::-=::...'7::..-v::.-v::7..:.:,:.:,:,:.:.:.~:::~:~:.YC~,tabakli
FOREARC BASIN
OFFSHORE
WEST SUMATRA
' '
I
I
TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHIC
comments
M- Jgn~tainot. . . . . .
incre:sh'l- c~la~t~c~n~,ut
If'
AREA
FOREARC
ISLANDS
:
[ m ]
FOREARC
Ssts'
Carbonate platform
deposition, in forearc
basin a r e a
o f the T e r t i a r y in the f o r e a r c a r e a o f S u m a t r a .
TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
In the central part of the basin the Baong consists almost entirely
of shale with one significant sandstone incursion, from the
Malacca Platform to the east. This sandstone is of N 1 2 - 1 4
(Mid-Miocene) age and has been called the 'Middle Baong
Sand' in this area. In seismic sections it is tbllowed by a regional
unconformity. In the southern part of the North Sumatra Basin
sandstone intercalations have also been called the Middle Baong
Sandstones (Cameron et al. 1980). Here the sands fill incised
valleys and are considered to have been derived fi'om the south
(Syafrin 1995). In the subcrop of basinal areas the Baong shales
are frequently overpressured, and locally, in the crests of anticlines, intrude the overlying Keutapang Formation diapirically,
and erupt at the surface as mud volcanoes. Keats et al. (1981)
estimated that a very rapid rate of deposition, of the order of
0.45 mm a-~, with the retention of fluids, was responsible for
the development of the overpressure. The Baong shales form a seal
to many of the oil and gas reservoirs in the North Sumatra Basin.
In North Sumatra the transition from marine transgression to
regression was originally interpreted to have occurred at a later
time than in other areas of Sumatra. In the account of Cameron
et al. (1980) the open marine Baong Formation was considered
to represent transgression into the Late Miocene. However,
Kirby et al. (1989) showed that the Middle Baong Sandstones
(or Seumpo Sandstones) can seismically be correlated with the
basal part of the Keutapang Formation at a more regional scale.
The Lower Baong of Cameron et al. (1980) is therefore time
equivalent to the upper parts of the Ombilin, Telisa and Gumai
formations of Central and South Sumatra. The Middle Baong
Sandstones and the Upper Baong Shale of Mulhadiono et al.
(1978, 1982), together with the Securai Shale of Kirby et al.
(1989) are all part of the Regressive Stage and for reasons of
regional stratigraphic consistency should be considered part of
the regressive Keutapang Formation. The amended stratigraphy
is shown in Figures 7.2 & 7.6. This interpretation is not universally
accepted, and may be appropriate only for the area studied by
Kirby et al. (1989).
95
Summary
The pre-Tertiary basement of Sundaland extends to the west across
the present forearc as far as the outer arc islands to the west of
Smnatra as indicated by metamorphic rocks in Tanahbala (Nas
& Supandjono 1994). During the Late Cretaceous the whole of
the Sumatran basement was exposed to erosion. In the Eocene at
least parts of this basement was covered by shallow seas in
which platform carbonates were deposited, represented by the
Tampur Limestone in northern Sumatra, Nummulitic limestones
near Benkulu in southern Sumatra, and clasts of these limestones
in found in conglomerates in the outer arc islands.
In the Late Eocene to Early Oligocene the basement, as in much of
Sundaland, was subject to extension, forming a pattern of horst and
graben which controlled stratigraphic development, with
sedimentation in isolated rift basins derived from the erosion of
the intervening horsts. These rifts extended across the area of the
present Barisan Mountains (Ombilin Basin) into the forearc region
(e.g. Bengkulu). This same history is evident throughout much of
Southeast Asia with the development of rift basins in the Sunda
Shelf, Borneo, the Malay and Gulf of Thailand Basins (Longley
1997) and extending into northern Thailand (Polachan et al. 1991).
This regional extension coincided with the collision of India with
the southern margin of the Asian continent and has been attributed
to the extrusion and rotation of continental blocks to the southeast
of the site of collision (Tapponnier et al. 1982).
During the Horst and Graben Stage deposition in Sumatra
was characterised by sediment transport over short distances,
96
CHAPTER 7
in the Sunda Strait in the south, along which only minor displacements of the order of 10 km have occurred (Malod et al. 1996).
Direct measurement of displacement across the fault in Sumatra
has proved difficult as most stratigraphic units trend parallel to
the fault trace. Possible offsets of 45 km on the basis of the displacement of Permian granites (Hahn & Weber 1981a) and of
up to 100 km from displacement of Tertiary basins (Beaudry &
Moore 1985) have been postulated for various strands of the
fault. It is probable that movement along the fault system have
been taking place continuously at least since the Mid-Miocene
(14-11 Ma) when spreading in the Andaman Sea is considered
to have commenced (Curray et al. 1979). Presumably, movements
along various parts of the fault system have continued from the
time of initiation of the fault system until the present day.
Recent movements are shown by displacement of Recent
volcanics (Posavec et al. 1973), by the offset of stream courses
(Katili & Hehuwat 1967), by continued seismic activity, by displacement of recent sediments along the fault trace (Sieh et al. 1994)
and by GPS measurements (McCaffrey 1996; Sieh & Natawidjaja
2000). The difference in relative displacement at either end of
the fault system shows that the forearc area was stretched over
time and not displaced as a rigid block. Displacement increases
progressively northwards and is considered to have occurred by
cumulative strike-slip movements along a fault system oriented
in a S S E - N N W direction throughout the forearc region (Curray
1989; McCaffrey 1996).
In this account it is presumed that the origin of the Sumatran
Fault Zone coincided with the development of Barisan Mountains
and the backarc and forearc basins in the Late Oligocene. All these
regional structures have a N N W - S S E trend and are overprinted
over horst and graben structures that have a more north-south
trend. The Barisan Mountains acted as a sediment source area
from the latest Oligocene onwards and therefore it is presumed
that transcurrent movements along the Sumatran Fault trend
started at about the same time. A latest Oligocene age for first
movements along the fault system does not conflict with a MidMiocene age of spreading in the Andaman Sea as documented
by Curray et al. (1979) because extension with movement along
the fault traces in that area may have occurred long before the first
ocean floor spreading. The reconstruction suggests that the forearc
region has extended some 460 km northwestward, relative to the
rest of Sumatra, over the last 25 Ma and that the rate of extension
has been at a uniform rate of about 1.8 cm a There is an obvious anomaly in North Sumatra in that during
the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene the Barisans was an area of
eroding terranes and shallow water facies, while deep-water
marine facies prevailed in the central parts of the North Sumatra
Basin. It appears that there was no landmass immediately to the
SW of the North Sumatra Basin which could provide a source
area. Evidently the Barisan area was only moved into its present position relative to the north Sumatra Basin to provide a sediment source
after the Middle Miocene. On the other hand thick Early Miocene
sandstones in the Central and South Sumatra Basins indicate that
at that time the Barisan source area lay much further south.
In their provenance study of the Keutapang Formation in the
North Sumatra Basin Morton et al. (1994) found that the sediments
were derived from the west or the SW. Evidently the Barisans
were uplifted and in a position to act as a source for the North
Sumatra Basin by Middle Miocene times. They also found that
chrome spinel was abundant in the lower part of the Keutapang
Formation, but rare in the upper Keutapang. This spinel must
have been derived from an ophiolitic terrain, but there is no
such terrain in a suitable position at the present time. The
Pasaman ophiolite is too far south, and the northern Aceh
ophiolites are too far north. Either the ophiolite which supplied
spinel to the lower Keutapang Formation has been removed completely by erosion, or it has been moved northwards since the
Middle Miocene by dextral movements of the order of 100 km
along the Sumatran Fault System (Morton et al. 1994).
TERTIARY STRATIGRAPHY
The removal of the displacement on the Sumatran Fault System
gives the southwestern continental margin of Sundaland a much
smoother outline in the Early Oligocene and Eocene. At that
time the North Sumatra Basin and its rifted grabens lay along
continental margin, rather than within the continent. With the
north Sumatra basin in this position it becomes clear why this
is the only backarc basin that contains Eocene shallow marine
continental margin deposits, including platform limestones.
Important conclusions derived from this stratigraphic analysis
are: the Sundaland pre-Tertiary basement extends across the
97
Chapter 8
Tertiary volcanicity
M. J. CROW
98
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
99
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100
CHAPTER 8
Table 8.1. T e r t i a r y v o l c a n i c e p i s o d e s a n d r a d i o m e t r i c a g e s f r o m v o l c a n i c r o c k s in S u m a t r a
Volcanic
Type
Dating method
LK
MK
MK
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
51.3
55.5
57.9
63.1
SH
HK
MK
4~176
4~176
4~176
52.1 1.2
59.6 _ 1.4
62.5 ___ 1.4
MK
LK
LK
4~176
4~176
4~176
62.9 1.5
63.1 1.5
63.7 1,5
63.3 1.9
60.3
55
MK
SH
SH
4~176
4~176
4~176
41.1 0.9
45.8 _+ 1.1
43.5 1
4~176
4~176
4~176
31.6 _+ 0.85
37.4 0.9
37.3 [
MK
4~176
26.9 0.72
SH
4~176
23.7 0.55
MK
MK
4~176
4~176
24.3 0.60
25.5 0.59
4oK _ 4t~Ar
4OK_ZOAr
18.8 0.49
14.5 1.17
21.4 0.59
21. l _+ 0.60
18.7 0.44
18.8 0.59
[ 8.8 0.45
18.3 + 0.44
17.7 + 0.7
17.5 _+ 0.42
17.1 + 0.9
16.4 0.6
16. I 3.9
15.9 1.0
15.0 _+ 0.38
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
whole rock
4"K-4~
whole rock
whole rock
whole rock
whole rock
4~176
Age (Ma)
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.5
Reference
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
MK
K-At,
MK
K-Ar,
K-At,
K-At,
K-At,
MK
13.7 _+ 2.7
Kallagher (1990)
MK
MK
4~176
4~176
19.6 0.58
18.2 0.45
MK
4~176
MK
4~176
K-At, whole rock
16.8 0.47
16.8 0.39
17.2 5
MK
SH
19.7 0.48
18.2 0.44
4~176
4~176
(continued)
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
Table 8.1
101
Continued
Volcanic
Type
Dating method
Age (Ma)
K-Ar, ?
MK
HK
HK
4~176
4~176
4~176
22
19.2
19.1
19.0
?K-Ar
MK
_+ 1.5
___0.54
+ 0.45
0.45
Reference
Koning & Aulia (1985)
Bellon et al. (2004)
Bellon et al. (2004)
Bellon et al. (2004)
17.5
4~176
14.3 _+ 0.34
MK
MK
MK
MK
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
16.5
13.2
12.8
12.8
0.38
0.43
0.31
0.38
Bellon
Bellon
Bellon
Bellon
MK
MK
MK
LK
HK
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
19.7
17.1
16.9
15.1
14.4
0.47
0.44
0.44
0.38
0.35
Bellon
Bellon
Bellon
Bellon
Bellon
Kallagher (1990)
Kallagher (1990)
Kallagher (1990)
MK
4~176
10.9 0.43
MK
4~176
1.76 + 0.06
(2004)
(2004)
et al. (2004)
et al. (2004)
et al.
et al.
(2004)
(2004)
et al. (2004)
et al. (2004)
et al. (2004)
et al.
et al.
HK
4~176
5.66 _+ 0.14
HK
HK
MK
4~176
4~176
4~176
2.88 0.07
2.09 0.29
1.89 + 0,23
MK
4~176
5.35 +_ 0.23
Andesite, Suliki
Basaltic andesite flow, Merapi volcano area (PY 82)
Andesite flow, north border of Lake Maninjau (MNJ 55)
Basaltic andesite flow, south of Padang (PLN 103)
K-Ar, ?
MK
MK
HK
4~176
4~176
4~176
5.4 0.3
2.99 0.08
1.76 + 0.05
1.35 0.1
LK
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
6.45
5.47
5.21
4.23
Bellon et
Bellon et
Bellon et
Bellon et
+
_
0.2
0.14
0.5
0.15
(2004)
(2004)
al. (2004)
al. (2004)
al.
al.
LK
MK
HK
MK
K-Ar
4~176
4~176
2.91 0.09
2.41 + 0.08
4.76 0.32
HK
4~176
Petrographic types: LK, = Iow-K calc-alkaline; MK, = medium-K calc-alkaline; HK, = high-K calc-alkaline; SH, = shoshonitic (see Bellon et al. 2004 for analytical
details)
B e l l o n e t a l . (2004) d a t e d d y k e s b e t w e e n 62.5 a n d 52 M a in
the Natal area, basalt flows a n d a d y k e s at c. 63 M a in t h e S o l o k
area a n d S W o f A c e h a basaltic d y k e , flow a n d t u f f b e t w e e n
63 a n d 51 Ma.
T h e K - A r a g e s o f p l u t o n s a s s o c i a t e d with the P a l a e o c e n e m a g m a t i c e p i s o d e are m o s t l y y o u n g e r t h a n the ages o f the v o l c a n i c
r o c k s and m u c h o f the data relate to the c o o l i n g o f p l u t o n s .
T h e Lass b a t h o l i t h in W e s t S u m a t r a w a s e m p l a c e d c. 56 M a
102
CHAPTER 8
et al. 1983) and the Kluet Fault (Cameron et al. 1982b) to the west
of the Sumatran Fault Zone. Several plutons and volcanic outcrops
are associated with the Kluet-Musi Fault (Fig. 8.2) which was
active in the Early Eocene, but the amount and sense of displacement (probably dextral) is not known.
Late Mid-Late
Volcanic rocks and volcaniclastic sediments have not been recognised within the Palaeogene units which occur beneath Miocene
sediments in boreholes and imaged on seismic profiles in the
forearc Meulaboh and Singkel basins (Karig et al. 1980).
Nor have they been recognized in the 'Parallel Bedded facies'
which occurs beneath the graben sequence in the Bengkulu
Basin (Hall et al. 1993), or within the newly recognized
Palaeogene Accretionary Wedge (Schluter et al. 2002) in the
Outer Arc High to the SE of Enggano.
Late M i d - L a t e Eocene volcanic rocks are found along the west
coast of Sumatra, palaeogeographically reconstructed in
Figure 8.3. The Breueh Volcanic Formation on Pulau Breueh to
the NW of Aceh, consists of bedded subaerial pyroclastics
and massive scoriaceous, feldsparphyric and epidotised basaltic
lavas. Volcanic clasts at the base of the Peunasu Formation
(Late Oligocene-Early Miocene), dated as Late Mid-Eocene,
were derived from the Breueh Volcanic Formation (Bennett
et al. 1981a). A N N E - S S W dyke swarm, which appears to
emanate from the Raya Diorite and cuts both the Breueh Volcanic
and the Peunasu Formations, has yielded a K - A r hornblende
age of 18.9 _+ 1.2 Ma (Early Miocene). According to Rock et al.
(1982), the Raya stock is a sub-volcanic intrusion and these
dykes were intruded into hot plastic lavas. It is therefore probable
that the Breueh Volcanic Formation also includes a Miocene
volcanic unit.
Volcanic rocks occur in the ?late Mid-Eocene-Early Oligocene
Meucampali Formation (Bennett et al. 1981a; Cameron et al.
1983) exposed in the Barisan Mountains to the SE of Aceh.
Local volcanic horizons with amygdaloidal, intermediate to
mafic lavas occur within paralic-fluviatile sediments. Altered
andesites occur within the Kieme and Semelit formations in
the Takengon Quadrangle (Cameron et al. 1983). Cameron et al.
(1980) interpreted the Kieme and Semelit formations as arc and
back-arc basin sequences, associated with faulting. Porphyritic
andesites in the Sitaban Formation off Tapanuli Bay also probably
belong to this phase. A microdiorite within these lavas is thought
to be a subvolcanic intrusion and has provided a zircon fission
track age of 43 -t- 3.2 Ma (Mid-Eocene) (Aspden et al. 1982b).
Bellon et al. (2004) have dated a basalt dyke in the Solok area at
46 + i Ma and an andesite dyke in the Natal area at 41 +_ i Ma.
Table 8.2. Litholo;,ies in the Kikim Volcanic Unit of'the Palaeocene volcanic
el~isode
Location
G. Dempuj
Garba Mrs2
Lahat, Lemat
1 & 2 and
Tamiang 2 wells3
Lithologies
References: IAminet al. (1994b), 2Gafoer et al. (1994), 3De Coster (1974).
Late Eocene-Early
Miocene
volcanic episode
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
k,
-\,.
,\
"N~,b
~.............
Offshore boreholes il
N~'6"~, .....
LaKe
\xToba
PALAEOCENE
\\
103
\,<'
{
\i
z
'~
\
\,
V <.N,
}Seukeun
M~
u& \
_ 6Sibubung
X
.......:,
..-..
v2.,, \
\
ssi
"-'I
N . Batang Nata
~:~
~ Bungo
x----
;.,,,,.-.~
'
"
ULT v Tamian
'
. . . . " .........
,,~, \~"N~>,~_,~
\
Bukit Raja
!"-'"\~)N"-,
Lemat 1&2
(N.
Laru
\.. ......
"-.%
Volcanic rocks
Piutons
%.o4\" , ,
~"\-
Od0~\..
v)~p.
(
{
V Gunung Dempu
~ Jatibaru
~
. . ,....
.....
......... ,.
=\.
\-,\.~
200km
/ /"J
~J'-~"""\L
104
CHAPTER 8
Breueh j
Meucampli I- 3
Kieme3
Semclit3
Sitaban4
Sibolga4
Sikumbu5
Lower Old
Andesites6
Ciletuh7
Lithologies
References: iBennett et al. ( 1981a), 2Keats et al. ( 1982), 3Cameron et a/. (1983),
4Aspden et al. (1982b), 5Wajzer et al. (1991), 6Sukarna et al. (1993),
7Schiller et al. ( 1991).
Basin (see Chapter 13). Tuffaceous horizons in the Lahat Formation in the South Sumatra Basin (Table 8.4) are distributed in
a wide arc around the Bandan volcanic centre and it seems
likely that the Bandan caldera structure was a major source for
these tufts.
The most northerly reported volcaniclastic sediments of Middle
Eocene to Upper Oligocene age occur in the lacustrine and basin
margin facies of the Upper Eocene Sangkarewang Formation in
the intramontane Ombilin Basin (Howells 1997b). Koesoemadinta
& Matasak (1981) used the term 'Brani Formation' for the basal
unit of the Sangkarewang Formation in which they described
minor quantities of volcanic debris within polymict conglomerates, but did not recognize any tuffs.
To the east in the Central Sumatra Basin De Coster (1974)
has described volcaniclastics in the basal Kelesa Formation
( O l i g o c e n e - E a r l y Miocene), now termed the Pematang Group
(Upper E o c e n e - U p p e r Oligocene, see Chapter 7). The Kelesa
Formation has a localised distribution, forming the initial sedimentary fill in troughs and grabens and contains tufts in the
northern Tigapuluh Mountains (Simunjuntak e t al. 1991). Wain
& Jackson (1995) also recognized ruffs in the Brown Shale
Facies of the Pematang Group in the Kampur Uplift, NW of
the Tigapuluh Mountains, near the southwestern margin of the
Central Basin.
The tufts and volcaniclastic sediments of the Lahat Formation
are the most widely distributed Upper E o c e n e - O l i g o c e n e
volcanic rocks in Southern Sumatra and Northwest Java.
The Lahat Formation includes terrestial and lacustrine sediments
and volcaniclastics (N.B. De Coster 1974 placed these in
the Lemat Formation) deposited initially on an uneven
topographic surface and later in (listric?) half grabens
trending n o r t h - s o u t h and NE-SW, linked by N W - S E - t r e n d i n g
transfer faults.
The basal Lahat Formation is exposed on the southeastern
slopes of the Tigapuluh Mountains uplift and contains tufts and
volcanic debris (Suwarna e t al. 1991). In the type area of the
Lahat formation in the Gumai Mountains (Musper 1937; Gafoer
e t al. 1992c, McCourt e t al. 1993) finely laminated tufts occur
below the Cawang Member (Lower Kikim Formation of Gafoer
e t al. 1992c, pp. 6 6 - 6 7 ) , and andesitic lavas, tufts and tuffaceous
claystones occur above the Cawang Member (the Upper Kikim
Formation of Galber et al. 1994), which also contains volcanic
debris. De Coster (1974) described the Lahat Formation resting
on 'Upper Cretaceous-Palaeogene' volcaniclastics (his Kikim
Tufts) below the mid-Oligocene unconformity to the east of
the Gumai Mountains, in the Kikim, Lemu, Laru, Lahat and
Tamiang wells. The Lahat Formation is not represented in
the Garba Mountains where the volcanic breccias, welded tufts,
andesitic to basaltic lavas with sedimentary intercalations were
assigned to the older Kikim Volcanics by Gafoer et al. (1994).
De Coster (1974) described how, towards the end of the Eocene
in the South Sumatra sub-basins, the uneven topography of
basement ridges and hills was deeply eroded to expose granite
plutons. The granite wash derived from these plutons was buried
beneath fluviatile continental sediments of the Lahat Formation
and included tuff, derived partly from intermittent volcanism,
but also recycled from earlier tuff deposits.
In the South Palembang Sub-basin Pannetier (1994) figures
volcaniclastic sediments of the basal Lahat Formation banked up
against fault scarps. In the South Palembang Sub-basin, towards
the top of the Lahat Formation, the Benekat Member was deposited in the Benakat Gully graben against the Lematang Fault
(Pulunggono 1986), a NW-trending transfer fault that had been
active during the Mesozoic (Pulunggono e t al. 1992). The lacustrine Benekat Member is composed of grey-brown shales with
some beds of tuffaceous shale, siltstone, sandstone and thin coal
beds. It was dated as late E o c e n e - E a r l y Oligocene on sporepollen and K - A r age dates by De Coster (1974), but is currently
considered to be of Late Oligocene age.
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
MERGUI
Me
BASIN
" ~
,~, Semelit
"-V',Kierne
( ,
Breueh~'~. ~" ~
Ts~and- ~ ~ ~ . . . .
MEULABOH~
BASIN
eucamZ"
X
\k
105
~~
"~
--
^ S/NGKELQ
\
"C..,Oe," BASIN ~V~..Sibolcla
p ulau~,.~.+~
Sitaban"9~ ~v'~'"
Simeulue \ ."*oA
\\
",%
f'-)
/~
(,.
",
~\
~.~z~V Sikumt
:
~-'/"
IvI
Volcanic rocks
I o
Plutons
",
~ Sungei Toboh
Too\. BENGKULU
" \ BASIN
0~
Pulau" %
Enggano ~
200km
~
Old Andes es V
~ "" "- ~ ~ I
Ciletuh V,
106
CHAPTER 8
Lithologies
Purple to blue-black highly porphyryritic volcanics with clinopyroxene phenocrysts, minor plagioclase, and occasional feldspar-phyric redpurple xenoliths. The groundmass is unusually potassic and consists mainly of orthoclase, but has a sodic rock composition. Chlorite
pseudomorpbs are probably after olivine, and the quantity and alteration of feldspar phenocrysts is variable. The basic lavas and
agglomerates show onion-skin weathering and are occasionally net-veined with quartz and/or epidote, perhaps related to small explosion
vents. Tuffs are present, but are uncommon.
Sangkarawang3
Kelesa4
Continental environment conglomerates, sands, shales, coals, tuffaceous material. 8 Kampar Uplift 5 Brown Shale facies: Lacustrine
mudstones with clusters of lithic & crystal tufts.
North Tigapuluh Mountains("7: Polymict conglomerates, gravely and pebbly tuffaceous sandstone and tuffaceous siltstone; with
intercalations of fluvio-lacustrine sediments.
Bandan~,9
Monotonous sequence 400-500 m thick of acidic ignimbrites & hybrid tufts intruded by graphic granite body. Outcrop has strike of 26 km
and subcrop is obscured by the Quaternary sediments associated with the D. Kerinci graben. Compacted tuff, volcanic breccia &
conglomeratic tuff composed of fragments of andesite, basaltic tuff & welded tuff and of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks. Prophylitised &
chloritized with sulphide mineralization. Inferred fissure eruption along fault zone which is interpreted as the eroded root of a giant
caldera.
Gumai Mts formerly Kikim Formation (see main text), m Finely laminated tufts below (Lower Kikim Formation of Gafoer et al. 1992c), and
andesitic tufts and lavas and tuffaceous ctaystones above the Cawang Member.
Lahat
Near Baturaja I I: violet, massive tuff with abundant milky plagioclase and sanidine phenocrysts and rare tiny laths of dark brown altered
mafics.
South Tigapuluh Mountains: 7 Fluvio-lacustrine sediments with clasts of basalt, andesite, slate, metasediment, marble and quartz. Somewhat
Bengkuht Basin, South Manna Sub-Basin: Volcanic litharenites with clasts of ignimbrite, volcanics & vitriclasts, clay tuff & claystones.
Campang 14
Laml)tmg Basin: 1000-1500 m tuff, breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, clay & shale.
Sabu H
Fluvial deposits of ruff, clay-tuff, conglomeratic breccia, sandslonc & claystone (c. 750 m).
Tarahan j4
Relatively massives luffs, poorly sorted breccia with clasts of andesite lava & sediments and tufliles with pymclaslic and detrital material.
Jatibarang 15
Unfossiliferous, varicoloured & mottled tuff s, porphyritic andesite, basalt and red claystone (0-1200 m).
References: JWajzer et al. ( 1991 ), 2Rock et al. ( 1982, 1983), "Koesoemadmata & Matasak ( 1981 ), 4De Coster ( 1974), 5Wain & Jackson (1995), 6Suwarna et al. ( 1991),
" "
') Kusnamaetal.(1993h), ioo
t J a r o c,.
r
( , I a/. ( 1992c), i IGasparon&Varne(1995). leWilliamsetal.(1995), ]3Hall
7Simandjuntaketal.(1991), 8 Rosldletal.(1976),
et al. (1993). HAndi Mangga et al. (1994a), 15Arpandi & Patmosukismo (1975).
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
107
OLIGOCENE
~-~\~Bg~ii~XdanV S~ Tigapuluh" ~
X
'~
~ VGum~'B~:r:i!aSUmatra/
~
~
-~
Volcanicand
volcaniclasticrocks
Pluton
V andarJay
'
Basin
~~"6~'
.~ Bengkul
~Basi
,. nVu ~, ~S_abu~q'Campang
200km
/
"~' . . ~ .~..
JatibarangV
-,..
t 08
CHAPTER 8
Gawo i
Tangla2
Smeten3,4
Sapi-3,4
Brawan3,4
Akul3,4
Kompas Volcanic
Member5
Sihapas~
Sawahtambangv
Painan8
Hulusimpangg- ~5
Seblat 9- ~5
Lithologies
having been intruded into hot and plastic lavas (Bennett et al.
1981a). According to Rock et al. (1982) the Raya Stock may be
the subvolcanic equivalent of the lavas, suggesting that late
Early Miocene lavas are present within the Breueh Volcanic
Formation, which may therefore be a composite unit.
H i g h - K Series volcanism in the backarc. Eubank & Makki (1981)
Stratigraphic dating of volcanic rocks and volcaniclastic sediments indicate that the final episode of the Neogene volcanic
activity continued into the Quaternary, represented in southern
Sumatra by the volcaniclastic Kasai Formation. In Northern and
Central Sumatra the distribution of Pliocene volcaniclastics
is obscured by the extensive, younger Toba Tufts; Pliocene
volcaniclastics have been recognized east of Aceh, where a flow
of andesite is dated at 1.76 Ma by Bellon et al. (2004). The
Haranggoal Volcanic Formation ( ? M i d d l e - U p p e r Miocene;
Aldiss et al. 1982) at Lake Toba has been dated at 1.2 Ma, and
now is interpreted as an early volcanic phase related to the Toba
Caldera Complex (Chesner & Rose 1991). Older a ~ 1 7 6
dates for an andesite flow of 2 _ 0.3 Ma and a basalt dyke of
1.9 + 0.2 are reported by Bellon et al. (2004) from the Toba area.
Pliocene volcanic centres around Lake Toba crop out as inliers
within the Toba Tufts. These centres are set back slightly from the
continuation of the trend of the volcanic arc in southern Sumatra.
Their position and rhyolitic composition suggests a similar origin
to the Toba Caldera system; a relationship to the subduction of the
Investigator Fracture Zone (Fauzi et al. 1996) during the Pliocene
is likely.
Pliocene volcanics are recognized in equatorial Sumatra (Rock
et al. 1983) and an undated linear outcrop of volcanic rocks occurs
in the Painan Quadrangle (Rosidi et al. 1976), which includes volcanics of the episode (Bellon et al. 2004). In SW Sumatra volcanic
centres with a rhyolite association (Pasumah and Ranau) have
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
109
LATE OLIGOCENE
- EARLY MIOCENE
r,.Brawan X
S~ 'T,Smeten
Lake
N
N
\
O~. \
Tangla
v\\
,
sj U,s
"%00~
X
ihapaI
awatamb
?Gawo ~,,~
~~ainan
"-',~.
\ "-4
v~ !
/
Axial fault of
\ ~
200km %
simpan
--~
.
110
CHAPTER 8
Table 8.6. Lithologies of the Late Early Miocene-Mid-Miocene volcanic episode comprising the Late Early Miocene and Mid-Miocene volcanic phases
Volcanic Fro/Unit
Lahomie j
Salibi 2
Kemiki j6
Calang 3,4
Woyla-s
Sayeung5
Tripa 5
Mirah 5
Alem5
Muereubo-s
Kotabakti 5
Auran 6
Trumon 7
Pinapan 7
Toru 7
Musala s
Angkolas
Nabirong s
Petani s
Telisa9
Saligaro I~
Areas ~o
Sikakara l~
Airbangisl~
Lubuksikaping area Ic~
'Andesite' ~T
Lemau 12
Balt3-17
C Sumatra Back-arc Basin Is
Bandar Jaya I~
Lithology
Nias, Banyak, Pini; Facies Ll. Tuff Marker Horizon 5 m. Outer neritic tufts.
Siberut; tufts, claystone & siltstone.
Enggano: Tuff, sandy tuff, tuffaceous sandstone & tuffaceous siltstone.
Porphyritic, epidotised andesitic lavas with associated feeder dykes & subvolcanic intrusions. Subordinate basalts, microgabbroids,
breccias & agglomerates. Thin sediment interbeds include coals. Unga Diorite possible subvolcanic centre, lnterbedded
rhyodacites, pyroxene andesites & basalts. Some prophylitization.
Eastern unit of Calang Fm. named by Kallagher (1989). Rhyolites, andesites & basalts, volcanogenic conglomerates & lithic tufts.
Basalts, lahars, tufts & dykes; 14-16 Ma.
Basalts, andesites, Jithic tufts, lahars and pyroclastics.
Porphyritic & aphyric basalt & lahars.
Basalts, 12-8 Ma.
Porphyritic basalts.
Base local massive tuffaceous sandstones but predominantly argillaceous and usually calcareous. Top predominantly arenaceous.
Partly propylitised hornblende andesites & pyroclastics. Clasts of dacite & basalt in Agglomerates. Cut by subvolcanic intrusion
dated at 12 Ma.
Andesitic volcanics, agglomerates & tufts with associated hypabyssal microdiorite & microgranite. Wackes, tuffaceous wackes,
mudstones & calcareous sandstones.
Andesite, dacite & basaltic andesite lavas & pyroclastics also 'rhyolite' & 'trachyandesite'. Associated hypabyssal rocks include
diopside vogesite dykes.
Andesitic agglomerates; analysed andesite has shoshonitic affinity.
Andesites, hornblende andesites, andesitic intrusives, possible subvolcanic diorites with K-Ar age date: 17.2 _+ 5 Ma.
Hornblende & plagioclase phyric andesites, ?basalts, volcanic breccias & agglomerates. Volcanics often prophylitized,
Intermediate volcanics, lavas, agglomerates and breccias.
Sajurmatinggi Member Abundant volcanic debris in paralic mudstones, siltstones, sandstones & conglomerates.
Sigama Volcanic Member Basal Telisa Formation volcanic unit composed of 300 m of tufts.
Andesitic lavas and breccias with sediment intercalations of Telisa Formation.
Mostly intermediate volcaniclastics, lavas & minor intrusives & sediments. Hydrothermal alteration/mineralisation in Mangani
area.
Aphyric, somewhat brecciated andesites and porphyritic andesites.
Lithic crystal tufts, feldspar- & pyroxene phyric andesites & minor sediments.
Various outcrops of varied lavas (dacites, andesites & basalts), agglomerates, breccias & tufts considered to range between
Mid-Miocene-Plioccne or Pleistocene.
Andesite (basaltic)microbreccia (age from Gafoer et al. 1992a).
Volcaniclastic breccia, dacitic-tuffaceous sandstone, luffs & clays.
Dacitic tufts unconformable on Hulusimpang Formation. T3pe area. Dacitic epiclastic breccia with sandstone intercalations & tuff.
Subcrop of crystal-lithic, vitric tuff s, olivine trachyte tuff, basalt gabbro & micro-gabbro. Basalt tlows in the Merak-1 well are
embedded in marine sediments of N8 age (16-17 Ma) and yielded radiometric ages between 17.5-12 Ma.
Andesitic inlrusives and extrusives (14-18 Ma), in Capang-1 and Abung-1 wells.
References: ISamuel et al. (1987), -~AndiMangga et al. (1994b). ~Bennett et al. (1981a, b), 4Cameron et al. (1983), 5Kallagher (1989), r~Cameronet al. (1982a), :Aldiss
et al. (1983), J IKastowo & Leo ( 1973), 12Kusnama et al. (1993b), 13Suwarna et al. (1994), HGafoer
et al. (1983), 8Aspdcn eta/. (1982b), ~Cameron (1983), I~
et al. (1992c), 15Amin et al. (1994a), I(~Gafoeret al. (1994), 17Amin et al. (1994b), 18Eubank & Makki (1981), I'~Williams et al. (1995).
TERTIARYVOLCANICITY
"
)
\...
LATE EARLY- MIDDLE MIOCENE
~ K ~
Offshoreboreholes ~
Calang-~V vy.l~yla,^_
~'~ "4" +
r)
Saye
h,~ Q.
\)
" ~..'~,',~L,,
-,-.7-^V-Meureubo
~
'~
(
J
~ ~aM
r~li ' ~ :O~ k ~" uor a n ~ ~ Z ~ ~....~
-,,.,
111
.\
L.~a,~rn,e~ )
\ ... \,- ;: ,elisa Centffl/sSumatr
,,
a (~
~o\
~ Sikakara\~XVSalig arc
~
Q~
N~
~
'"-V Lubuksikaping uantan~'X_.
~O.
~
'
""x' xx
b~ /
%Air Bangis~ ....~,:V::Ames
~
~
{'---..
%,\
j~
"Andesite';'"\~
~
e/~~'~'~
SIBERUThT\
~ Salibi ~
\ ~x ~.~
I ' I
Volcaniclavas
~
Plutons
]" "1"l in outcropandin boreholes
L;:
Lemau
~
\
~
:2IT.........
(~Bal
~.i-~Lemau ~
~~al
ENGGAN~~
"L ~
B~2dgr
f
,
I
[
/
west prior to the collision of Greater india, and predicts the clockwise rotation of Sumatra in response to the impact. The subsequent
anticlockwise rotation of Sumatra, together with the rest of the
Sunda Microplate, cannot be due the extrusion of crustal blocks
in response to the collision of India.
112
CHAPTER 8
Table 8.7.
L i t h o l o g i e s in the L a t e M i o c e n e - P l i o c e n e
volcanic episode
Formation/Centre
Siap ~
Seureula 2
Takur-Takur 3
Simbolon 3,4
Surungan 5
Sihabuhabu 5
Mangani 6
Undifferentiated7'8
Rhyo_andesites9 i i
Lakitan io- J4
Kasai]O.~ ~,J3-~5
Pasumah I 1,12
Ranau 12-15
Lampung ~4,15
Andesite lava 15
Lithology
In part volcanic pebble to cobble conglomerates, sandstones & minor mudstones.
Upwards-fining soft andesitic sandstones & conglomerates; also calcareous mudstones.
Variably propylitised andesites, dacites and pyroclastic hb andesites and dykes. Local rhyolite. Andesitic to dacitic pumaceous pyroclastics
and lahars.
Andesitic lavas and pyroclastics, three possibly four flanking plugs of subvolcanic porphyritic hornblendic andesites. Subvolcanic intrusions
of Mendem Microdiorite.
Plagioclase and hornblende-phyric andesites, often agglomeritic and propylitised. More acid types present and hypabyssal equivalents
noted.
Acid to basic lavas including basalts and andesites, volcaniclastics and associated minor intrusives.
Rhyolitic, dacitic and andesitic tuff, breccia and lava; welded, hybrid, lithic and pumiceous tuff with breccia and lava.
Rhyolitic, dacitic & andesitic lavas, wclded tuff, hybrid tuff, pumiceous lithic tuff & volcanic breccia.
Conglomeratic breccia alternating with tuffaceous sandstone & tuffaceous clay.
Tuff & pumiceous tuff with intercalations of tuffaceous claystones & tuffaceous sandstones. M a n n a Dacitic lava (20 m) in breccia unit.
Horizontally bedded welded tuffs with columnar jointing.
Rhyolitic-andesitic pumiceous volcanic breccias and tuffs.
Pumiceous tuff, tuffaceous sandstone locally with tuffite intercalations.
Andesite lavas with sheeted jointing.
References: tBennett et al. (1981a), 2Keats et al. (1981), 3Cameron et al. (1982a), 4AIdiss et al. (1983), 5Clarke et al. (1982a), 6Rock et al. (1983), 7Kastowo & Leo
(1973), SRosidi et al. (1976), 9Kusnama et al. 1993b), I~
et al. (1994), I IGafoer et al. (1992c), 12Amin et al. (1994a), ~3Gafoer et al. (1994), 14Amin
et al. (1994b), 15 Andi Mangga et al. (1994a).
ANDAAC'EH
a- ~
\
LATE MIOCENE - PLIOCENE
~~~-~o~Ta k~.r'~aku'
~ ~Simbolon ~
i ' La'ke "'~- L
"~' VSurungah~~
~Sihabuhabu"~
|
~,.
~.
,,
I
r
".
'
-~Tuffs and
volcaniclasticrocks
~
Volcaniclavas
R Rhyolite
# Dacite
A Andesite
B Basalt
~
200km
I
....
9
R~aana ~
Fig. 8.7. Distribution of Upper MiocenePliocene volcanic units and dated plutons in
Sumatra. Volcanic units listed in Table 8.7.
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
113
Table 8.8. Major and trace element analyses of'Langsat Formation volcanics
No.
R6029
R6030
R2785
R2786
R6028"
NR125A
NR128
NTI98
NT217
Ref.
l&2
Lithology
Pyroxenerich
basalt
Pyroxene
fragment
in 6029
Pyroxeneplagioclase
absarokitic
basalt
Pyroxeneplagioclase
transitional
Alkali basalt
Average 3 scans
ground mass
R6028
Porphyritic
clinopyroxene
basalt
Porphyritic
clinopyroxene
basalt
Porphyritic
basalt
Porphyritic
basalt
Location
5287 0630
5287 0630
5276 0626
5263 0634
B. Natal
B. Natal
B. Natal
Batu Gajah
SiO2
TiO2
AI203
Fe203
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na20
K20
P205
CO2
N20
Total
47.9
0.49
10.4
11.6
0.17
13.2
8.24
2.85
0.6
0.39
0.02
4.73
100.59
52.16
0.44
8.6
9.85
0.29
7.44
12.97
3.6
0.44
0.13
46.7
0.84
12.88
12.34
0.22
9.48
11.72
1.9
1.68
0.2
49.99
0.84
14.37
10.43
0.34
6.87
10.2
3.92
1.13
0.2
46.6
0.86
10.9
11.9
13.8
11.7
0.82
2.53
0.87
51.74
0.71
15.8
8.93
0.17
7.81
8.75
1.15
4.91
0.35
52.62
0.88
16.27
9.92
0.19
6.85
7.32
1.65
4.6
0.26
49.8
0.84
14.31
10.69
0.2
8.77
10.73
2.16
3.57
0.33
50.26
0.65
11.96
10.69
0.19
10.54
8.94
0.78
3.67
0.37
98.92
101.36
100.79
99.98
100.11
100.56
100.92
98.05
25
312
78
21
1
35
623
82
29
2
51
587
58
18
1
Rb
Sr
Zr
Y
Nb
Th
V
Cr
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
150
400
73
175
170
90
150
370
15
47
30
50
225
140
32
30
125
90
225
80
28
23
85
100
14
260
57
22
<1
150
400
73
175
170
90
The 5 0 - 4 6
M a n o n - v o l c a n i c interval
II 4
CHAPTER
C~
0
Cq
. . ~
. . . .
M:)
Gh
P'w
<
.
=<
.
--.
~- .
~
O4
~:9
O.
cq
r . ~ . n . ~.
dl
.
%)
~p
-~-
.-,
~ ~
o- ,
--
o- -, Z
,~- ,~~
.-,
oq.
eq
,q. ~
eq. - -
~
u~
~9
~ ~ - ~
t
9-:.
r".-.
.~
. ~ .
t'~l
o~
~"-,.
c,~.
cq
rm,
~;',,
eq
t;
oo
m. --. ~. ~
oo
~. ~., --. ~.
~ , - o ~ ~ , _~ ~
--.
~.
~
o
~,~
--. - -
c!. ~ "
em
~-~
cJ
I
2
ka
- -
rr~
f l
- -
04
<h
o~
o'-,
oo
Ol
_:
"-<2
<
. -
.-.
. ~
.
~
Cq
o~
cJ
~ o
6~6, d ~ o
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
0
Shosho
($
4-
HighiK @
"2
[] Hulusimpang Formation
(~) .TahahaFnorFm~
ra~a~i~
9 LangsatVolcanicF o r m a t i o n ~
~
1~ " -
(a)
9
9
/~
V
[]
9
*
+
Q
3 X
O
9
50
60
SayeungFormation
Mirah Formation
Alem Formation
Calang Formation
TanglaFormation
BrawanFormation
Sikaraka Formation
SandudukFormation
PinapanFormation
/
ToruFormation /~ /
AngkolaFormation/.~ X
si02
70
......
bnosnonl[IC/
/V~
2.
Low-K
L
(b)
Hiah-K
Hlgn-I~
~--,
V
/
,__,/
Medium-K
v
50
80
60
SiO2
70
80
Fig. 8.8. Diagrams of SiO 2 (wt%) versus K20 (wt%) for low-K to shoshonitic
Tertiary volcanic rocks from Sumatra. The classification scheme is by Gill (1981)
and the analyses by Rock et al. (1982), Wajzer (1986), Kallagher (1989) and
Gasparon & Varne (1995) are given in Tables 8.9, 8.10 & 8.1 I. (a) Upper
Eocene-Lower Miocene volcanics; (b) Middle-Upper Miocene volcanic
formations.
the full length of the subduction zone at this time. Volcanic rocks
in the Aceh area may represent back-arc volcanism (Cameron
et al. 1980). Marshak & Karig (1977) suggest that volcanic
rocks in the Tapanuli area, offshore Sibolga, were due to subduction of the Wharton Spreading Centre, inactive by this stage and
sufficiently hydrated to induce magmatism in the mantle wedge.
Uplift of the whole of the forearc occurred in the Late Eocene
producing a regional unconformity (Samuel et al. 1997). This
phase of uplift coincides with the age of 40 ___ 3 Ma obtained
from the Bangkuru Ophiolite Complex in Simuelue (Harbury &
Kallagher 1991), which Kallagher (1990) attributes to deformation
of warm oceanic crust during accretion.
115
116
CHAPTER 8
,..1
I
eo
.,~
la
1 " - - ~ : 3 ~ t " ~ : 2 ~ ' ~ t " - O ' ~ - ~
r.
".=.~
y.
1o
r162 ~
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
100,
Hulusimpang Formation(2)
Lahatgormatior~(2)
O~
117
alang Formation
Alem Formation
Mirah Formation
Sayeung Formation
Hulusimpang Formation
Lahat Formation
kangsat Volcanic Formation
80
[]
~
60
r8
1.o
40
E~
I
(a)0lRb Ba
i
K
I i
Th Sr
I i
i i
Nb Zr Ti Y
1oo
\
w
,_~
~
O
/ ~
'
Sc Cr
N-MORB
_L
76247
75246
20
<>
00
10
MgO (wt%)
~:
O
8
rr
<
1.0
0.1
Fig. 8.10. Plot of MgO (wt%) against Zr/Nb for selected analyses of Upper
Eocene-Middle Miocene volcanics from Sumatra. The Zr/Nb ratios higher than
the range for N-MORB infer derivation from the mantle wedge, while Zr/Nb
ratios lower than the range for N-MORB imply dilution of mantle wedge magma,
probably by subducted sediment. The low Zr/Nb ratios coincide with the Middle
Miocene Volcanic Phase but the source of the suspected subducted sediment is
not certain. Range for N-MORB from Sun & McDonagh (1989).
>CUT45
<2z
(b) Rb Ba
'dl
Th Sr Ce
Nb Zr Ti
',1
Sc Cr
(see Chapter 7). This event has been attributed to the effect of
collision of fragments derived from Australia with the Sunda
Microplate, as marked by the accretion of ophiolite bodies in the
East Arm of Sulawesi (Hall 1996). At the same time, folding of
the Meureudu Group in northern Sumatra was accompanied
by limited plutonism (Cameron et al. 1983). In the Sumatran
Forearc sedimentation continued in the Bengkulu Basin (Hall
et al. 1993), accompanied by volcanism which extended into the
Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Volcanic Phase.
'~
//
PALAEOCENE PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
j/
EURASIAN PLATE
AGj~V~ N~i~'l~G%N.
~/~
~ /
__
PROTO-SOUTH
\ CHINA SEA
\
\
\
SUND~
/
PASSIVE MARG ~4
GREATER
INDIA
v Volcanic rocks
9 Plutonic rocks
1 18
CHAPTER 8
:.~'
:"!': SUMATRACENTRALBAsIN/'.~"~'::':~:~
'
Trt }'
WHARTON
RIDGE
io:
LANGSAT
FORMATION
:,:
BANGI~
J
/'
SO'UTHN
\SUMATRA
~BASIb - -
IMA,\
~)I~
%
i
va
"--
Following the fault inversion event the rate of oblique subduction beneath Sumatra accelerated to 5 cm a -1, with the formation
of an uplifted volcanic arc. Lavas and ashes were voluminously
erupted in a linear arc parallel to the west coast of Sumatra,
with tufts and volcaniclastics being deposited to the east in the
backarc basins. Lavas were accompanied by sub-volcanic intrusions such as the Way Bambang Granite pluton which solidified
at c. 20 Ma, and was intruded co-magmatically into volcanics of
the Hulusimpang Formation (Amin et al. 1994b). This granite
was intruded into into a fault zone parallel to, but predating the
TERTIARY VOLCANICITY
119
Serpentinite diapirs emplaced in strike-slip fault zones in northern Sumatra have been considered previously to have been derived
from ophiolite bodies in the Woyla Group, and this may be the
case (Cameron et al. 1980; Cameron et al. 1983--Takengon geological map). However, it is possible that some of these bodies represent 'push-up blocks' and slivers of serpentinised mantle wedge
intruded into releasing bends in the deep crustal Sumatran strikeslip fault and thrust complex, due to disturbance of the mantle,
caused by distortion of the oceanic slab (Karig 1979; Mann &
Gordon 1996).
Late Miocene-Pliocene volcanicity was particularly active in
southern Sumatra, and the development of the volcanic arc was
contemporaneous with inversion of the backarc basins c. 5 Ma
which caused 'Sunda-style', N W - S E folds and associated faulting
(Eubank & Makki 198 l). At the same time the Barisan Mountains
reached their maximum elevation due to the combination of
magmatism and tectonics. In the Forearc region the redistribution
of mass in the accretionary wedge (Matson & Moore 1992)
resulted in uplift of the outer arc ridge and a phase of fault inversion on the outer arc islands (Samuel et al. 1995). Intrusive
m61ange diapirs, carrying blocks of the Bangkaru Ophiolite
Complex, Tertiary sediments and samples of the continental
crust buried beneath the Forearc, were initiated in the Pliocene
and continue to the present day represented by mud volcanoes
on Nias (Samuel et al. 1997).
Page et al. (1979) suggested, and Fauzi et al. (1996) using
seismic data have confirmed, that subduction of the Investigator Fracture Zone beneath Sumatra was the trigger for the
development of the Quaternary Toba Caldera System (Chesner
& Rose 1991). How far back in time volcanicity in the Toba
area can be attributed to the subduction of the fracture zone
is debatable. The Mid-Late Miocene Pinapan Formation
contains acidic volcanics, the Toru Formation is intruded by alkaline and High-K hypabyssal bodies (Table 8.6) and the Nabirong
Formation contains intermediate volcanics. These occurrences
suggest that the influence of the subduction of the Investigator
Fracture Zone may extend back into the Mid-Miocene.
In the Backarc the Asahan Arch, which separates the North and
Central Sumatra Backarc basins is parallel to the Investigator
Fracture Zone and may be related to its subduction. De Smet &
Barber (Chapter 7) report that the Asahan Arch formed a topographic feature from earliest Miocene times.
The Investigator Fracture Zone is not the only transform fault in
the ocean plate subducted beneath Sumatra. Unnamed fracture
zones in the northwestern Wharton Basin to the south of Pulau
Enggano (Liu et al. 1983) impact with a gentle restraining bend
in the subduction trench, and project northwards beneath southern
Sumatra and intersect the Sumatran Fault Zone. Shallow earthquake epicentres (Nishimura et al. 1986) and the Pliocene
High-K Ranau and Pasumah Tuff fields lie along the northward
projections of these fracture zones. These alignments may be
coincidence; these occurrences of the rhyolitic tufts may have
other explanations, related to the complex tectonics and
Quaternary volcanicity in the Sunda Strait to the southeast, as
discussed by Gasparon in Chapter 9.
Chapter 9
Quaternary volcanicity
MASSIMO GASPARON
120
QUATERNARY VOLCANICITY
121
,0,01
ti~l
'
!
-./ ~ - L .
;N
MEDAN
TOBA T U F F S
(Lake Toba)
,~1~1~
Pre-Tertiary Formations
Quaternary Tuff
Area occupied by Miocene Sunda Orogen
('" ~-"x
"~N
10 >
! ':~
<'_%
"--,
;t
,
111
"
'~
'~
", lZ l
""-.,
M ENTAWAI
ii
"" "-~,:;
--_ __.
131
"
_)
.......
~, ~,
............... ,
".
................
" .........
"
.....",, '1
Ic, L .
"~:7"-u.~.--:.<~-\'-~.:;,
.s"b
~"."-";
....................
" '...... r -.--'z
'~
"F
~"
71\
"
{,
P A D A N G TUFFS
(Lake Maniniau)
"-.~
",r
' m Ii ii i"
t '"
TELOR
BUKIT
~--" i
"~s
.......................
!~
~2,
'2 2
23
.............~-............ i L p A L E M B A N G
....... -"
......... '\.~,:~
i ,
i L
: ;i
i
/
4S
1
0
INDIAN
"
OCEAN
RANAU TUFFS ~
;:E~ (Lake Ranau) 2
125
\,
iN
28 ~
250
kilometres::::..................................... '
,100 E
,102 E
104 E
LAMPUNG TUFFS
................
ooo
.98 E
'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.96 E
./Bukit Mapas
" ~
SUNDA
STRAIT
,106 E
Fig. 9.1. Simplified geological map of Sumatra (modified from van Bemmelen 1949), showing the main volcanic and tectonic units, and the location of identified
Quaternary centres. Numbers refer to the centres listed in Table 9.1, e.g. 01 is volcano number 0601-01 (Pulau Weh).
122
CHAPTER 9
SUMATRA
s ~~..~.
Alluvium
Lampung tufts
SUMATRA
Ranau tufts
Sukadana basalts
Mt Rajabasa
~1 ~
Sebesi ~ \
SUI
JAVA
............. Alluvium
Panaita
Quaternary volcanics
Basement and Tertiary volcanics
104 EI
I
105 EI
QUATERNARY VOLCANIC1TY
123
Andaman S e a
Aceh Trench
Aceh Arc
250 km
Toba Area
Extensional
,, Axis
Sumatran
Arc Granitoids
"\\k.
SIBUMASU
Terrane
"~.,, ,
Sunda
Fore-arc
N
/,
Semangko
Fault
Bukit Telor
"ii.,. k,
"~.~.
'\\}.
Sumatran
Arc V o l c a n i c s
Sukadana
Plateau
'
5S
Investigator
Ridge
llL
95EI
Karimunjawa
Islands
Indian
Ocean Sunda
100El
Strait /
Margin of
! SIBUMASU
lo5E
Fig. 9.3. Synthesis of the principal Quaternary volcano-tectonic features of Sumatra. Note that the Investigator Ridge is subducted under Sumatra, and the Toba complex
is situated at the intersection between the Semangko Fault and this ridge. North of the Toba complex, Quaternary volcanic centres are associated with a south-dipping
subduction in the Andaman Sea rather than to the north-dipping subduction forming the Sunda arc. According to Gasparon (1994), the North Sumatra volcanics are
compositionally similar to the Sunda arc volcanic (see Fig. 9.4), and it is therefore inferred that the northeastern part of Sumatra is also part of the SIBUMASU terrane.
Bukit Telor and the Sukadana basalts are situated in a back-arc position along an extensional axis that probably continues into the compositionally similar Karimunjawa
Islands north of eastern Java. Another structurally complex extensional area (a series of pull-apart basins related to the Semangko Fault and to the clockwise rotation of
Sumatra with respect to Java) is found in South Sumatra and in the Sunda Strait. Here, the Semangko Fault terminates against a north-south-trending fracture zone that
probably marks the southwestern boundary of the SIBUMASU terrane.
Pyroclastic deposits
Compared with the other islands of the Indonesian arc, Sumatra
is rich in young fragmental silicic volcanic rocks associated
with major caldera-forming events, and commonly believed to
have involved the melting of upper crustal material (e.g. Hamilton
1979; Gasparon & Varne 1995).
Four major Pliocene to Quaternary pyroclastic deposits are
known in Sumatra: the Lampung and Ranau tufts in south
Sumatra, the Padang tufts in central Sumatra, and the Toba tufts
124
CHAPTER 9
them as the result of the remelting of the lower crust. Bellier et al.
(1999) obtained a K - A r age of 0.55 Ma for feldspars separated
from the Ranau tufts, and concluded that the collapse of the
Ranau caldera occurred between 0.7 and 0.4 Ma.
K - A r whole-rock age determinations for the andesitic centres
and tufts surrounding the Maninjau caldera range from 0.83 _+
0.42 Ma for the older, pre-caldera andesites, to 0.28 _ 0.12 Ma
for the youngest rhyolitic ash-flows (Leo et al. 1980). For the
same samples, 87Sr/ 86Sr values are in the range 0.7056-0.7066,
and Gasparon & Varne (1995) reported an 87Sr/86Sr value of
0.70473 for a Quaternary granite in the same area. These values
are slightly higher than those of most andesitic centres elsewhere
in the Sunda arc and in Sumatra (Whitford 1975; Gasparon 1994),
and it is suggested that they reflect the involvement of sialic crustal
material.
Gasparon & Varne (1995) noted that the compositions of most
igneous rocks from centres in the volcanic arc and west of the
Semangko fault fall within the calc-alkaline differentiation trend
(Debon & Le Fort 1988), with a complete overlap between
intrusive and generally more differentiated pyroclastic rocks.
Their geochemical and isotopic composition is typical of volcanic
arcs built on continental crust. Initial 87 Sr/ 86Sr values range from
0.7045 to 0.7065 for the fragmental deposits of Lake Maninjau,
Lake Ranau and the Lampung Formation. These values are
substantially lower than the lowest values observed in the
granitoid provinces of SE Asia, and lower than those of the
Toba tufts (Fig. 9.4). Gasparon & Varne (1995) further argued
that the remarkably constant initial 87Sr/86Sr values of granitoids,
fragmental deposits, and andesitic lavas along the volcanic arc
suggest derivation from a common source.
Whitford (1975) first suggested, on the basis of a single
87Sr/86Sr value of 0.71392, that the Toba tufts have a crustal
origin. Most of the studies on the Toba caldera have dealt with
the chronology and stratigraphy of the different ignimbrites
(e.g. Ninkovich et aI. 1978a, b; Knight et al. 1986; Chesner
et al. 1991" Chesner & Rose 1991), and relatively little is known
0.716
..........................................................................................
I'",
"
Quaternary
arc volcanoes
"
"
"
"
"
............................
TobaTuffs
0,714
9 .I
Province
: Granitoids ,
(SIBUMASU)" i
Central
0.712
- -
lb/~Q
toba Area
~Q~
Volcanics ~"~,-~.,.~
L-
03
0.710 .......
CO
E
D~,
Aceh Arc
0.708
0.706
0.704
Sukadana
Basalts
0.702
0.01
Arc Granitoids~
0.1
[
1
Rb/Sr
irTvo%n,c
(basalt to dacite)__L. . . . .
10
QUATERNARY VOLCANICITY
and whole-rock major element analyses performed during this
period were collected and published by Neumann van Padang
(1951) and Westerveld (1952a). More recently, Kusumadinata
(1979) reviewed the existing literature on volcanic activity in
the Indonesian arc.
The part of the island north of Lake Toba, the Aceh Special
Province, remained virtually geologically unexplored until the
mid seventies, when the North Sumatran Project was undertaken
by the Indonesian and British Governments. A description of the
geology of north Sumatra can be found in Page et al. (1979),
Bennett et al. (1981a, b), and Cameron et al. (1983). A simplified
geological map of Sumatra, with the location of identified
Quaternary centres, is shown in Figure 9.1.
The exact number of Quaternary volcanic centres in Sumatra
is not known. Kusumadinata (1979) and Simkin (1981) reported
over 180 historic eruptions from 14 different volcanic centres,
with 14 more centres in the solfatara/fumarolic stage. At least
37 eruptive events from nine centres have been reported since
1980. Thirty-six Holocene centres (including Krakatau) are
currently listed by the Smithsonian Institution (2002). These
include centres with documented explosive activity but with no
conclusive evidence of historic eruptions, and fumarole fields
not associated with volcanic structures. Field evidence suggests
that the number of active volcanoes is only a small portion of
the total number of Quaternary centres.
The majority of the historically active volcanoes are stratovolcanoes (20), with summits standing between 600 m (Pulau
Weh) and 3800 m (Kerinci) above sea level. Most of these
centres are structurally complex, with numerous solfatara fields
and hot springs, summit craters and parasitic cones. Other
structures include calderas (Toba, Ranau, Sekincau, Hulubelu and
Krakatau), complex volcanoes (Peuet Sague, Talakmau, Marapi
and Belirang-Beriti), fumarole fields (Helatoba-Tarutung and
Gayolesten) and pyroclastic cones (Sarik-Gajah). Active maars
and silicic domes have been described in the 8 x 16 km Suoh
depression in south Sumatra. However, according to Bellier &
Sebrier (1994) the Suoh depression is a pull-apart caldera
similar to the Ranau caldera.
All the centres situated north of 4~ (Pulau Weh, Seulawah
Agam, Peuet Sague, Geureudong, Bur Ni Telong, and possibly
the Gayolesten fumarole field) are likely to be related to the
SSE-dipping subduction zone located 2 0 - 2 5 km off the coast of
north Sumatra (Curray et al. 1982; Rock et al. 1982; Gasparon
1994). Therefore these centres are genetically distinct from all
the other centres situated along the Sumatran arc.
Volcanic rocks of the Quaternary Sumatran arc include calcalkaline basalts, andesites and dacites, typical of a volcanic arc
built on continental crust. In addition to the analyses reported in
Neumann van Padang (1951) and Kusumadinata (1979), geochemical data, including isotopic data, have been published by
Westerveld (1952a), Whitford (1975), Leo et al. (1980), Bennett
et al. (1981a, b), Rock et al. (1982), Gasparon & Varne (1995)
and Bellon et al. (2004). In addition, detailed petrological
studies have been carried out on Krakatau (see Smithsonian Institution 2002, for a list of references), Bukit Mapas (Della Pasqua
et al. 1995) and the Sukadana basalts (see below). Helium
isotope analyses of olivines and clinopyroxenes separated from
lavas of seven Sumatran centres (Kerinci, Ratai, Bukit Mapas,
Dempo, Bukit Telor, Krakatau and the Sukadana basalts) were
reported in Gasparon et al. (1994).
Relatively primitive rocks are rare, and detailed mineralogical
investigations have shown that even the most primitive lavas
have suffered shallow-level crustal contamination (Gasparon
et al. 1994; Della Pasqua et al. 1995). Based on geochemical
and Sr, Nd and Pb isotopic data reported in Gasparon (1994),
Gasparon & Varne (1998) noted that the overall composition of
Sumatran Quaternary arc volcanics is genetically homogeneous,
and concluded that assimilation of crustal material by uprising
mantle-derived magmas accounts for the overall characteristics
125
126
CHAPTER 9
Notes
Kembar 0601-06
(Gayolesten)
Sibayak 0601-07
Sinabung 0601-08
Stratovolcano, 2460, 3 . 1 7 N
98.392 E
Toba 0601-09
Helatoba-Tarutung 0601 - 10
Sibualbuali 0601-11
Holocene, unknown
Lubukraya 0601-11 l
Holocene, unknown
Sorikmerapi 0601 - 12
Talakmau 0601 - 13
Sarik-Gajah 0601-131
Marapi 0601-14
Tandikat 0601-15
95.28~E
Historical, 2001
(continued)
QUATERNARY VOLCANICITY
Table 9.1
127
Continued
Notes
Talang 0601-16
Kerinci 0601-17
Hutapanjang 0601-171
Holocene, unknown
Sumbing 0601-18
Kunyit 0601 - 19
Belirang-Beriti 0601-20
Fumarolic, unknown
Kaba 0601-22
Dempo 0601-23
Patah 0601-231
Ranau 0601-251
Sekincau-Belirang 0601-26
Fumarolic, unknown
Hulubelu 0601-28
Fumarolic, unknown
Rajabasa 0601-29
Fumarolic, unknown
Krakatau 0602-00
Fumarolic, unknown
Holocene?, unknown
b e s t - p r e s e r v e d e r u p t i v e centres. T h e e x p o s e d flows m a y s h o w
colun'mar j o i n t i n g , a n d w h e r e the b a s e o f the pile is visible,
it o v e r l a y s Q u a t e r n a r y t u f f a c e o u s deposits o f the L a m p u n g
Formation.
Samples from several localities have been dated by SoeriaA t m a d j a et al. ( 1 9 8 5 ) a n d N i s h i m u r a et al. (1986), a n d t h e i r
K-Ar
ages range from 1.15_ 0.17Ma
to 0.44 _+ 0 . 1 3 M a
f o r the o l d e s t s a m p l e s (first c y c l e o f S o e r i a - A t m a d j a et al.
128
CHAPTER 9
BUR NI TELONG
0601-05
SORIK MARAPI
0601-12
10kin
.0
..........5
.10kin
ii
t"la$O
MARAPI
060%14
LAWAS
\
~.
-'-..
""-Ampaluc
-..
-
PADANG
0
10kin
110kin
10kin
SOLOK
Batukuda
TALANG
060%16
0
I
5
''
10kin
!
jernih
Fig. 9.5. Preliminary volcanic hazard maps ('Keterangan daerah bahaya sementara') for Sumatran volcanoes, as published in Kusumadinata (1979). 'Daerah Bahaya',
danger zone; 'Daerah Waspada', alert zone; 'Sungar (s.), river; 'Jalan', road. G 'gunung' (mount), D., 'danau' (lake). These maps are based on scientific and historical
records, and on local knowledge. According to Kusumadinata (1979), 'they may be useful as a temporary guide for local civil authorities in taking preliminary steps-including evacuation--in the surroundings of a volcano which is expected to erupt, while waiting for the arrival of the volcanologist-in-charge'.
QUATERNARY VOLCANICITY
129
lOkm
dacurup
,,,_._.
DEMPO
0601-23
~LAN
Okm
1 /
I ....................................
//~.~(~
~~%,
P.SE RTU NG/~SJ
,~::~!~g~!~ .
,o'~:~;i;~-~,~
,i
//
;
,..
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:!:!:!:!:!:i:i:i:i~
f I
~:: : ::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::~ ',,. ,j
R RAKATA KEClL
~ "
==============================================
===========================================
~!:!:!:!:!:!:!:!:~:i:i:i:i:i:!iY /
~o
\~
Alert Zone
,,,.I ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~--'-"
f ~ :~
,~
5~'0
Danger Zone
~
5
813
i
P.RAKA,T'A BESAR
I
10km
C-J~'~-'J
"Sungai"
Rivers
/~"~--"
"Jalan"
Roads
,"-"-,,7\~
1985), to less than 0.01 Ma (second cycle) for the youngest ones
from well-preserved flows and spatter cones.
Despite its clearly backarc position, the axis of the Sukadana
Plateau is situated less than 50 km away from two coeval andesitic
centres (Mt Rajabasa and Mt Ratai) that are part of the Quaternary
Sumatran volcanic arc, and it overlays pyroclastic products
(Lampung and Tarahan Formations) emitted by centres within
the volcanic arc.
Bukit Telor (also known as Bukit Ibul) is an isolated hill
made of basaltic material and only 38 m high, situated about
40 km NNE of Jambi (Jambi Province), more than 200 km
behind the axis of the Quaternary Sumatran volcanic arc. The
hill is surrounded by Holocene alluvium and swamp deposits,
Pliocene to Pleistocene tuffaceous sandstones and claystones
(Kasai and Muaraenim Formations), and Miocene sandstones
and claystones (Airbenakat Formation). The area of the Bukit
Telor outcrop is less than 4 km 2. The stratigraphic age of these
basalts is clearly Quaternary, as confirmed by a K - A r age of
1.25 + 0.19 Ma (Syachrir and Kardana, Indonesian Geological
Research Centre, pers. comm. 1991).
All the samples from the Sukadana Plateau and Bukit Telor
described in Gasparon (l 994) are basaltic lavas, and differ considerably from the arc andesites in both texture and paragenesis.
130
CHAPTER 9
Volcanic hazard
Indonesia has the world's largest number of volcanoes that have
erupted in historic times (76), with over 1100 dated eruptions.
Approximately one seventh of the recorded eruptions in the world
have taken place in Indonesia, and four fifths of the historically
active volcanoes have erupted in the last century. Since 1800,
destructive volcanic eruptions have occurred in Indonesia every
three years, causing over 140 000 casualties and destroying a
large number of villages. Two of these eruptions, Tambora 1815
and Krakatau 1883, account for over 126 000 casualties. According
to Kusumadinata (1979) and the Smithsonian Institution (2002)
only two historic eruptions in Sumatra have directly caused loss
of life: Sorik Marapi in 1892 (180 casualties) and Marapi in 1992
(1 casualty). Table 9.1 summarizes the main features of the volcanic
centres listed by the Smithsonian Institution (2002).
The Volcanological Survey Division of Indonesia classified as
A-type volcanoes those with recorded eruptions in historic
times. Primary volcanic hazards common to most Indonesian
volcanoes include lava flows, bombs and nudes ardentes, with
lahars common as a secondary hazard. The definition of
'danger' and 'alert' zones in hazard maps published in Kusumadinata ( ! 979) is based largely on topographic features and on known
distribution of recent nudes ardentes and lahar deposits. Hazard
maps published in Kusumadinata (1979) are given as Figure 9.5.
There are currently 75 A-type volcanoes in Indonesia, and 12
of these are found in Sumatra (including Krakatau). Preliminary
volcanic hazard maps have been prepared for nine Sumatran
volcanoes: Bur Ni Telong, Sorik Marapi, Marapi, Tandikat,
Talang, Kerinci, Kaba, Dempo and Krakatau (Kusumadinata
1979). No hazard maps are available for the other three A-type
Chapter 10
131
132
CHAPTER 10
main plays in this area include the reef developments in the Arun
Limestone and clastics in the fold belt parallel to the coast of the
Malacca Strait. A parallel fold belt, further inland, has not been as
productive, due to breached reservoirs. Reservoirs have been
found in the lower Miocene Arun Limestone, the lower Miocene
Belumai sandstones, the Mid-Miocene Baong Sandstones, the
upper Miocene Keutapang Sandstones and the Pliocene Seurula
Sandstones. Most of the evidence indicates that the source rocks
were marine shales in the Bampo, Peutu and Baong
formations, although there have been suggestions of a possible
lacustrine source. The various arguments in favour of the possible
source rocks are discussed in the 'Source rocks and hydrocarbon
type' section below.
The most significant structural feature in the North Sumatra
Basin is the Lhok Sukon Trough, a prominent graben system
which runs north-south and acts as the main kitchen. This is the
source area for gas in the region, with the traps adjacent to the
trough being the essential feature of the play. Oil found within
the coastal fold-belt is probably due to the remigration of the
oil associated with this gas into more recently formed
Plio-Quaternary structures. Any oil that has migrated beyond
this first fold-belt into the westernmost fold belt is likely to have
been lost, due to the breaching of reservoirs.
Tectonic elements
The North Sumatra Basin has an area of about 60 000 km 2 and the
Tertiary sediments are up to 5 km thick (Fig. 10.1). The Pliocene
to Holocene uplift of the Barisan Mountains has masked the actual
southwestern boundary of the basin. To the NE the sediments thin
onto the Malacca Shelf and onto the Asahan Arch to the south,
which separates the North Sumatra Basin from the Central
Sumatra Basin. To the NW the North Sumatra Basin merges
into the Mergui Basin in the deep waters off the north coast of
Aceh. The Mergui Ridge forms the western limit of both the
Mergui and North Sumatra basins.
The North Sumatra Basin can be divided into two distinct parts
which have different subsidence histories. Subsidence occurred
faster to the west of the Rayeu Hinge, and this area also forms
the southern limit of the Mergui Basin which merges into the
western part of the North Sumatra Basin. This region extends
northward into present deep waters of the Andaman Sea, and
still lies in deep water today, with its western margin formed by
the Sigli High and the Mergui Ridge. Within this subsiding
trough are two horsts, which were formed during the late stages
of rifting, the easternmost horst is the Arun High with the associated Arun Field. To the east of the Arun High and west of the
wl
Gas Field
Oil Field
Mergui Sub:Basin
0_
0_
100
I
2 ~ ,
94 ~
913~
100 ~
Fig. 10.1. The structure of the North Sumatra Basin and its northward extension into the Mergui Sub-basin, showing the positions of horst and graben structures and the
location of oil (grey) and gas fields (black).
Rayeu Hinge is the Lhok Sukon Deep, which is the location of part
of the kitchen for the Arun Field.
To the east of the Rayeu Hinge lies the Central Trough, a basinal
area broken into a series of north-south-trending horsts and
grabens, that include the Lhok Sukon High and the Kuala
Langsa High, before the basin floor rises eastward towards the
Malacca Shelf.
The North Sumatran Basin was initially subject to Late Eocene
rifting that formed the north-south horsts and grabens. A quiescent phase of basin sag, with widespread carbonate deposition
and reef growth during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene, followed the rifting. N W - S E wrench tectonics in the Mid-Miocene
was associated with the uplift of the proto-Barisan range, and
finally, S W - N E compression during the Plio-Pleistocene to
Recent created the N W - S E coastal fold belts of Sumatran trend
which occur throughout the basin.
Stratigraphy
System
0-
133
North Sumatra
Epoch
Basin
Source
Pleistocene
... -,t. . .- .. . . . : .
Reservoir
Seal
"
Pliocene
5--
104
~. . . . .
'
..........
(1)
I ~
.U
:,,:
-~
i_
15-
fl
. . . . . . . .
_-
::=
"
- -
(D
i
}~!:~i~
~176
.
>,
w
Late
48--
c-
45-
__
...............
t===
1.- (D
3o- . c"
3,%-
E
UJ
22
Q..
"~
LLi
~'~
Pre-Tertiary
Fig. 10.2. The stratigraphy of the North Sumatra Basin, showing the positions of source beds, reservoirs and seals.
":
" 7
.......................... ...............................
134
CHAPTER 10
Reservoirs
All geochemical data so far indicates that the source rocks of the
North Sumatra Basin are mainly marine, although Kirby et al.
(1993) suggested that there was the possibility of lacustrine
source rocks occurring within the rifts. According to Buck &
McCulloh (1994) hydrocarbons in the basin originated from multiple source rocks, including shales in the Bampo, marls in the
Peutu and shales within the Baong, all of which are marine.
Buck & McCulloh (1994) reported that the Bampo was the main
source of the oil in the the 1,eutu carbonate reservoirs, such as
the Arun field, and stated that the Baong shales surrounding the
Petroleum systems
P o t e n t i a l drilling hazards
135
the first geological survey in the basin was carried out in 1864
along the Siak, Siak Kecil and Mandau Rivers. Over half a
century later two seeps were described near the village of Lubuk
Bendahara. Despite this early interest, it was not until 1933 that
the first exploration well was drilled by Nederlands Koloniale
Petroleum Maatschappi (NKPM), and this well encountered
shallow basement. The first discovery was made in 1938 with
Sebang-I drilled by NKPM. This yielded gas with heavy oil. In
1939 the Lirik Field was discovered with Lirik-3 by NKPM.
The giant Duri field was discovered by SOCAL in 1941.
Minas-1 was about to spud when the Japanese invasion occurred
and the invading forces completed the well. The wellsite geologist
was Toru Oki, who many years later was to play an important role
in Inpex (Indonesia's largest non-operating producer). After the
war Nederlands Pacific Petroleum Maatschappij (NPPM) returned
with its new Caltex Pacific name and went on to discover Pungut
( 1951 ), Kotabatak (1952) and Bekasap (1955), which have in combination, produced over half a billion barrels of oil, according to
Courteney et al. (1991). Caltex put Minas on stream in 1952 and
Duri, with a more viscous crude, in 1958. Caltex also
established the Palaeogene oil play with their discovery at
Pematang- lin 1959.
NKPM returned to Sumatra as Standard Vacuum, developed the
Lirik field and went on to make further discoveries in the Lirik
trend, which produce from Neogene and Palaeogene sands. The
North Pulai Field, which is also part of this trend, produced
from fractured metaquartzite basement. The reservoirs in the
Lirik trend range in age from Palaeogene Sihapas to Pleistocene
Minas formation sandstones. Shales within the Minas Formation
form the main regional seal, while the source rocks have traditionally been regarded as the brown shales of the Pematang Group. As
in the North Sumatra Basin, the kitchens are located in the deep
main grabens, the Kiri, Mandau, Bengkalis and the Central
Deep. The major oil fields are all situated close to these northsouth grabens.
Tectonic elements
136
CHAPTER 10
102
100
2n-
&
100
Gas Field
200k
I
100
I
102
104
e Oil Field
Stratigraphy
as the Sihapas Group, are the main reservoirs in the basin. The
various sandstones are called the Menggala, Bangko, Bekasap,
Duri, Langkat and Tualang formations, with environments of
deposition ranging from inner neritic to braided and meandering
streams. The producing horizons of the Minas and Duri Fields
are the Bekasap and Duri Sandstones, which are deltaic to tidal
in origin. Overall, there was a gradual marine transgression, culminating in the deposition of the Telisa Shale. The Sihapas intercalates basinally with, and is overlain by the Telisa, which
provides the main regional seal.
A compressional phase resulted in a renewed development of the
proto-Barisan 15.5 Ma ago, marked by the influx of sediment from
the west and creating a major unconformity. This tectonic event is
associated with the initiation of the Regressive Stage. The Petani
Formation, the earliest formation of this stage, comprises claystones,
siltstones, thin sandstones and limestones. On seismic sections this
formation can be observed forming prograding wedges, derived
from the west. The Plio-Pleistocene Minas Formation represents
the final phase of deposition. The last major compressional phase,
from 2.8 to 1.65 Ma ago brought about an inversion of the structures.
Most of the major fields were formed at this time, although they are
usually also associated with older pre-existing features.
Reservoirs
The Sihapas Group forms the main reservoir for this basin. It is
composed of Menggala, Bangko, Bekasap, Duri, Lakat and
Tualang Sandstones, varying environmentally from fluvial to
inner neritic. The Upper Red Beds of the Pematang Formation
can also form reservoirs, especially in the troughs; these reservoirs
were formed in fluvial or alluvial sediments.
System
O-
Quaternary
Epoch
Pleistocene
Source
Fbservoir Seal
Pliocene
(~
~ ~ ~ !..::..:,!,-::~~Lr.petant/Bin!~
.
~
80
-=,-
:~,,.....:
,iUpr
Petani/Korinci
J-,.:
:, :.,,,.,.,:
.- ... : . . , :. :. :. . i
__
- -
- - - -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- - - -
.uprS!aPas/Durll
'
!..:,
o
0
UJ
o
0
i.. ,. ,.,.-.,.-:.
s
[ [ [
137
Late
Pre-Tertiary
Fig. 10.4. The stratigraphy of the Central Sumatra Basin showingthe position of source beds, reservoirs and seals.
South S u m a t r a Basin
The Middle Oligocene Brown Shale, within the Pematang Formation, forms the main source-rock for the basin, with TOC
(total organic carbon) averaging 5%. It is an excellent, dark brown
to black, algal rich, source rock, restricted to the Palaeogene deeps
and was deposited in restricted, fresh to brackish water lakes.
Hydrocarbons found in the Central Sumatra Basin are predominantly oil, due to the presence of these oil-prone lacustrine
source-rocks.
Petroleum systems
138
CHAPTER 10
104
I
102
106
I
2s
2s
4s
4s
0
I
1 O0
20,
6s
I
104
102
I
106
108
9 Gas Field
Oil Field
Tectonic elements
The Lampung High separates the South Sumatra Basin fi'om the
Sunda Basin to the east and the Tigapuluh High separates it
from the Central Sumatra Basin to the NW. In the NE, the basin
thins towards the Bangka part of the Sunda Craton and towards
the SW, like the basins to the north, it wedges beneath the
Barisan Mountains (Fig. [0.5).
The South Sumatra Basin formed initially during Late Eocene
rifting. The basin can be divided into two distinct parts, the Palembang sub-basin to the south and the Jambi sub-basin to the north.
The two sub-basins are slightly off-set from each other, and the
rifts are orientated north-south in the Palembang sub-basin and
N E - S W in the Jambi sub-basin. The rift valleys so formed were
to become the source kitchens around which oil accumulations
would later be found. Basement highs formed eroding areas providing a sediment source and were eventually submerged to
form the substrate on which carbonate build-ups would form. A
sag phase in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene promoted
growth of carbonate banks tbrmed on structural highs.
In the Mid-Miocene wrenching occurred, and this was followed
by a period of subsidence prior to a compressional phase in the
Plio-Pleistocene. The end result is a pattern of north-south or
N E - S W horsts and grabens with superimposed NW-SE-parallel
fold trends, with associated high-angle compressional faults.
Stratigraphy
Sediments representing the Cratonic Stage are absent in the South
Sumatra Basin. Tertiary sediments overlie Mesozoic limestones,
OIL
System Epoch
O-- Quate(na ry
5-
& GAS
139
South S u m a t r a Basin
Source
Ft~servo,, Seal
Pleistocene
Pliocene
_J
:-
)GumaiFLU
::
:i:il
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
m~
2s- .i ~
1,,. a>
3~
(11 g
_C}')
o
O
i :: ::: :: : : : : : :: : . : : :
LU
Late "
::::
- /
*
.....
"
Pre-Tertiary
Fig. 10.6. The stratigraphy of the South Sumatra Basin showing the positions of source rocks, reservoirs and seals.
Sub-basin, as the shales are thicker. The Gumai Formation represents the height of the transgression and is followed by the
Regressive Stage Air Benakat Formation, and by the Muara
Enim Formation.
Reservoirs
140
CHAPTER l0
development is tricky, as with all carbonates, but there is a tendency for the limestones to have a better porosity at the top of
buildups. In some areas, such as part of the Air Sedang field, the
top of the limestone cannot be distinguished from the overlying
shale on seismic data. This is due to the high porosity of the limestone, which brings the velocity down to that of the shale.
However, the Batu Raja is usually a very clear seismic marker.
Shales equivalent to the Batu Raja commonly show a velocity contrast with the overlying shales, due to their high carbonate content.
The Gumai Formation frequently contains marine glauconitic
sandstones which are occasionally very fine grained and tight,
but may also form good reservoirs. The sandstones may also act
as thief beds, downlapping onto the underlying reservoirs and
allowing hydrocarbons to escape.
The Air Benakat Formation contains many sandstones which
may form stacked reservoirs. As this is a regressive sequence individual sandstone reservoirs vary considerably in quality and areal
extent. Within the Jambi Sub-basin there are usually shows of
some degree in every sand, but these sands crop out and
sub-crop along the edge of the Sunda landmass where they are frequently exposed to meteoric waters. The areal extent of the sands
varies and the water salinity of each sand interval varies also, this
in turn has affected the extent of biodegradation of the hydrocarbons. Finally, sandstones within the Muara Enim Formation
also form reservoirs in this basin.
Petroleum systems
As mentioned earlier, there are several possible source rocks. Oil
type analysis indicates that more than one type of oil is present, but
all are derived from the Talang Akar Formation or older units. The
primary system, therefore, is associated with the Talang Akar
Sandstones and/or the underlying fractured basement, which
form the reservoir part of the system and are usually in direct
contact with the source-rock. Gas is also significant, as according
to Zeliff & Bastian (2000) 14.8 TCF gas reserves have been discovered in basement reservoirs. The graben areas are the kitchens
and thus plays tend to be adjacent to them. The Talang Akar sandstones are also the main conduit for hydrocarbon migration to
other reservoirs, either directly or via faulting. Faulting occurred
in the Mid-Miocene as well as in the Plio-Pleistocene, developing
numerous pathways. Since the Talang Akar Formation wedges out
on basement highs, and the Batu Raja carbonates were formed on
the highs, a connection is provided between the source and the
Batu Raja reservoir. The downlapping Intra-Gumai Sandstones
provide a connection with either the Talang Akar Sandstones or
the Batu Raja for further upward migration, while sandier parts
of the Gumai and faulting produce the final contact with the Air
Benakat sandstones.
circulation has been lost in both the Batu Raja Limestone and in
fractured basement. In some areas the lower part of the Gumai
is geo-pressured, this in combination with possible loss of circulation in the Batu Raja can lead to blow-outs. CO2 is present in
varying amounts in the Batu Raja Limestone, with higher percentages in the basement and H=S has been encountered in the Batu
Raja and Talang Akar formations. Zeliff & Bastian (2000)
report gas columns of up to 1 km in recent highly permeable
fractured basement discoveries. The well control problems that
this causes have been tackled with underbalanced drilling with
rotary BOPs (blow-out-preventers).
Outer-arc basins
Outer-arc basins occur to the west of the Barisan Mountains and
underlie the coastal region and the offshore areas between mainland Sumatra and the outer-arc islands. From north to south these
basins are the Sibolga, Mentawai and Bengkulu basins. The outerarc basins, as mentioned earlier, have low geothermal gradients
due to the double thickness of the plate in subduction zones,
and thus a greater depth of burial is required for maturation.
This may have not always been true throughout the history of
the basins as there is an extinct spreading centre that intersects
the outer- arc system at the Pini Arch, which separates the
Sibolga Basin from the Mentawai Basin. This spreading centre,
which now forms the Wharton Ridge, became inactive in the
Eocene, probably due to jamming in the trench. If Sumatra was
subjected to clockwise rotation caused by the collision of the
Indian Plate with the Asian plate, then according to Clure
(1991) the spreading centre would have been subducted beneath
the Bengkulu and Mentawai Basins. The passage of the spreading
centre would have resulted in a period of higher heat flow and
possible oil generation in the outer arc basins. Oil shows to the
west of the Barisan Mountains are found only in the Bengkulu
Basin to the south of the Pini Arch, whilst to the north of the
arch only gas, probably of biogenic origin, has been found.
Another factor in this scenario is that volcanic and metamorphic
rocks in the Barisan Mountains provided a provenance only for
clays, shales and poor quality lithic sandstones, due to the
limited availability of quartz. Various granite plutons provide
local sources of quartz sandstone, but this type of provenance is
characterized by the deficiency of coarse clastics. Prior to the
uplift of the Barisan, sediments in the outer- arc basins came all
the way from the Sunda Craton to the east, and the outer- arc
basins formed part of the basins that became backarc basins
after Barisan uplift. For example, the Bengkulu Basin is
thought to have originally formed part of the South Sumatra
Basin. Various attempts have been made to trace the grabens
from the backarc basins into the outer-arc areas and thus
explore for the rift sequences, but the success of this exercise is
dependent on the estimated amount of displacement along the
Sumatran Fault. If these rifts continue into the outer-arc area
they are still very far from the presumed source of sediment in
the exposed Sunda Craton, and therefore the clastics are likely
to be finer, the coarse sediments having dropped out of the
system nearer the source area of the sediments.
Satellite images of Sumatra show a significant number of rivers
radiating out from a point in the central part of the Barisans. Prior
141
carbonate build-ups. Sources of oil would lie in sediments deposited in undetected lakes within rift grabens.
Intermontane basins
The Intramontane or Intra-arc Basins are extensions of the Central
and South Sumatra Basins and were initially part of those basins
prior to the uplift of the Barisans, which isolated them from the
main basin area. The earlier history in these basins is very
similar to the backarc basins from which they have become disconnected. Such basins include the Mandian, Kampar Kanan,
Ombilin and the Bandar Jaya basins.
The Banda Jaya Basin has a reasonably complete, although thin,
younger section, whilst the Ombilin Basin, due to subsequent
uplift, is missing the younger section, either as the result of nondeposition, due to isolation from the main sediment source, or to
erosion. Oil shows were observed in the Sinimar-1 well drilled
by Caltex in the Ombilin Basin, demonstrating that generation
of hydrocarbons had occurred in this area; however this is the
only well to have been drilled in this basin.
The Bandar Jaya Basin, which is made up of a series of smaller
half grabens, has been tested by a few wells, which encountered
Lahat through Air Benakat formations, but these wells were
unsuccessful in finding hydrocarbons, probably due to the low
maturity of sediments in this area.
Chapter 11
142
COAL
143
COAL LOCALITIES OF S U M A T R A
Banda Aceh
~ -
10~~
"'.
Sumatra I
h
I~ Meulaboh
Meula
4~
~~
"~.
Kual
Medan
4~
hart
"~
Basement ~
NI
~J.
,,
Basin
""tKorinci
" Basin
"
" ":,' .
t-".,l lc arornqo:
:,W.:::
9 Indo
.,:::~::,TA~T.A/hed
/4oeysa~,v:.,,iiA,
pT:.~,AOmbthn~,~,~r4tr
:ii ....
..
~,~
I-'aaangM ! ~e~l~id~i&
'
X
"~
Toluk'k~
Bayu~
"~::!!ii:"::
-.
"zO-r~. blT'n
~,9o~I%e~
-~ v' "
d.~S .v
".
e"
,~o~ " ~
Qf5~
," ~n.~n,,I
~,
....
~Painan
I,
I ~ .
"~
LEGEND
9
"l,'..x.
/
. . . . . Sumatra
., ,"-s~m~~a!
'e,
"
"
. ~
ama
~_~i~".:,
. . . . .
PulaiBaai~~{!~r~Ut
,iq::i~i:~i!:'.:i!Coal
~) Basins
2~
=~
'
Pate
n(
O9 TownSMajoPorts
r
t~ ~ "~-.
~7
P r o d u c i n g Coal M i n e s
':
"
!
102~
I
Fig, 11.1. The major sedimentary basins, the coal-bearing basins, production areas and coal-exporting ports in Sumatra.
"..
" Tara.
144
CHAPTER 11
PTBA Ombilin
PTBA Bukit Asam (Steam)
PTBA Bukit Asam (Anthracite)
PT Allied Indo
PT Bukit Sunur
PT Danau Mas Hitam
Cerenti area
Sinamar area
Inherent
moisture %
Ash %
Volatile
matter %
Calorific
value Kcal/kg
Total
sulphur %
12
18-28
7-8
-12-16
14
---
6
7-15
1-4
4
4-9
7-10
18
8
5-8
6-10
10
5-14
8-10
7-9
10
36
32-38
9-15
37
34-40
37-40
38
35
6900
5500-6500
7500-8000
6900
6000-6900
6300-6500
4700
5180
0.5 -0.6
0.4-0.6
1.0 max
0.5
0.8
1.0 max
0.3
1.4
17
COAL
Table 11.2. Ash analysis for Air Laya Coal (yon
Schwartzenberg 1989)
Element
Average (%)
Range (%)
64.0
25.4
4.4
0.5
1.6
1.1
0.6
0.9
1.3
0.3
50-85
7-35
1-9
0.2 -4.0
0.2-3.5
0.3 - 3.5
0.2-2.5
0.2 -4.0
0.2-3.5
0.1-1.0
siQ
A1203
Fe203
TiO2
CaO
MgO
K20
NazO
SO3
P
145
Coal quality
North
Central
South
Bengkulu
Total
Measured (Mt)
Indicated (Mt)
Inferred (Mt)
Hypothetical (Mt)
Total (Mt)
% of total Indonesia
reserves
-717.8
2438.8
30.9
3187.5
1272.0
2322.0
7505.5
17.0
10 920.7
2.0
105.9
2204.0
15.9
2355.9
433.0
1022.4
6891.0
-8296.5
1707.0
4169.0
18 743.5
60.0
24 759.7
4.4
10.8
48.6
0.2
64.0
146
CHAPTER 11
Table 11.4. Coal production from Sumatran mines (Directorate of Coal 1997)
Company
PTBA Ombilin
PTBA Bukit Asam (Steam)
PTBA Bukit Asam (Anthracite)
PT Allied lndo
PT Bukit Sunur
PT Danau Mas Hitam
PT Bukit Bara Utama
PT Karbindo Abesyapradhi
Total
Production (Mt)
Exports (Mt)
1. l 0
8.06
0.06
0.85
0.36
0.07
0.15
0.60
11.25
0.77
1.24
-0.53
0.35
0.07
0.15
0.42
3.53
for domestic use, chiefly in Java, and for export into Far Eastern
and European markets. The principal ports all lie on the western
and southwestern coast of Sumatra (see Fig. 11.1). The port of
Tarahan is operated by PTBA with a capacity for 5.5 Mtpa,
accepting vessels of up to 65 000 t dwt, Teluk Bayur ships
2.0 Mtpa, in vessels up to 30 000 t dwt and Pulai Baai, with a
capacity for 1.0 Mtpa in vessels up to 20 000 t dwt. The ports of
Tarahan and Teluk Bayur are further supported by rail links
from the mines. In the case of PTBA's Tanjung Enim mine, the
rail link is 450 km to Tarahan. However, a small amount of coal
from Tanjung Enim is sent 200 km by rail to the small port of
Kertapati on the Musi River near Palembang. Coal is loaded
onto barges for shipment from the eastern side of Sumatra to domestic markets and to nearby Malaysia. It is proposed to construct a
larger terminal near Palembang to accommodate larger vessels and
shipments.
It is envisaged that the current production will increase in the
next ten years, providing market conditions (domestic and
export) that justify investment. An example of this is the expected
increase in Indonesia's domestic steam coal market to satisfy the
increased demand for electricity, with the proviso that there will
continue to be investment in the electricity-generating sector.
Chapter 12
Sources of data
For the purposes of this review mineral localities in Sumatra and
the Tin Islands are catalogued in Tables 12.1-12.6 in terms of
'mineral clusters', the locations of which are shown in Figures
12.1 and 12.6-12.10. Mineral clusters represent concentrations
of mineral occurrences, or a group of deposits formed at similar
times, although a few include mineral deposits which were
formed in the same area but at different times. Summaries are
given of the geological setting and the history of exploitation of
these deposits. Original sources should be consulted for further
details. Recently discovered/investigated deposits that have not
(yet) been described in the published literature are discussed in
some detail in the text.
Van Bemmelen (1949), Young & Johari (1980), Djaswadi
(1993), Indonesian Mining Association (1995) and Crow (1995)
have compiled lists and details of mineral localities in Sumatra.
Summaries of this data are given in the Explanatory Notes
147
148
CHAPTER 12
,
BREUEH 960
,
980
,06Oo E
,
100~
IGEUNT~T~ ~ M , ~
\
\
%4~A
SIKULEH/~
ANU RENGUET
DUSUN ~
101
~ J
PINAPAN~
"~ /
~ ~
SIHAu
~ROKAN
j~/--~
~
SINGK~AR~V~~' O SINGING'
BUKIT BULAT/VDANA-LI DIATASA
- 4~
GOLD
BASE METALS
TIGAPULUH
S.TUBOH
"~-'~..~..-~A7KAMPIL-~BESII
-~
TEBRONG
4~
,~GARBA
MUARADUA I ~
/
~
~
~1~SEPUTI
WAY LINGGO
/
~ l ~ C ~~ ~TANJUNGKARANG
KOTAAGUNG~\ ~
/
~ LAMPUNG
500km
98~
I
~CEBIA
D.DIPATIAMPAT[ J_ I ~ B U K I T T E M B A N G . . . . . ~ . . _ m V ~ j k T I K U S ~
I
v
\
k
G
O
.
.
I
.
.
~
.
.
.
.
L
.
U
M
A
R
~
B
U
K
I
T
LEBON
q~IITIRIS
~ILIBATU) SENYUBU
TANJUNGSAKTI I~
0~
TIN
96~
I
/_~
<~S.-~ G K E P
~
.
m" ,'~
\
}
~
\
(" \
\ \
r~.
X~
/
.-,
MINERAL CLUSTERS
~-k.._~,t~KuK-~-'6'Rj
NATAL~I~,V
__
- 2~
2~-
PASAMAN~I~ r ~ l ~ BALUNG
LU~BUKSIKAPIN.G. v . ^IJIF~.v.,,
- 0~
xJ ~k.(
~
~l~l MARTABE
~J
4~-
/.~
AHATAP'AN jG~
SIBOLGA~
ANGs
MALAY }
PENINSULA /
BABHAROT~
.A
--~
BEUKAH~I~
~ ] SIGALGALA
~
TAPAKTUAN]~I~ v l ~ l BEUDE M)~RIA ~
DIARI [ ~ "
~---"~Lake " ~
_ 2ON
X X
- MEULABOH-'~" O Q LOKOP
~x.4,~KA~I~ M E L u A K ~ B E R H A L A
04o ,
100~
I
102~
I
104~
I
_ /" 106~
Fig. 12.1. Metallic mineral clusters in Sumatra and the Tin islands.
(2) brecciated quartz veins and mudstones with selvages of sulphides; (3) disseminated sphalerite and galena in sandstone
(Large 1991).
Several origins have been proposed for the lead-zinc mineralization: (1) sediment-hosted exhalative (first proposed in 1977
by BHP geologists); (2) possibly syngenetic/diagenetic related
to volcanic exhalations with later faulting, folding and granite
intrusions having variably remobilized the mineralization (van
Leeuwen & Poole 1978); (3) syntectonic (?Triassic) formed
from hydrothermal solutions derived from tectonically induced
dewatering of the host sediments, with mineral deposition taking
place in structurally dilated zones (Large 1991); and (4) veintype related to hydrothermal fluids exsolved from a crystallizing
acid magma (Schwartz & Surjono 1990b).
Important zinc-lead deposits, the Dairi cluster, were recently
identified in northern Sumatra, in the Kluet Formation to the
NW of Lake Toba by Herald Resources. The deposits include
massive Pb-Zn veins that were mined on a limited scale in
the early 1900s (van Bemmelen 1949). In addition to the veins,
9~ ~
149
1~176176 CONTRACTS
OF WORK SIGNINGS
96~
MIWAH
1967-1971
TIN
1969-]972 ~
COPPER
-4 ~
GOLD
-2ON
NIAS %
-0 o
0 o-
~!~:i~!~?~!~ 84184
!~?::~i i:i]
CEBIA
- 2os
BESI -
........
BUKIT
EMBANG
DRILL-TESTEDDEPOSITS
-4
/~
O
~t
O
LEBON(.31~I[~EEBONG DONOK
TANDAI
LEBONGSIMPANG
TIN
BASEMETALS
GOLD(primary)
GOLD(alluvial)
TIK
4 ~-
LIN(
PAL
500km
96OE
98 ~
LKELAPA
KAMPIT
100 ~
6o '
102 ~
104 ~
several other styles of mineralization have been identified: sedimentary-exhalative (sedex) deposits of Mississippi Valley Type
(MVT), believed to be formed by the reaction of volcanic fluids
with sediments; and supergene mineralization, the latter presumably deposited recently from descending metal-rich solutions
derived from the weathering of the sedex mineralisation (Middleton 2003). The sedex mineralization occurs in a dome-like structure and is traceable over a strike distance of about 5 km along
the NE flank of the dome. It is hosted by carbonaceous shales
and dolosiltstones and forms a single thick horizon in the SE
and multiple, mostly thinner horizons in the NE. The MVT and
vein -type mineralization are confined to a sequence of shelf carbonates which are in sharp contact with overlying sedex-bearing
argillites (Middleton 2003). The project has reached the bankable
feasibility stage. Measured and indicated resources amount to
7.1 Mt @ 16.6% Zn, 10.2% Pb and 13 g t -~ Ag. An additional
10 Mt of c. 8% Zn, 4.2% Pb and 6 g t -~ Ag has been inferred.
Two extensive skarn zones at the Sarkea prospect (Hendrawan
et al. 2001) located to the south of the Dairi prospect were drilltested by Rio Tinto in 2001. The skarns are related to the intrusion
of a granite of the Sibolga Complex into (?calcareous) beds of the
Kluet Formation. Magnetite is the dominant mineral, followed by
pyrrhotite and minor sphalerite-molybdenite in a magnetitesilica-chlorite-garnet + actinolite-epidote assemblage. The
skarn is locally cut by late quartz veins containing significant
amounts of Ag, Cu, Pb and Zn.
During a regional stream sediment sampling programme carried
out in South Aceh by Rio Tinto, Zn dominant banded and
laminated pyrite-pyrrhotite-sphalerite-galena mineralization,
and Pb-dominant galena-sphalerite mineralization, both of
apparent limited extent, were found near Beukah in an area of
~__~
6~
108 ~
150
CHAPTER 12
i\
100o /
96OE
98 ~
L_.,
I
104o
I
106o
",...CONTRACTS OF WORK
SIGNI~
995-1997
,DUSUN
Lake
Toba
DAIRI
%
_0 o
0 ~ __
%
(3
DRILL-TESTED DEPOSITS
C~
METAL
BASE
9 GOLD
0
%
500km
~,1~
96OE
98 ~
100 ~
102 ~
104 ~
NAPAL
I%,
M e d i a l S u m a t r a Tectonic Z o n e ( M S T Z )
M E T A L L I C M I N E R A L DEPOSITS
MIWAH
EVENTS
Ma
01 1" o~.~
NEOGENE
~~
601r
"~MARTABE
"~,~.
~"~
~.,SALIDA " ~
i~tX-- L x
. "~.-.TANGSE
"...r
~,~
,,h
""
GOLD
9 LEBONGDONOK
a) ~ ~
10t 1" ~ "~ ~ O T TANGSECo-Mo
/ ,l, o~ 2 _c *
20 ~ ~ E
B E U E H VEINS
30|
151
LEBON~
PORPHYRY-TYPE"-~\
MINERALISATION
\~,
- 13-9Ma
~ ~.
EMPAH )
"~)
~
~ ~. #4,~
~>..x~
%~j.~'+"~
~,
ZX HATAPANTIN
G
.
"M~SIKULEH
GARBATIN
~ k , , ~
90 ~ <~,~_,, MANUNGGALSKARNS~
(~_'~x
~ O s,~u,~. S~A~NS " ,
'%
00 ~ E
HATAPANG/~/-e,,'~x
ulr ~ ~
NN
10 .~
1
2o TcoHisionof Bentaro-Saling
~""-
30 ~ O. . . . ic IslandArcs
|~
40 ' ~ o
.o o~
50
~ {~
60 ~ [ ~ E~
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MESOZOIC
~
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70
GREISEN Deformationof
, ~ BELITUNG
GREISENSTin
Mineralisation
A~/ A"vv
R~ Granite
Main
Peri~ ~
~ ~ ~ s ~ C I , ~o~
I } A TANTANGRANITE
~
~
(MAGMATIC
ARC)
O
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/~
BINTANGRANITE
5~
TIGAPULL
?SIBOLGATIN
O
O
? SULPHIDESIN
BENTONG-BELITUNG
ACCRETIONARYCOMPLEX
? DIARIBASEMETALS
TRIASSIC-JURASSIC
TIN MINERALISATION
the tin has been weathered out, eroded and redistributed in Tertiary
and Quaternary sediments. Alluvial tin has been won for over 50
years from the Siabu-Sungai Lipai mining area in the Rokan
cluster, from which about 100 t of tin concentrate was produced
up to 1982. Occasionally diamonds are found in the concentrates,
which are believed to be of multi-cycle alluvial origin, originally
sourced in the Tapanuli Group (Clarke et al. 1982b). The source
of the tin is the Rokan-Siabu granitoid suite intruded into the
Tapanuli Group on the margin of the MSTZ. Fifteen greisen,
quartz vein and alluvial tin occurrences are associated with these
granitoids (Clarke et al. 1982b; Rock et al. 1983). The Rokan
Granite is variably cataclastically deformed and cooled to
c. 400 ~ between 186 4- 2 and 189 4- 2 Ma (determinations on
biotites using the K - A r method quoted by Rock et al. 1983). The
roof zones of the mineralized granites were exposed to erosion by
block faulting during the Neogene.
The Penno-Triassic granite plutons in the Alas Valley section of
the MSTZ, west of the Sumatran Fault Zone have metasomatic
cupolas and, according to Cameron et al. (1982a), were emplaced
during a transcurrent fault episode. The foliated muscovite-biotite
granitoid plutons (Ketambe and Upper Sempali) and the Kais Intrusive Complex, which is believed to be the source of the alluvial tin in
the Kais cluster (Johari 1988), from their field descriptions are similar
to the anatectic granitoids which occur elsewhere in the MSTZ, but
there are no chemical or isotopic data to confirm this affinity.
152
C H A P T E R 12
o
,._.,
-4
.~
<
<
o
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153
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154
CHAPTER 12
The I n d o s i n i a n f o r e l a n d
In Northern Sumatra, a belt of remote and poorly exposed granitoids (Fig. 12.5) north of the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone
(MSTZ), were dated as Permo-Triassic by Cameron et al.
(1980). In Chapter 5 Cobbing correlates these granitoids with
the Main Range Province of the Malay Peninsula, based on the
field descriptions of biotite and muscovite granites with tourmaline, reported in the Keteren, Serbajadi and Biden intrusions.
The Dusun biotite granite is excluded here, as it has an early
dioritic phase (Cameron et al. 1983), Mo-Cu mineralisation and
is most likely associated with a Miocene intrusion (Dalimunthe
et al. 1997a, b). The Serbajadi Batholith is elongated N W - S E ,
has a massive marginal carapace of lineated schists and gneisses
(Cameron et al. 1983) and according to Bennett et al. (1981c),
was emplaced during the regional slate-grade metamorphism
and deformation of the Tapanuli Group. This granitoid belt
coincides with a 'mid level geochemical enrichment zone' of tin
identified during the North Sumatra Project stream-sediment
survey (Stephenson et al. 1982), but no in situ tin mineralization
has been reported.
There are several islands in the Malacca Straits to the east of
Sumatra composed of granite and/or greisen, with tin mineralization. The Berhala cluster occurs in the three Berhala Islands offshore Tebingtinggi. Here tin and rare-earth minerals in beach
sands have been weathered from gneissic biotite granite, greisens
and cordierite-sillimanite aureole hornfels (van Tongeren 1935 in
Cameron et al. 1981). Van Bemmelen (1949) considered the
Berhala granites to be the same age as those in the Malaysian
Tin Belt. Katili (1973) reported a K - A r age of 167 Ma from an
altered basalt cored during oil exploration in the area of the
Berhala Islands. Pulau Perak north of the Berhala islands and
SW of Langkawi Island is composed of quartz-tourmaline hornfels (Jones 1981), which is related to a concealed pluton.
Several granite plutons buried beneath the Tertiary sediments of
the Central Sumatra Basin were cored in the Foreland Zone during
the exploration for oil. A hydrothermally altered muscovite granite
pluton at the bottom of the Idris No.1 well in the Coastal Plains
Block gave a K - A r muscovite age of 208 __ 7 Ma (Koning &
Darmono 1982). Nearby detrital tin in the Petani Formation
(Stephenson et al. 1982) appears to have been derived from
another (undated) buried pluton to the north of Rengat.
("4
O0
..,--.
155
tc'b
8-~
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m~v v
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+~ ~ 2
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156
CHAPTER 12
,,.-,,
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I 84
96~
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157
~D
(GONDWANA)
eerake
MAIN RANGE
EASTERN
(Peraluminous
S-Type)
't
B E L T (Metaluminousl_Type) I
;er
~,;
O Berhala
Keteren~
9
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~
" ~'~~' ......'
Muarasipongi~Siabu
RokanIdrisq
_o o
'
Sungei~@~
x~lsahan
:
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--4 ~
F SUMATRA BLO(
'CATHAYSIA)
_6 ~
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300km
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96~
98 ~
100 ~
102 ~
104~
106 ~
~-108
Fig. 12.5. Distribution of Late Triassic and Early Jurassic granites in Sumatra, Malaysia and the Tin Islands in the Indosinian Orogen. Granite Provinces and typology
from Chapter 5.
are deeply weathered into a mixture of maghemite, goethite, hematite plus remnant magnetite. Deep drilling has revealed the primary
mineralized rocks to comprise skarns of varied assemblages, which
show a complex paragenesis. Early phase 'proto-skarn' is a zebrapatterned, contorted, banded lithology, with dark bands predominantly of magnetite and light bands of calcsilicate (probably
mainly versuvianite) and fluorite. It resembles the so-called
'wrigglite' skarn at Moina, Tasmania (Kwak & Askins 1981).
In places this early skarn phase is altered to a garnet-rich lithology, which in turn is retrogressed to carbonate-silica and clay, but
the most important mineralization stage is a chlorite-biotitesulphide-fluorite assemblage, still with preserved magnetite
wrigglite banding. This style commonly has > 1 % Sn grade
while the 'proto-skarn' has Sn grades in the order of 0.2-0.1%.
The later stage retrograde mineralization is interpreted as associated with a late stage, volatile-rich hydrothermal fluid that also
caused the greisenization of the granitoids. It is likely that the
skarn was formed after a carbonate-rich protolith.
Bintan
158
CHAPTER 12
(a)
:
F-:
KLABAT BATHOLITH
~..& 106~
O:
I ~
Fi
MAIN RANGE
!...i.iljlii!i!J
iiiilili E A S T E R N
PENANGA,~
Tin Mining
9 Primary
Deposits
'.
;
-2os~
'.
Old T.KK
'S' or 'IS'Type
BELT
'r-Type
and
":~:.:!:.Soils
Sediments
2~-
~luk~ salinta
\
::Tr
Thrust
Triassic
/
PERMISA
~
Tem~i~
Sandstone
t
Pemai GrOup
Early-Mid Permian
and older
_
PADING
L.
~::
'Pebbly
Mudstone'
Tapanuli
Group~--
Carboniferous- ~
Early Permian
0
i iiii '
, i
50km
106~
::Tr
TOOX
'TIN ZONE'
3 ~_
107 ~
I,,,
(]
1, .
0
30kml
Sye n l t ~
~'-'X"J
-..~L
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Gabbro~,Munti
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Primary tin deposits have given rise to numerous onshore and offshore placers (Fig. 12.6a, b), including Koba Tin and Cebia, from
which the bulk of Indonesia's tin production has come. Most are
palaeoplacers which were deposited and partly reworked from
the Late Miocene to Recent times, during three major phases of
159
Batholith with the Woyla Group, were formed around the time
of its intrusion (c. 87 Ma, Rock et al. 1983).
Cassiterite and cerium-bearing monazite placers of the Garba
cluster were eroded from greisens and pegmatites which formed
in the cupola in a late phase of the Garba Batholith. This composite
batholith was constructed during the Cretaceous, with a MidCretaceous dioritic phase (117-115 Ma, Aptian) followed by a
Late Cretaceous ( 8 6 - 8 2 M a , Santonian) granitic phase with
quartz-feldspar two-phase variants (McCourt & Cobbing 1993).
Tin and rare earth mineralization was formed as a result of the successive fractionation of melts emplaced in a long-lived conduit and
hydrothermal system developed in a favourable carapace. Alluvial
tin in the Seputi cluster to the SE of the Garba Mountains is
thought to be associated with a younger muscovite granite, which
is a fractionated phase of the Padean Pluton (McCourt & Cobbing
1993), dated at c. 85 Ma and having low values of tin. The source
of the alluvial tin was most likely the highly fractionated granite
phases and greisens that have since been eroded away.
The second category of Late Cretaceous tin deposits in Sumatra
is associated with the Hatapang Granite, studied in detail by
Clarke & Beddoe-Stephens (1987). The cassiterite and wolframite
in this untested resource are derived from pegmatites and greisens
developed in the carapace of the granite, emplaced at 80 i 1 Ma
( R b - S r isochron age) to the rear of the magmatic arc. The
Hatapang Granite margin has a peraluminous chemistry and has
chemical characters of both a within-plate A-type granite (see
Chapter 5) and an S-type anatectic granite of collision origin
(Clarke & Beddoe-Stephens 1987). Detrital tin weathered out of
Tertiary sediments 7 0 - 8 0 km to the SE of Hatapang is possibly
derived from hidden Late Cretaceous granitoids.
Tin deposits formed during Late Cretaceous magmatism have
two origins: (1) by fractionation and assimilation in intrusions
belonging to the Late Cretaceous magmatic arc and (2) by anatexis
of peraluminous metasediments caused by crustal thickening and
associated mantle-derived intrusions in the backarc area.
160
C H A P T E R 12
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162
CHAPTER
9~oE
&~
12
JURASSIC - CRETACEOUS
MINERALISATION
4 ~-
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Early Cretaceous Plutons
Woyla Group
(Arc and Accretionary Complex)
SEPUTI
Padean
Pre-Cretaceous basement
-6 ~
4 ~_
,,,% -%\
6 ~_
500km
F i g . 12.7. M i n e r a l o c c u r r e n c e s a s s o c i a t e d
96~
I
98~
I
100"
I
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I
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Cretaceous and
t h e L a t e C r e t a c e o u s m a g m a t i c arcs.
163
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164
CHAPTER 12
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165
I
"~O-PUOCENEMINERAUSATION
.
Mineral Locality
UNI~ q~__Ld
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Tandai being reopened. Most of the abandoned mines were reinvestigated and drilled during the late 1980s, but extensions to
the ore bodies at Mangani and Lebong Donok were not found at
depth (van Leeuwen 1994). A number of new gold occurrences
in Sumatra were found during the various COW investigations
(1985 onwards), of which Bukit Tembang reached the mining
stage while exploration is at an advanced stage at two others
(Way Linggo and Martabe).
The dating, quantity and source of the gold mineralization of
many prospects remains poorly understood, because their perceived low economic potential has discouraged detailed study.
In Table 12.6 the times of mineralization are estimates, based on
the dating of host lithologies and intrusions, although the mineralization sequences are better documented. An exception is the gold
mineralization at Lebong Donok for which K - A r ages between
1.2 and 1.3Ma were quoted by Henley & Etheridge (1995),
which is a similar to the age to the Cirotan epithermal system in
west Java, where adularia was dated by the K - A t method at
1.7 Ma (Milesi et al. 1994). This data places Neogene gold mineralization in Sumatra, at least in part, in the period after 3.5 Ma in
an interval of tectonic reorganization following the collision of the
Philippine Arc and the Eurasian Plate (Barley et al. 2002).
Neogene epithermal precious metal deposits in Sumatra are
classified following White & Hedenquist (1990), using the vein
and alteration mineralogy and the form of the ore body, to infer
the fluid chemistry which controlled ore formation. The high sulphidation type reflects relatively oxidised ore fluids, and the low
sulphidation type reflects relatively reduced ore fluids. Examples
166
CHAPTER
12
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"-d
a:g
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ed
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r~
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ca
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.= =~
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METALLIC
MINERAL
DEPOSITS
167
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168
C H A P T E R 12
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=
g~z~
g
.o
.o
..=
6
...-,
<
~a
I_
~-
._=
=
<
.g g . ~
~-
<
<<
<<
<
z
<
F~
.a
z ar
<
M E T A L L I C M I N E R A L DEPOSITS
96~
98 ~
NEOGENE
" ~
MIWAH
4ON
169
GOLD
Low Sulphidation
Sediment hosted
ABONGx
MINERALISATION
IAK
I:'~'~~'~':~
~':"~:~I Jurassic-Cretaceous
4 ~ --
2~_
""'" ~
SIHAYO
/KIN~
~9
'
c~
MANGANI
"7
0 ~ --
cBUKIT BULA"
I
/G
SALIDA
BULANGS I
F'~ i .._.,
)
BANGKO
2~_
IKIT TEMBANG
I ~l
"'": "
d"(TI
I
tlUARADUA
Seamount
INDIAN-AUSTRALIAN
O C E A N I C PLATE
6~
<b
WAY L I N G ( ~
KOTAAGUNC
500km
)n
96~
I
98~
I
100o
I
1012~'~
of the latter type are commonly found in the southern half of the
island, concentrated along two lineaments or axes. An Outer
Neogene Gold Axis, linking the Salida and Kotaagung clusters
with concentrations in the Lebong and West Coast Districts of
van Bemmelen (1949), and an Inner Neogene Gold Axis, linking
the Mangani and Tanjungkarang clusters can be distinguished
(Machali et al. 1997) and are represented predominantly by
'classic' quartz-vein type deposits (Fig. 12.9). To date only three
high-sulphidation type deposits have been found. All are located
in northern Sumatra and are recent discoveries (Martabe, Miwah
and Meluak). They represent fossil geothermal systems rich in
magmatic volatiles. A study of the present-day hydrothermal
systems in Sumatra by Hochstein & Sudarman (1993) shows
that about 20% fall into this category. A third type of deposit comprises sediment-hosted mineralization found at Abong and Sihayo.
The majority of Neogene epithermal gold occurrences in
Sumatra are hosted in Tertiary volcanics and sediments which
rest on the Woyla Group (Fig. 12.9). There are exceptions, as in
the Meluak, Martabe, Mangani and Bangko clusters where the
Woyla Group is not present. The spatial relationship between
many of the epithermal gold deposits and the Woyla Group in
Sumatra and Western Java was observed by Carlile & Mitchell
(1994), who suggested that this relationship may be related
indirectly to the arc reversal and emplacement of the oceanic volcanic arcs in the Woyla Group onto the Sundaland margin in the
Cretaceous.
The focusing of fluid flow, favourable permeability and fault
structures controlling the emplacement of intrusions helps to
~PUNG
~il~
TANJUNG~ 7 ~ " KARAN G
~APAI
%. ~ .
\
104~
l
4~_
170
CHAPTER 12
Fig. 12.10. The Lebong cluster of precious metal prospects, occurrences and
former mines showing the 'Ketaun Zone' of eroded volcanic centres along which
some the Lebong cluster mineral localities are aligned. Geology after Gafoer
et al. (1992c) and Henley & Etheridge (1995).
1990s. The tabular, quartz-cemented, breccia ore bodies are localized along shears, which are related to an east-west sinistral fault
system (Jobson et al. 1994 had reservations) and to a NW dextral
fault system, by Jobson et al. (1994), using kinematic indicators.
The mineralized zone is orientated approximately east-west
over a strike of 4.3 km. It appears that no transpression or transtension was involved. The dimensions and mineralogical details of
the breccia bodies are given in Table 12.6. Jobson et al. (1994)
found that precious-metal mineralization was the result of hydraulic fracturing, associated with four phases of hydrothermal mineral
deposition. In contrast, the precious metals at Lebong Donok are
associated with quartz veins within the N W - S E Lebong Fault.
Dacite dykes and andesite dykes and sheets are present. The mineralization is on the flank of an eroded andesitic volcano (Henley
& Etheridge 1995) and is localized at the contact between the
sediments and the volcanics. Henley & Etheridge (1995) relate
the mineralization in the Lebong cluster (apart from
Tambang Sawah) to the 'Ketaun Structural Trend' (Fig. 12.10),
a tectonic-volcanic zone in which the individual ore bodies
were emplaced at different levels, with Lebong Tandai representing the oldest mineralization and deepest structural level. Henley
& Etheridge (1995) postulated that the breccia mineralization at
Lebong Tandai was due to later transtensional reactivation of
stepped thrusts, and that the Lebong Donok bonanza veins were
formed in a dilitant transtensional setting, closely associated
with the intrusion of dacite.
According to Gafoer et al. (1992c) the location of the Ketaun
Zone coincides with an incursion of the volcaniclastic Seblat Formation within the volcanic Hulusimpang Formation (OligoceneMiocene), and the volcanic centres are related to the Bal
Formation (Middle Miocene). Postulated thrusting in the Ketaun
Zone was presumably Pliocene in age, but while thrusts have
not been described elsewhere in the area, they could represent
the inversion of pre-existing normal faults associated with the
growth of the Barisan Mountain range.
It is difficult to evaluate the alternative interpretations of a
clearly complex geological setting with so little information on
the dating of the volcanic events and the mineralization. None
the less the presence of large high-grade gold deposits at
Lebong Donok and at Salida (Painan Formation volcanics on the
Woyla Group), both of which are at the interface between sediments and volcanics, is significant. The settings are reminiscent
of that at Hishikari in Japan where a fractured unconformity
171
(from intercalated beds in the limestone), and coarse calcite fragments. Dark silica alteration (jasperoid) replaces breccia matrix
material (fine phreatic sediments and tuffaceous sediments). Individual jasperoid bodies can be highly irregular in shape. Sulphide
content is generally less than 1 or 2%, but locally exceeds 10%.
Pyrite is the dominantly sulphide phase and is invariably
accompanied by arsenopyrite and stibnite. In one of the adjacent
prospects late-stage epithermal white quartz with vuggy and
cockade textures forms the breccia matrix and occurs extensively
as veining and breccia fill.
Jasperoid alteration and mineralisation postdates Oligocene
sediments which disconformably overlie the Permian limestone,
but is otherwise undated. Later karst processes during the ?Late
Tertiary and Quaternary, have reworked the jasperoid material
into new breccias, some of which are fissure fillings.
Some workers distinguish two types of sediment-hosted gold
mineralization, as discussed by Sillitoe (1994): one generated distally with respect to intrusion-centred districts (eg. Sillitoe &
Bonham 1990); and the other the product of metamorphic dewatering of thick sedimentary sequences, as exemplified by deposits
in the Carlin trend in Nevada (e.g. Seedorff 1991). Abong and
Sihayo are both located in areas that contain low-grade porphyry
copper deposits and may therefore belong to the former group.
However Sillitoe (1994) suggests that both groups may form a
single, broad genetic category.
The alignments in Sumatra range in scale from the N W - S E
'Neogene Gold Axes' (Fig. 12.9) and less common east-west
volcanic-tectonic alignments of mineralization as at Muaradua
and the Ketaun Zone in the Lebong cluster. Posavec et al.
(1983) described examples (see Fig. 13.25) of N W - S E alignments, representing the migration of older Quaternary to Recent
volcanic centres in response to progressive displacement along
the Sumatra Fault Zone. East-west alignments of active Quaternary volcanic centres also occur, as at Bukitinggi. At Talang, and
some other active volcanoes, Posavec et al. (1983) found e a s t west aeromagnetic anomalies, thought to image large buried
dioritic intrusions, but the N W - S E volcanic alignments did not
show aeromagnetic signatures indicative of buried intrusions.
The migration of the loci of igneous intrusion and transcurrent
movement of fault blocks were both caused by the oblique subduction of the Indian-Australian Ocean crust beneath Sumatra
(Fig. 12.9). The Sunda subduction zone (Sieh & Natawidjaja
2000) and the Neogene Gold Belt are deflected by subduction of
the Investigator Fracture Zone. In the forearc the 'Pini Arch' has
formed above the trace of the Investigator Fracture Zone, which
also has been related by Page et al. (1979) to the genesis of the
Quaternary Toba Caldera Complex (Chesner & Rose 1991). The
Martabe deposit is situated above the projected eastern boundary
ANU-REUNGUET
MEULABOH
(WOYLA)
SINGINGI
(BENGKALIS)
Orebody form
Ore elements
Time of mineralisation
Au
Quaternary
Au-Ag
Cu-Hg
Cr-Pt
Quaternary
Au-Ag
Pt??
Source uncertain.
Epithermal quartz
found in dumps.
Most gold found in
upper alluvial
succession
Reference
(1994)
Van Bemmelen
(1949);
Van Leeuwen
(1994)
172
CHAPTER 12
#-.
,.--.,
_~
-~
.-g
#-
q-
>
>
?
E
<
7
~ o~ ~ 2
_~,
~o
~-
8
~D
>>
=~
~>-~
~
9
I-q
~ |
9
~
9
o~.
~,
eq
~ ~
rd
,~162 o
e",
e,-,
_~
<
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~ ~ - ~
Cq
e4
_.9.
ZZ <
<
o,~
>.
~<
__
METALLIC
a',
o-,
>
>
a-,
<
a',
MINERAL
DEPOSITS
173
o,~,
>
~,
I
~
C~
".~
Ox
.~_ ~
"~
.-
c~
.~.~
~oo~
<
._
<
oo
"=
".~ ~
o~
o
0.. x
~~
~~
~,~
.~
~t
&
i ~
~ , ~
"~'~
~ ' ~ '
~oo
-~
~ ~'~
o~
-~
o'~-
<
<
<
<
0
Z
z~
z
~
~z
<F,
<
<
174
CHAPTER 12
of the Investigator Fracture Zone and may be an example of mineralization caused by the focussed release of volatiles into the
mantle wedge as a result of post-subduction faulting of hydrated
oceanic crust, which Fauzi et al. (1996) suggested might have contributed to the formation of the Toba Caldera Complex. The presence of other irregularities in the ocean crust passing through
the Sunda subduction system in the past may have contributed
to stalling of the subduction system, which Sillitoe (1997) has
suggested creates the possibility for developing large ore deposits
in a volcanic arc by steady-state, feed-back processes.
3~t
LEBO
104
~1
~
I WAYU.GGo \
LEBONGDONONG
E~176
9~
\%
MARTABE~
Alluvial g o l d
Conclusions
Since 1967, Sumatra and adjacent islands have seen successive
phases of mineral exploration (Figs 12.2 & 12.3) for tin, bauxite
and porphyry copper deposits (1967-71), gold (1985-92 and
1995-97) and since 1998 (albeit on a reduced scale) base
metals, gold, and tin. These phases of exploration have led to
the discovery of numerous mineral occurrences and the testing
of the more important mineral deposits (Table 12.8 &
Fig. 12.1 l). The Indonesian Government has encouraged foreign
mineral industry private sector investment in exploration
through the Contracts of Work (COW) system. Although the
main focus of the exploration efforts of the private sector has
been in Eastern Indonesia and Kalimantan, Sumatra with its relative accessibility and lower cost of exploration, has seen a fair
amount of activity, especially during the most recent gold exploration boom in 1995-97, when large tracts of land were covered by
COW applications (Fig. 12.3). Unfortunately, the boom was prematurely terminated in the wake of the Bre-X scandal in Kalimantan (Wells 1998). This scandal sapped the confidence of investors
in the Indonesian mining sector, and the sector has remained
01
0.2
1
10
Resource (including past production) in millions of tonnes
160
Fig. 12.11. Gold resources, including past production and gold grades (g t l) of
some Sumatran gold deposits adapted from van Leeuwen (1994).
Chapter 13
To the west of Sumatra and the outer arc islands, the floor of the
!ndian Ocean increases in depth from 4000 m at the northern
end of the island to over 5000 m in the south (Fig. 13.2). Two
linear north-south submarine volcanic structures, the Ninety
East Ridge and the Investigator Ridge, considered to be based
on oceanic transform faults, rise several kilometres above the
general level of the ocean floor (see Fig. 1.2). The basaltic crust
of the Indian Ocean, which is here of Cretaceous to Eocene age
(Sclater & Fisher 1974; Liu et al. 1983) (Fig. 13.2), is overlain
first by Cretaceous-Eocene pelagic sediments and then by
Miocene turbidites. At the northern end of Sumatra the turbidites
form part of the Nicobar Fan and are 2 km thick. The turbidites
were derived from the Himalayas following their uplift during
the Miocene, and formed the eastern branch of the Bengal Fan,
before sediment supply was cut off by the collision of the northern
end of the Ninety-East Ridge with the subduction trench in Pleistocene times. On the ocean floor the sedimentary cover decreases
in thickness southwards, until at the southern end of Sumatra, the
thickness of the fan sediments is reduced to less than 1 km
(Fig. 13.2, inset). Sediments of the Nicobar Fan are covered by
a thin veneer of Recent pelagic sediments.
Seismic reflection profiles obtained by the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography (SIO) around Nias in the 1970s and 1980s as a contribution to the Sumatra Transect, part of the SEATAR (Studies in
East Asian Tectonics and Resources) Program (CCOP-IOC 1981),
show that Indian Ocean lithosphere, and its covering of sediments,
are being subducted in the Sunda Trench northeastwards beneath
Sumatra (Fig. 13.3). More recently very similar seismic sections
have been obtained to the south of Enggano by the R / V Sonne
as part of the GINCO (Geoscientific Investigations along the
active Convergence zone between the eastern Eurasian and
Indo-Australian plates off Indonesia) Project (Kopp et al. 2001).
The subduction trench lies about 250 km to the SW of the mainland of Sumatra and 100 km to the SW of the outer arc islands
(Fig. 13.2). At the northern end of Sumatra the subduction
trench is 4000 m deep, but the trench increases gradually in
depth southeastwards, until at the southern end of the island it is
more than 6000 m deep (Fig. 13.2, inset). A compilation of
echo-sounding measurements from the floor of the trench, and
seismic reflection and refraction determinations of the depth of
the underlying oceanic basement shows that this increase in
depth is due entirely to a decrease in the amount of sediment on
the ocean floor (Moore et al. 1982) (Fig. 13.2, inset). The SIO
seismic reflection profiles show sub-horizontally bedded Nicobar
Fan sediments on the floor of the trench overlain by a thin
wedge of more recent sediment at the foot of the inner slope.
The Indian Ocean floor slopes gently northwestwards at 2 ~
towards the trench and as the trench is approached the overlying
sediments and the ocean floor are broken by normal faults downthrowing towards the trench and parallel to the trench axis. At the
base of the inner slope of the trench the sediments on the Indian
Ocean Plate are seen in seismic sections to have been uplifted
along thrust surfaces and imbricated to form an accretionary
complex (Fig. 13.3a). The trenchward outer slope and normal
faulting in the ocean floor are attributed to a downward flexure
and a complementary bulge on the incoming plate, resulting
from loading by the overlying accretionary complex.
The inner slope is made up of a series of ridges and troughs parallel to the trench axis which rise steeply from the floor of the
trench, and then flatten out in the outer arc ridge (Fig. 13.3a).
Karig et al. (1980, fig. 4) interpret fans of recent sediment on
the floor of the trench as formed by material slumping down the
of the steep lower face of the accretionary complex. These fans
impede the flow of sediments along the trench axis.
Seismic profiling of the trench shows that the trench sediments
and the underlying turbidites are uplifted along thrust faults at the
toe of the accretionary complex. The ridges on the face of the
accretionary complex are formed by successive anticlinal folds
of ocean floor sediments, broken by faults and converted into
175
176
CHAPTER 13
96~
100 ~
98 ~
102 ~
106 ~
6~_
Active Volcano
9~,,wB~nda Aceh
104 ~
FOREARC
.4 ~
&-40:Medan
4~_
Fig.13.4(a)
[~~lue
-
~L~~
--,'.',LakeTob~
~.
'
Nias~
% %
100
200
300
400
500km
2 ~_
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
iiiiiiiiiii
~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii:i:..ii~
Banyak Is .
2~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
;:OiPekanbal
_0 o
,~
l i n e s of sections in
F i g s 1 3 . 6 ( a ) & (b).
0~
9...-o ~
:!!!iii!i!i!i!iiii!iiii~
:.:.:.;.:.:.:
lines of seismic
TigalJiJ/oh
:!:i:i:i:i:i:i 9 "'i:?:i:?:?:i:i:?:?:?:?:?:i:?:::
p r o f i l e s in
F i g s 1 3 . 3 ( a ) & (c)
2~
2~-
Paga~
INDIAN
PLATE
~i:i:i:i:i:!:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:i:iOiPalembang
, Sipor~
~5
Bengkul
_4 ~
tiiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiii!iiii
Quaternary-Recent volcanics
% Enggano
604
Pre-Tertiary Basement
96~
98 ~
100 ~
102 ~
104 ~
106 ~
I
100 ~
Sumatran Forearc
1
o
177
Islands and F o r e a r c B a s i n s
Nicobar SimeulueNiasSiberut
.
--. A
tsA
/ ' k / ~ A /'~ ~c,
Enggano
r~
sea level
2
km 3
5
6
7
BANDAACEH
,,
'
'N
:}
:N
o
1ooo
Sunda Trench
2000
3000
4000km
2000
3000
4000km
km
MEDAN
5
6
7
8
1000
Paleocenei
BOLGA
Batu
b Islands
PURA
%
Paleocene
BENGKULU
Cretaceous
100
200
300
400
500km
Fig, 13.2. Structural map of the Sumatran Forearc based on Hamilton (1979), with transform faults, magnetic anomalies and age of oceanic crust (double lines at 45 Ma
mark an extinct spreading ridge) in the Indian Ocean from Sclater & Fisher (1974) and Liu et al. (1983); structures in the forearc from Izart et al. (1994), Matson & Moore
(1992) and Diament et al. (1992); structures in the Nias Basin from Matson & Moore (1992), normal faults with ticks, and monoclinal flexures with triangles, indicating
the downthrown sides. Onland extensions of the forearc basins are shown in white. The inset shows topographic and bathymetric profiles parallel to the arc system through
the forearc islands, the forearc basins and the Sunda subduction trench after Moore et al. (1982).
178
CHAPTER
13
iii .~
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(Moore et al. 1980a; Karig et al. 1980). While more recent sediments in these slope basins are sub-horizontal, older sediments
are tilted landwards, and deeper in the basins are increasingly
folded and more highly deformed and disrupted by thrusts,
suggesting that the accretionary complex is under compression
and that imbricate thrusts in the accretionary complex are continually re-activated to deform the sediments in the basins (Stevens &
Moore 1985) (Fig. 13.3). Karig et al. (1980) suggest that the
greater part of the sediments in the slope basins are derived
locally by slumping of soft sediment from the face of active
fault scarps, rather than from erosion on the island of Nias
higher up the slope.
In the seismic sections to the south of Enggano Kopp et al.
(2001) make a distinction between the active accretionary
complex with low seismic velocities, indicating that it is formed
of unconsolidated sediments, and an older accretionary complex
forming the outer arc ridge. The older complex, while still composed predominantly of sediments, is more highly consolidated
and has higher velocities. They suggest that the older complex
is of Palaeogene age and acted as a backstop to the younger
Neogene to Quaternary complex (Kopp & Kukowski 2003).
The accretionary complex rises steeply from the floor of the trench
to form an outer arc ridge, c. 120kin wide (Fig. 13.3a) which
appears above sea level in a chain of islands to the west of
Sumatra. In the north the ridge rises 5.5 km from the floor of the
trench to the island of Simeulue, and in the south for c. 6.5 km
in Enggano (Fig. 13.2).
During the 1980s the geologists of the Indonesian Geological
Research and Development Centre (GRDC) mapped most of the
outer arc islands using aerial photographic interpretation and
field traverses. The resulting maps were subsequently modified
in the 1990s by interpretation of SAR (synthetic aperture radar)
imagery, supplemented by additional field checking. These geological maps were published by GRDC at the scale of 1:250 000
(Simeulue and the Banyak Islands--Endharto & Sukido 1991
(Fig. 13.4); Nias--Djamal et al. 1994 (Fig. 13.4); Batu
Islands--Nas & Supandjono 1994; Pagai and Sipora--Budhitrisna
& Andi Mangga 1990; Siberut--Andi Mangga et al. 1994b;
Enggano--Amin et al. 1994a) (Fig. 13.4).
Most of the islands show restricted outcrops of melange, with
blocks of serpentinite, gabbro, basalt, chert, calcilutite and rare
limestones with large foraminifers, Nummulites, Discocyclina
and Pellatispira of Eocene age (Douville 1912; Budhitrisna &
Andi Mangga 1990), and granitic and metamorphic rocks, amphibolites, schists, phyllites and slates, together with abundant
greywacke, sandstone, shales and claystone, in a sheared scaly
clay matrix, in addition to the chaotic melange there are also
more extensive oucrops of bedded units composed of sandstones,
siltstones and clays, often tuffaceous, peats and coals, the latter
indicating mangrove swamps, marls and limestones with abundant
benthonic and planktonic microfossils, indicating abyssal to
sublittoral environments of deposition. Microfossils show that
the sediments range from Late Oligocene-Early Miocene to
Pliocene in age. These older units are generally folded, faulted
and thrust and are overlain unconformably by reef limestones
and associated reef debris of Plio-Pleistocene age. The islands
are surrounded by modem mangrove swamps and coral reefs.
In many areas, particularly on the northeastern coasts of the
islands, drowned mangroves indicate recent subsidence, and on
southwest facing coasts raised reefs indicate recent uplift.
The Karig model (Figs 13.5a, b and 13.6a). The most intensively
studied of the outer arc islands is the island of Nias. Karig et al.
(1980), having made a detailed study of the trench and the
179
180
CHAPTER 13
95~
B A N Y A K ISLAN~DS 97o15,
96o00 ,
2~
(a) SIMEULUE
reefs
SIBOGO
TUANGKU
reefs
oooTp,~,~ \
! 2o00'N
97o15 '
Fault
-
Sibau
Gabbro
Group
(40Ma)
~
~
"-.X---
2~
'-
reef,~
96015 '
96o00'E
I
I
97o30 '
97o15'E
(b) NIAS
Thrust
Anticline
Syncline
~efs
.2030 `
Lineament
I~30'N
1"30'
~"X_~ Gomo
~ b a s i n
II" ~
r,,.
CD
07,s,
GUNUNGSITOLI
1o15 '
"~
--
"',/
1
~Sub-
klrf I~'1-k /
%
-
Fault
Lineament
Thrust
Anticline
Syncline
1~
l~
Mud volcanoes
(3 CZ)d~ o
9
Melange (blocks in clay
%
GunungsitoliFormationiPlio-Pleistocene)
Alluvium
Gomo Formation
'Nias Beds' (Early Miocene-Early Pliocene)
Lelematua Formation
Conglomerate Member (Late Oligocene-Early Miocene)
Ophiolitic basement (B)
10
20kin
I
TELUKDALAM
reefs
97o15'E
'-
97030 '
97045 ,
reefs
181
Trench ~
9~ ~ l u m p ~ / ~ - ~
~
~
flexure
\ \ \ ~ ",. . . . . .
Palaeogene
~
~
Rifted Sumatran
Continental basement
INDIAN PLATE
INDIAN P L A T E
- ~r 4 ~ .
~ ~ h m ~ ~ . ~
\ ~ '" /
- ~~ \ \ ~/ - ~~- - -~- - ~ -
U~lift flexure
INDIAN P L A T E
xComplex
182
C H A P T E R 13
Sunda
Trench
Volcanic
ACCRETIONARY COMPLEX
Inner Trench Slope
Forearc Ridge
with slope basins
NIAS
km
__
8~ - - ~ - ~ _ _ _ . ~ ~ - - - - - ~ ~
lOJ
~
NE
Forearc Basin
coast
line .
Musala
'~'~[~'~.+'+:
~-.-.
.... ~
"
earlier accretionary
complexes
km
~ ~ Arc
2
..,_~'..,.. ~-"~,.-Y N-"- -" I o
10 2.0 30 40 50kin
NE
Volcanic Arc
and
Sumatran Fault Zone
km
Forearc ridge
km
0
Sunda
Trench
Indian Ocean
Accretionary wedge
~
~
1
~
~
NIAS
Forearc Basin
~
~
~
~
\ /%qe-"'~/
/
"y'7
~
~
~
..
~.;,<....---..~-.----~
\
N.
Crust of
unknown nature
~
.F .
. .~
20
"-,
",.
".,
",,
",,
",
'.,
",.
",,
",.
".,
".,
",.
",,
'-,
".,
",,,
"-,
".,
".,
",.
",C ",,
% % % % % % ~.
"~ ~.,/%~.%/%/%]%.~%.~....~
"-
"- X%
~. ~. ~-
"%
",,,' I,.
t,,
".,
% "',,
%1%
.., ~.
,a
"..,
"-,
,,,
%'
,,
9,,,..,,
,.. ,., ,,, .,, % *,. ,., ~',,~ ~.~ ",, % ",.
-,~,~
,., ,.
.,- .,, ..e ,,, ,," Jt I.," ,-' ,,."
10
20
30
40
I
50km
I
O+o"~,'.,?.,:.f~,,.:~.~
i~,~?
i,
~ ,,,%
",,
"=~ ".,
"q
",.
",.
"..
01/i,,
, ~ "~,~."x~,"... "
u O,~"L",",'-.~".","
183
The origin of the mdlange. As part of his study Samuel (1994) and
Samuel et al. (1997, Table 2) made a systematic study of the
184
CHAPTER 13
attributed to variations in the rates of convergence at the subduction zone, and the effects of transpression and transtension along
transcurrent faults due to the oblique subduction. Matson &
Moore (1992) proposed another model for the development of
the Sumatra forearc in which the accretion of massive quantities
of sediment from the Nicobar Fan in the late Mid-Miocene led
to the depression of the incoming Indian Ocean Plate during the
Mid-Miocene to Early Pliocene, causing the subsidence of
the forearc ridge and its sedimentary basins, as recorded in the
stratigraphic sequence (Samuel 1994).
Clasts in the m~lange on Nias indicate that the island is underlain by upper mantle, oceanic crust and pelagic sediments derived
from the Indian Ocean floor and built up into the accretionary
complex. The only components of the m61ange which do not fit
this model are garnet amphibolite and barroisite schist clasts
reported by Moore et al. (1980a), Samuel (1994, 1997) and
Samuel et al. (1997). A greater variety of clasts is reported fom
the islands of Pagai and Sipora (Budhitrisna & Andi Mangga
1990). In addition to ophiolitic rocks and garnet amphibolite,
clasts include garnetiferous mica schist, and granodiorite with
biotite, and granitic gneiss with orthoclase and muscovite,
suggesting that continental basement rocks underlie the eastern
parts of some of the outer arc islands.
Samuel et al. (1995) found that the Upper Palaeogene and
Neogene stratigraphic sequences and lithologies in the Banyak
and Batu islands, which lie within the forearc basin, and from boreholes in the forearc basin itself, resemble the stratigraphy and
lithology of the same units on Nias. As will be discussed below,
there is evidence that the forearc basin, which separates the outer
arc islands from the mainland of Sumatra, has developed relatively
recently. Samuel et al. (1995) suggest that prior to the Pleistocene,
sedimentation was continuous across the present forearc basin to
the outer arc islands. The common occurrence of well-rounded
quartzose and metamorphic clasts in the Oligocene and Lower
Miocene sandstones and conglomerates on Nias, indicate that the
greater part of these sediments were derived from a mature continental provenance. Samuel et al. (1995) suggest that sediments
were eroded from basement uplifts in the forearc region or were
transported across the site of the present forearc basin from
the mainland of Sumatra, to be deposited in extensional basins
developed on top of the accretionary complex at the continental
margin. Some conglomerates, however, contain locally derived
ophiolite clasts, and coarse breccias, composed of large angular
ophiolite and siltstone clasts, are interpreted as rock falls from
active fault scarps, indicating that slices of the oceanic basement
within the accretionary complex were being uplifted and eroded
along the basin margins during sedimentation, as suggested also
in the model of Moore et al. (1980a).
Monoclinal flexure and the M e n t a w a i Fault. In the eastern part of
Nias Moore & Karig (1980) mapped steeply dipping or overturned
Nias Beds with westerly dipping shears and reverse faults in a zone
3 km wide along the eastern boundary of the easterly sedimentary
basin. To the east this zone of steep dips is followed by Upper
Pliocene and younger sediments with a low easterly dip. Pliocene
sediments rest on the older rocks with an angular unconformity,
but further east in the forearc basin this angular discordance disappears. Karig et al. (1979) and Moore & Karig (1980) interpreted
this structure as a large 'homocline' or monoclinal flexure,
between the deformed rocks of the forearc ridge and the flatlying sediments of the forearc basin. The downward displacement
of the forearc basin sediments across the flexure was estimated at
3 km. They suggested that the flexure was the surface expression
of a SSW-dipping back thrust at depth, on which the accretionary
complex had been thrust over the forearc basement, which had
acted as a back stop during the development of the complex.
This flexure zone can be recognised in seismic reflection profiles
(Fig. 13.3a & c), and can be traced southwards as a belt of structural disturbance to the east of the forearc islands, as far as Siberut.
Forearc basins
of the basins are depressions, with the sea floor lying at depths of
up to 3000 m opposite north and south Sumatra, but rising opposite central Sumatra, where basin sediments and forearc basement
are exposed in the islands of the Banyak and Batu groups, and
in islands offshore Sibolga. The area of uplift coincides with a
marked bend in the subduction trench, the 'Nias elbow' of
Milsom (Chapter 2) (Fig. 13.1). It is probable that this area of
uplift is due to the subduction of the Investigator Ridge and possibly the thermal and topographic perturbations caused by the
extinct Wharton spreading ridge (Liu et al. 1983) as it passed
down the subduction zone beneath this region (Malod & Kemal
1996) (Fig. 13.2).
Nature of the j~rearc basement. Hamilton (1979) in his review of
from north to south: the Aceh Basin; the Meulaboh (or Simeulue)
Basin; the Nias (West Sumatra, Sibolga, or Singkel) Basin; and
the Mentawai and Enggano (Bengkulu) Basin (Fig. 13.2). At the
present day the greatest depth of the three northern basins
decreases from north to south: Aceh Basin, 2710 m; Meulaboh
Basin, 1150 m and the Nias Basin, 610 m; and increases again
to the south: > 1000 m in the Mentawai Basin and > 2 0 0 0 m in
the Enggano Basin to the south (Fig. 13.2). The basins are asymmetrical, for example in the Nias Basin the Sumatra continental
shelf offshore the mainland of Sumatra deepens westwards to a
shelf edge at c. 200 m, and drops down a continental slope into
a deep-water basin, up to 610 m deep, further west. Sediment
cores obtained from the floor of the basin are turbidites (Karig
et al. 1979). The basin is cut off on its western side by a steep
slope rising to Nias, coinciding with the monoclinal flexure and
the Mentawai Fault.
Seismic reflection surveys across the Meulaboh and Nias forearc
basins calibrated by boreholes (Karig et al. 1979; Beaudry &
Moore 1981, 1985; Matson & Moore 1992; Izart et al. 1994)
show seismic sequences ranging in age from Palaeogene to the
present day (Fig. 13.3c). The oldest dated rocks found in
exploratory oil company boreholes are Upper Eocene and Lower
185
186
CHAPTER 13
tectonic evolution of the Sumatran forearc is the obliquity of convergence and subduction of the Indian Ocean Plate beneath
Sumatra. In models of oblique subduction the strain in the overlying plate is considered to be partitioned between compression
normal to the subduction trench, which is taken up by inversion
of the sedimentary basins during the Pliocene, with N N W - S S E
thrusting and folding, seen in all the outer arc islands, and translation parallel to the trench along transcurrent strike-slip faults
(Fitch 1972; Platt 1993; McCaffrey 1996). In the Sumatran subduction system the major component of translation is the Sumatran
Fault which separates the forearc region from the Eurasian Plate
as a separate Burma sliver plate (Curray 1989).
There is a major difference in the amount of displacement along
the Sumatran Fault System from north to south. To the north of
Sumatra the displacement is represented by extension, indicated
by the development of oceanic crust in the Andaman Sea, differential displacement being taken up along a series of closely
spaced transform faults with a total displacement of about
460 km, the westernmost of which passes southeastwards into
the Sumatran Fault System (Curray et al. 1979). On the other
hand displacement of the fault system in the Sunda Strait at the
southern end of Sumatra is less than 100 km (Huchon & Le
Pichon 1984; Harjono et al. 1991). Some of this discrepancy
may be accounted for by transcurrent movement along the
Mentawai Fault (Diamant et al. 1992), and some may be taken
up along splays of the Sumatran System, such as the Batee Fault
which extends into the forearc region from northern Sumatra
(Fig. 13.2). Minor strike-slip faults, like those described by
Matson & Moore (1992) in the Singkel Basin, may be distributed
throughout the Ibrearc and the occurrence of transcurrent faults
within the submerged part of the accretionary complex is
unknown. However, it is probable that the bulk of the differential
movement, must be taken up along the large numbers of minor
transcurrent faults, which form conjugate sets marked by lineaments seen in all the forearc islands, and by small scale
extensional faults which bisect the obtuse angle of the conjugate
shears (e.g. Nias--Samuel & Harbury 1996) (Fig. 13.4b).
187
,~o ~ 1t 102
~~ ~0
104~
;
t & 7~
106"
2
o
SUNDAPE/ATEO
Siberu
INDIAN PLATE
Enggano
188
CHAPTER 13
in the centre, and Gunung Denpo (3159) in the south. The mountain range is broadest in the north, 100 km wide, occupying almost
the whole width of the island, narrowing to 50 km in the south.
In the north the mountain range is formed of Pre-Tertiary rocks
of Carboniferous to Cretaceous age forming the basement of
Sumatra, which are overlain by Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic
rocks which thicken into the basins in the forearc and backarc
areas, forming low ground of less than 100 m, to the SW and
NE. Locally Tertiary rocks occupy intramontane basins within
the mountain range. Towards the southeastern part of the island
the basement rocks are increasingly covered by Tertiary to
recent sediments and volcanics, with the older rocks being
exposed only in scattered inliers. At intervals along the chain basement rocks are overlain by Late Pleistocene to Recent volcanic
piles, some of which are active volcanoes (Fig. 13.1).
189
!....
SIBUMASU
~:: B LO C K
A(
NDOCHINA
EAST MALAYA:
:~:~ B L O C K ) ~
MEDA N
"%%~io
2~
Situtup
Klippen
-% o,
,% ~
\ , %~ "% ~..oo
~, %o~,. ~
~.. ~176176176
BENGKULU
;T SUM,
BLOCK
% % o
LAMPUNG
~
100
200
300
400
500km
%
on
,oo
"%
98 ~
100 ~
1020
1040
JAVa
106 ~
Fig. 13.8. Crustal blocks that comprise the pre-Tertiary basement of Sumatra, based on Hutchison (1994), Metcalfe (2000), Barber & Crow (2003). Reverse arrows
indicate dextral transcurrent movement on the Sumatran Fault System.
190
CHAPTER
WOYLA GROUP
13
EAST SUMATRA
(SIBUMASU)
BLOCK
BENTONG-BILLITON
ACCRETIONARY
COMPLEX
Granitic Intrusions
Bintan F o r m a t i o n
Woyla Group
(oceanic and volcanic
arc assemblages)
Granitic Intrusions
Granitic Intrusions
(3_
Situtup & T u h u r
Formations
Limestone blocks
in melange
~
~F
~~
~ ~~:~~~"~~"~'"~ ~ ~ ~~
-~
= E
tII
Kaloi, Batumilmil
and Kualu
Formations
,~
Stutup S ungkang
Palepat and Menqkaranr
E'E"
Format ons(tropical Jambi flora)
-~
o _~-c ~~
<~
:3
Tempilang
Formation
Kaloi and
Batumilmil
Formations
,~
o
~ c
~ ~
~Z
:4 :g,:N::~ N #
~)
rr
O
,, :~o
= ~ "6
~-o
~= ~= o~
Pemali Group
F i g . 13.9. T h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e q u e n c e s a n d
p h a s e s o f g r a n i t i c i n t r u s i o n that c h a r a c t e r i z e
the crustal b l o c k s w h i c h m a k e up the
we-Tertiary basement of Sumatra. MSTZ,
Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone.
the collision between East Malaya and Sibumasu to Late to endPermian. Outcrops of the Pemali Group form east-west bands
across the island and alternate with outcrops of undeformed sandstones and mudstones of the Triassic Tempilang Formation, which
is folded into broad open folds. Because of their difference in
degree of deformation the Tempilang Formation is considered
to have been deposited unconformably on the Pemali Group, but
in places later deformation has thrust rocks of the Pemali Group
over the Tempilang Formation (Ko 1986).
191
97~
.?
LHOKSEUMAWE
"~ ~Bo~J
L i m e s t o e'-.. -,
~ . ~
"'" "'"
GON~
BO
~"~
AmphiboliteFacies
Metamorphic Rocks
>10ppm tin in stream sediment samples
;erbajadi
Granite
~
Bohorok
KUTACANE
C/
Toba Tufts
Kualu (K)
,ilmil
~R
TAPAKTUAN
Antiform
Synform
" ~ M E DAN
LAUBALENG
:~
Toba Tuffs
Graniticintrusions
SIDIKALAN(
WOYLA NAPPE
Pangururan
Bryozoan B
Woyla Group
P-~ (Jurassic-Cretaceous)
KLUET (WEST SUMATRA) BLOCK
Kluet Formation
Amphibolite Facies
Metamorphic Rocks
0
50
\,Granite//
264+6Ma'
\ /~
SIBOLGAq
100km
97~
98~
Q ~
Fig. 13.10. Outcrops of pre-Tertiary units in northern Sumatra showing the distribution of formations in the Carboniferous to lower Permian Tapanuli Group and the
Permo-Triassic Peusangan Group (after Stephenson & Aspden 1982, with modifications from the present study). Near Kutacane the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone is
coincident with the outcrop of the Alas Formation and is distinguished by the juxtaposition of unmetamorphosed sediments and high-grade metamorphic rocks,
syntectonic granitoid intrusions and a tin anomaly. Further north the MSTZ is traced through Takengon following outcrops of phyllite, schist and gneiss, recognised in the
primary mapping, but not incorporated in the compilations. Turbiditic sediments, without pebbly mudstones to the NE of the MSTZ which were originally mapped as
Kluet Formation lie on the Sibumasu Block, and are here assigned to the Bohorok Formation. Pre-Tertiary rocks are covered by Tertiary and Quaternary sediments and
volcanics in areas left blank.
192
CHAPTER 13
,,v-
~.
To
ill
Prapat
"
T~Tebingtinggi"~99~
2~
Tt
Te
Oo
.....,
I-o Tebingtinggi
_4q1
Tt i
Te
LAKE TOBA
Tt
.....
Tt \
Tt
~'~~O451E
2~
LAKE TOBA
SAMOSIR
ha (Tuffaceous
Invertedbeds
CI.... g......... ddip
Zt
~d
v..... ,e,.... ,e
sed'men's
an
Te
,ntrusions,
Carboniferous-Permian
,ozoan Bed
T(~*'~
Tapanuli Group
~
4e
Tt
Ve~oalbeds
~1~nal
Haria
TtPintu
'
__ 0~ Li.... iorlplLInge
Beddingstrikeanddip
Bohorok Formation
(pebbly mudstones)
Undifferentiated ~
Halqbia
, Rant
~,~~
0
10
15
20km
99015'
Fig. 13.11. The geology of the area between Lake Toba and Rantauprapat showing the relationship between the Carboniferous-Permian Tapanuli Gl"oupand the Triassic
Kualu Formation based on the GRDC Pematansiantar (Clarke et al. 1982a) and Sidikalang (Aldiss et al. ]983) Quadrangle sheets. While the Tapanuli Group is isoclinally
folded with slaty cleavage and shows the effects of multiple deformation the Kualu Formation shows one set of upright fold and argillaceous units are not cleaved.
Although all the contacts are faulted the Kualu Formation must have an unconformable relationship to the Tapanuli Group. The inset map shows the location of the
Pangururan Bryozoan Bed (PBB) on the western shore of Lake Toba.
lOkm
I
193
Pasirpangarayan.
90km
Igneous intrusions
Kuantan Formation
(West Sumatra Block)
Pakanbaru
70kin .
disilan
Tanjungpuah Member
(Medial Sumatra Tectonic
Zone)
Bohorok Formation
(Sibumasu Block)
70
75
~"~20
- 0~
2,,
..~
Photodip
~I
Hot spring
0~
.._TJ
Ban
F~angkalan-kota-baru
9 Siasam
Bukit
Tinggi
50km,
0o00'
100~
101~
9 Muaraketua
Fig. 13.12. Structure across the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone (MSTZ) from GRDC Pakanbaru Quadrangle Sheet (Clarke et al. 1982b), central Sumatra, with the
addition of bedding traces from SAR imagery. Irregular refolded folds in the Bohorok and Kluet Formations trending approximately east-west, contrast with isoclinal
folds trending NW-SE within the MSTZ which incorporates the Tanjunpuah Member of the Kuantan Formation. N.B. Granitic rocks within the MSTZ show a gneissose
foliation parallel to the trend of the zone. The identification of units on the map has been modified in the light of the interpretation SAR imagery. Pre-Tertiary basement
rocks are overlain by Tertiary sediments in the areas left blank.
194
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.13. Map of the outcrops of the Bohorok,Alas and Kluet tbrmationsbetween Kutacaneand Laubaleng,based on the GRDC Medan Quadrangle Sheet (Cameron
et al. 1982a), with the additionof beddingtraces (dashed lines) from SAR imagery;solid lines are faults. Open foldingin the Bohorokand Kluet lormationscontrasts with
tighter foldingin the Alas Formation,which lies within the Medial Sumatran Tectonic Zone. In areas left blank the the we-Tertiary basement is covered by Tertiary and
Quaternary sediments and volcanics,includingthe alluviumin the Kutacane Graben.
195
196
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.14. The Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone in central Sumatra distinguished by highly deformed metamorphic rocks, syntectonic granitic intrusions and a tin
anomaly, separating the East and West Sumatra blocks.
197
complex have given Late Triassic and Early Jurassic ages. Roof
pendants of Kluet Formation in the granite, when they are not
hornfelsed, show isoclinal folding and cleavage, with graded
bedding indicating that some beds are inverted (Aspden et al.
1982b). It is therefore presumed that the bulk of the intrusion is
post-tectonic. A detailed study of the relationships between the
structures and dated intrusive phases of the Sibolga Complex
may elucidate the history of deformation in the Kluet Formation.
198
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.15. Detail of the GRDC Sidikalang Quadrangle sheet showing the outcrop of the Kluet Formation to the SW of Lake Toba (Aldiss et al. 1983). The highly
irregular outcrop pattern is due to the infilling of valleys in a mountainous terrain by tufts from the 70 000 years Bp eruption of the Toba volcano. Bedding strikes
and dips were collected in the field. Traces of bedding are from airphoto and Landsat imagery. Solid lines are faults and dashed lines are possible faults and/or
pholo-lineaments plotted from the imagery.
199
Fig. 13.16. Detail of the GRDC LubuksikapingQuadrangle Sheet (Rock et al. 1983) showingthe outcrop of the KuantanFormation,with the additionof bedding traces
(dashed lines) from SAR imagery. Solid lines are faults. The bedding traces show folds on east-west axial traces refoldedby north-south or NW-SE folds. In the areas
left blank pre-Tertiary rocks are overlain by Tertiary sediments and volcanics.
these beds before the rocks were folded. Similar small duplex
structures have been observed in the Palepat Formation in the
Batang Tantan area. Throughout the Silungkang, Palepat and
Mengkarang formations finer grained units within folded beds
do not show cleavage.
The relatively undeformed nature of these Permian units in
contrast to the Kuantan Formation to the NE and the slates and
phyllites of the 'Schiefer Barisan' to the SW, together with the
volcanics and the Cathaysian 'Jambi Flora' in the Mengkarang
Formation, led Zwierzycki (1935) to suggest that they formed an
overthrust 'Jambi Nappe'. Because of the affinities of the
Permian lavas and the Cathaysian flora to those of East Malaya
Zwierzycki (1935) suggested that this nappe was overthrust
from the northeast over a distance of 350 km. Van Bemmelen
(1949) considered that this amount of movement was too great
to have occurred during a single phase of movement (in the
Cretaceous Varanginian Stage according to Zwierzycki 1930a)
and suggested in his 'undation hypothesis' that the nappe had
been gravitationally moved westwards by successive uplifts
200
CHAPTER 13
201
96~
Cretaceous granites
WOYLA GROUP
::.,,:,.,\. Oceanic assemblage
BANDA ACEH
Lho'nga
Lamn(
i~]lll~/~
Bentaro
.~
Geumpang~'---~---,,~
Volcanics
Arcassemblage
volcanics/limestones
Meukuk Gneiss
Undifferentiated
Peridotite/serpentinite
Lam Minet
-5ON
-"Batholith-".,-'.
Tel
5~
euem
tke
CALANG " ~ , . - ~
Penarum
"~ " ~ ~ i "
. . . . %>%.
:undifferentiated
4~
4~
-~'~
SFZ
KL
GL
Faults
Thrusts
Sumatran Fault System
Kla Line
Geumpang Line
4"
~abahrot
Tapaktuan
Volcanics
Meukuek
0
.....t
50
It
100km
-7--:: :::::==========================
.
96~
I
TAPAKTUAN
97~
I
Fig. 13.17. Outcrops of the Jurassic-Cretaceous Woyla Group in Aceh, northern Sumatra, modified from Stephenson & Aspden (1982).
202
C H A P T E R 13
..t
-d
r./]
Z
~b
E
z~
E~
.~
;~
"'E
,.r
"~=
,'~
--
2~
""
c~
"~
".:
~
%
O--
,i/
r-
&
0
Z
Z~
eh
<
tm
~S
.1
-1
_~-=
"~
~a
Z
0
,-'~
I
..............
203
204
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.19. A simplifiedmap of the Sumatran Fault System in its tectonic setting, showing the locationof figures illustratingdetailed sections of the fault systemdiscussed
in this account. Inset map shows the distribution of areas of subsidence, forming grabens, and areas of uplift along the trace of the Sumatran Fault, which Holder et al.
(1994) attribute to the formation of subsiduary splays with strike-slip movement, due to transpression across the fault, with the principal compressive stress (o-I) oriented
ENE-WSW.
north of the equator being concave to the SW, while the segment
to the south is concave to the NE. The fault is currently active
along much of its length, as indicated by frequent historic and
recent earthquake shocks and measured rates of differential
m o v e m e n t across the fault using GPS measurements. Splays of
the main fault extend into the forearc and also into the backarc
region. It is probable that prominent Pre-Neogene faults mapped
in the backarc area have been reactivated in association
with more recent movements along the main fault trace. This
has not always been appreciated and may have led to confusion
205
206
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.20. Dextral displacement of the Meulaboh and West Sumatra Forearc basins, the reef complex (brick pattern) and the shoreline along strands of the Sumatran
Fault System since the Mid-Miocene (from Beaudry & Moore 1985).
207
Fig. 13.21. Active traces of the Sumatran Fault System identifiedby their geomorphicexpression, fault segments and estimated rates of dextral movement, the location of
active volcanoes, lakes and extensional graben (from Sieh & Natawidjaja 2000).
208
CHAPTER 13
209
210
CHAPTER 13
211
Lake Ranau and the Semanka Depression (Fig. 13.26). A 150 km long
depression, filled with the products of Quaternary volcanic
products and alluvium, extends from Lake Ranau to Semangka
Bay in southern Sumatra (Fig. 13.26). The depression is
bounded by the Ranau-Suwoh and Semangka fault segments at
the southern end of the Sumatran Fault System. The fault zone
212
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.26. The pattern of faults between Lake Ranau and Semangka Bay at the southern end of the Sumatran Fault System, from S6brier et al. (1991 ) based on SPOT,
Landsat and aerial photographic interpretation. Inset shows the relationship between Java, Sumatra and the Sunda deformation front in solid lines, compared to their
relationships at 13 Ma (from Huchon & Le Pichon 1984) in dashed lines. The cross-hatched area indicates the area of extension and cruslal thinning in the forearc, the
shaded area indicates the zone of extension in the Sunda Strait, opened up as western Sumatra moved c, lO0 km northwestwards along the Sumatran Fault.
213
214
CHAPTER 13
215
Fold structures. The Tertiary sediments are folded (Figs 13.29 &
216
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.29. Structuralmap of the North Sumatra Basin and the distributionof Tertiary and Quaternarysedimentsin northernSumatra. The locationof the cross-sectionin
Figure 13.32 is indicated.
217
218
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.32. Diagrammatic cross-section of the structure in the Simpang area to the north of Aru Bay, modified from Ryacudu et al. (1992, fig. 18) based on the
interpretation of seismic profiles. Normal or transtensional strike-slip faults in the lower part of the succession were inverted as transpressional faults during and after the
deposition of the Middle Miocene Baong Formation. Fold structures are developed over positive flower structures related to dextral or sinistral strike-slip faults. The
amplitude of the anticline at the SW end of the section has been increased by the diapiric flowage of shale into its core. The line of section is indicated on Figure 13.29.
219
Fig. 13.33. The Central SumatraBasin,based on GRDC maps, with additionof subsurface structure from Heidrick& Aulia (1993). Tertiarysedimentsare only exposedat
the surface in the southwesternpart of the basin in the foothillsof the Barisan Mountainsand also around the TigapuluhHills to the south. ElsewhereTertiarysediments
are covered by Recent alluviumand swamp deposits.
regional subsidence, so that sedimentation became more widespread, extending from the graben across the adjacent horsts.
The sediments are sands and marine shales of the Menggala and
Bangko formations. In the Early Miocene deltaic sediments
derived from the Sunda Shelf in the region of the Asahah Arch
in the NNE extended southwards into the basin, with some input
from the Malay Penisula to the east (Sihapas Group). Delta front
sand deposits interfinger with marine shales (Telisa Formation)
towards the south. As the deltas advanced southwards marine
deposits were gradually replaced by terrestrial sediments and
coal seams were developed on the delta tops. Subsidence was
not uniform throughout the basin, with greater subsidence in the
troughs. Subsidence and rapid sedimentation was greatest in
the north, so that the greatest thickness of sediments is found
in the Barumen Basin (>5000 m) and the sediments thin out
over the Kampur High to the south (Fig. 13.34). With continuing
subsidence, but a decrease in sediment supply, a major marine
transgression occurred in the Mid-Miocene, so that marine deposits of the Telisa Formation were deposited across the delta surface.
At the time of maximum trangression marine sedimentation
extended westwards across the present site of the Barisan
Mountains to reach the Ombilin Basin (Fig. 13.33), well beyond
the bounds of the Central Sumatra Basin. In the Ombilin Basin
Mid-Miocene sediments include a carbonate reef (Ombilin
Formation), indicating that at that time the mountains did not
form a topographic feature. Uplift and erosion of the Barisan
220
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.34. Basement slructure in the Central Sumatra Basin showing highs and depressions which controlled Tertiary sedimentation, simplified after Heidrick & Aulia
(1993, Fig. 3). The lines of sections (a) and (b) in Figure 13.35 are indicated.
Mountains late in the Mid-Miocene provided a source of sediments which advanced across the basin from the west, depositing
a regressive sequence of grey sandstones, siltstones and shales up
to 1.5 km thick (Petani Formation) through the Pliocene and Early
Pleistocene. These deposits are overlain, above an unconformity,
by Pleistocene to Recent alluvial and swamp deposits of the
Minas Formation (Fig. 13.35b).
The Dumai and Pakanbaru Quadrangle sheets (Cameron et al.
1982d; Clarke et al. 1982b) show the stratigraphic sequence
exposed in the foothills of the Barisan Mountains with local and
restricted outcrops of the Pematang Formation adjacent to basement horsts, with more extensive outcrops of the Sihapas Group
and the Telisa Formation forming broad N W - S E anticlines and
syclines faulted into the Pre-Tertiary basement. Away from the
mountain front broad anticlines with a N W - S E trend, cored by
the Sihapas Group and Telisa Formation, including the folds
marking the site of the prolific Minas oilfield (Fig. 13.33), occur
among extensive Quaternary sands, gravels and swamp deposits.
The anticlines occur above highs in the underlying Pre-Tertiary
basement or mark the inversion of the sediments deposited in
the troughs ('Sunda Folds', Eubank & Makki 1981).
Balam Trough. The structure of the Balam and the associated
221
Fig. 13.35. (a) Diagrammatic cast-west cross-section across the western part of the Central Sumatra Basin showing troughs and highs and sediment provenance (after
Williams & Eubank 1995); (b) Diagrammatic north-south cross-section to illustrate the tcctonostratigraphic development of the Central Sumatra Basin (modified
from Wongsosantiko 1976, fig. 3). The lines of section are shown on Figure 13.34.
222
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.36. The Bengkalis Graben. (a) Outline of the graben and controlling faults from Moulds (1989) with the addition of fault traces from Heidrick & Aulia (1993). (b)
Model for the formation of the Bengkalis Graben due to extension on N W - S E and N E - S W basement fractures and the collapse of rhomboid blocks from Moulds (t989,
fig. 5). (e) Cross-section showing the Bengkalis Graben as a half-graben, based on a seismic profile in the southern part of the graben, after Heidrick & Aulia (1993).
Length of section is c. 60 km, vertical scale is not given. (d) Cross-section showing the Bengkalis graben as a half-graben with normal faults re-activated as thrust faults at
the NNE end of the section, based on a seismic profile from the northern part of the graben after Santy (2001). Length of section is c. 30 kin. The locations of sections (b)
and (c) are shown on (a). Circled 'A' and 'T' against vertical faults indicate 'away' and 'towards' on dextral strike-slip faults.
other hand, in their study of the Amin Trough and related graben,
Williams et al. (1995) suggest that dextral strike-slip fault
movements along the main boundary faults caused compression
at the dog-leg bends, with complementary sinistral strike-slip
on the N E - S W faults, during both the Middle Miocene and
Plio-Pleistocene detbrmation events.
Bengkalis Trough. Heidrick & Aulia (1993) made an intensive
study of the sub-surface structure of the 'Coastal Plains Block'
covering the area to the south of Bengkalis island, including the
Bengkalis Trough, on behalf of P.T. Caltex Pacific Indonesia.
The 265 km long Bengkalis Trough originated as a series of extensional half grabens on north-south normal faults (Fig. 13.36).
Seismic sections show steep normal faults at the surface passing
into listric faults, and an inferred flat-lying decollement surface
in the basement at a depth ofc. 6 km (Fig. 13.36c). At the northern
end the major bounding fault is on the SW side of the trough,
while in the south it is on the NE side (Fig. 13.36c, d). During
the Plio-Pleistocene one of the normal faults, the Padang Fault,
at the northern end of the trough, was re-activated as a reverse
fault in a phase of N E - S W compression (Fig. 13.36d).The basement structure of the trough has been modelled by Moulds
(1989) as due to the subsidence of the basement as rhomboidal
blocks between north-south- and NNE-SSW-trending faults as
the result of regional extension (Fig. 13.36b).
Heidrick & Aulia (1993) recognized a complex history of structural development with two intersecting dominant structural
trends, north-south and N N E - S S W , which controlled the structural development of the Central Sumatra Basin and were continually reactivated throughout its history. These structures behaved
as dextral wrench faults, normal faults or reverse faults, depending
on the orientation of the stress system at different stages in the
structural evolution of the basin. Heidrick & Aulia (1993) calculate nearly 9 km of extension across the Bengkalis Trough and a
minimum of 43 km total dextral strike-slip displacement across
north-south faults. The earliest phase of deformation was rifting
on north-south or N N E - S S W normal faults and reactivated
W N W - E S E basement fractures during Eocene to Oligocene
time. A second phase of deformation with N N E - S S W transtensional wrenching in the Early Miocene was associated with
the regional sag phase and re-activated the north-south faults as
dextral wrench faults, and causing counter-clockwise kinking.
in the period from the Mid-Miocene to the present N N E - S S W
compression has reactivated the N N W - S S E wrench faults as
WSW-directed thrust faults (Fig. 13.36d).
Pungut and Tandon Fields. The complex interaction between folds
and faults in the structural development of anticlinal structures
which form traps for oil fields is illustrated by the Pungut and
Tandon fields 65 km to the NNW of Pekanbaru (Mertosono
1975; Eubank & Makki 1981) (Fig. 13.37). A N N W - S S E anticlinal and synclinal fold pair are transected and apparently displaced
for some 3 km by a major dextral strike-slip fault. The Pungut
Field to the north is bounded to the east by a north-south
segment of the strike-slip fault. The oilfield occupies a narrow
anticlinal structure developed over an upfaulted sliver of the basem e n t (Fig. 13.37). The Tandun Field to the south occupies an
anticlinal fold to the east of the strike-slip fault, which here
trends N N W - S S E . The strike-slip fault follows the trace of
a normal fault which bounded the western margin of a half
graben, filled with a thick sequence of the Upper Oligocene
Pematang Formation (Fig. 13.37). The change in the orientation
is significant, as this segment of the fault has been reactivated as
a reverse fault. The oilfield occupies the anticlinal structure developed by the inversion of the thick sediments forming the graben
fill, uplifted along the reverse fault. This is an example of the
'Sunda Folds' as described by Eubank & Makki (1981).
The sequence of events which can deduced from these relationships is that the earliest stage was a period of east-west extension,
223
224
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.37. Structuralmap from Mertosono ( 1975, figs 7, 8) and line drawings from seismic sections of the Pungut and Tandun oilfields. Central SumatraBasin (Eubank &
Makki 1981; Williams et al. 1995). 'U', upthrown sides; D, downthrown sides of faults.
225
226
CHAPTER 13
227
228
CHAPTER 13
229
the Muara Enim Deep (Benakat Gulley) and the Limau Graben,
occur to the SE, sometimes collectively refered to as the South
Palembang Basin. Tertiary sediments reach a depth of 5 km in
the Benakat Gulley (Fig. 13.43). The basins are separated and surrounded by upfaulted blocks where the Pre-Tertiary basement lies
at a relatively shallow depth, such as the Tigapuluh High in the
north, the Musi and Kuang platforms in the south, and the Palembang, Tamiang and Lampung highs in the east (Fig. 13.42). From a
study of SAR (synthetic aperture radar) imagery and seismic data
Pulunggono e t al. (1992) recognized lineaments with W N W ESE, N E - S W and north-south trends, which he considered represent structures in the Pre-Tertiary basement which were re-activated as normal faults during extension to form the highs, the
basins and the troughs. Pulunggono e t al. (1992) suggest that the
W N W - E S E lineaments, including the Lematang Fault, may
mark Mesozoic strike-slip faults in the basement, analogous to
the present Sumatran Fault Zone, which were re-activated as
230
CHAPTER 13
normal faults during the Palaeogene. Unlike the North and Central
Sumatra basins, it has not yet been demonstrated that active
strike-slip faulting has played an important part in the development of the South Sumatra Basin, although Pulunggono et al,
(1992) report that the Lematang Fault is cut and displaced
dextrally for 12 km by the north-south strike-slip Kikim Fault
(Figs 13.41 & 13.42).
S e d i m e n t a t i o n history. Apart from the greater importance of volcanic rocks, the sedimentary sequence in the South Sumatra
Basin resembles those in the Central and North Sumatra
basins (Fig. 13.43). The oldest deposits, the Lemat and Lahat
formations (?Middle Eocene-Upper Oligocene), outcrop in the
foothills of the Tigapuluh Hills and the Duabelas Mountains,
and are identified in boreholes and seismic sections along the
margins of the troughs and graben throughout the basin. These
are volcanic and rift phase sediments, including breccias,
conglomerates and 'granite wash', resting unconformably on
231
oldest Tertiary units in the basin, the Lemat and Lahat formations,
indicating later basement uplift. Fold structures, concentrated in
three broad anticlinal areas (anticlinoria), the Palembang, the
Pendopo and Muaraenim anticlinoria, are best developed in the
central part of the basin, where the Tertiary sediments are thickest
(De Coster 1974) (Fig. 13.41).
The Palembang Anticlinorium extends southeastwards from
the Tigapuluh Hills to Palembang. It is made up of a series of
N W - S E , elongated, narrow, periclinal, asymmetrical anticlines,
with intervening broader, basinal synclines. The more northerly
anticlines have steeper southern limbs, while the southern
folds have steeper northern limbs (Pulunggono 1986). In the
Pendopo-Limau Anticlinorium SW of Palembang, the folds
have a more W N W - E S E orientation (Fig. 13.41), with limbs
dipping more steeply to the south; the fold axes are cut at frequent
intervals by N E - S W normal faults. The anticline is considered to
have formed as a drape over an uplifted basement block composed
of Permian limestone and Cretaceous granite which outcrop in
the core (Gafoer et al. 1986) (Fig. 13.42). The Pendopo-Limau
Anticline is limited to the south by the Lematang Fault, which
cuts the basement and has a throw of up to 1500 m to the south
into the Benakat Gulley (Muara Enim Deep) (Pulunggono et al.
1992) (Fig. 13.42). The throw decreases eastwards and the fault
dies out into a monoclinal flexure.
The Muaraenim Anticline to the east of the Gumai Mountains in
the southern part of the basin, is formed of a series of arcuate,
asymmetrical, periclinal folds with limbs which become steeper
and overturned towards the ENE, and are broken by thrusts
(Pulunggono 1986) (Fig. 13.44). The folds are considered to be
disharmonic, affecting Tertiary units above a detachment in the
Gumai Formation (Fig. 13.44 section B - B ' ) . A gravitational
origin is suggested for these folds, formed by the slumping of
the Tertiary sediments towards the NE from the basement ridge
which extends eastwards from the outcrop of Pre-Tertiary rocks
in the Gumai Mountains (Pulunggono 1986; Holder et al. 1994)
(Fig. 13.44).
232
CHAPTER 13
Fig. 13.44. GeologicalMap and cross-sectionsof the Gumai Mountainsand the Muaraenim Anticlinoriumbased on GRDC 1:250000 Quadrangle Sheets of Bengkulu
(Gafoer et al. 1992c) and Lahat (Gafoeret al. 1986). Filled circles on the map are oil seeps, and open circles are gas seeps. The arcuate fold stuctures in the Muaraenim
Anticlinorium,shown in sectionB-B', are interpretedas due to gravitationalslidingfrom the upliftedGumai Ridgeon detachmentsurfaces withinthe GumaiFormation;
vertical lines in section B-B' are oil companyboreholes (after Pulunggono 1986).
233
Chapter 14
Tectonic Evolution
A. J. BARBER, M. J. CROW & M. E. M. DE SMET
The concept that SE Asia, and indeed Asia as a whole, has been
built up during the Phanerozoic by the amalgamation of allochthonous terranes derived from the northern margin of East Gondwana,
is now well established in the literature (e.g. Audley-Charles 1988;
Sengor et al. 1988; Metcalfe 1996, 1999 and references therein).
In Early Permian time all the major continental land masses,
including East and West Gondwana, were joined together in the
supercontinent of Pangaea (Fig. 14.1). At this time the continental
blocks of North and South China, Indochina and Simao had
already separated from East Gondwana. In Metcalfe's (1999)
version of the concept a series of elongated terranes separated successively from the northern Gondwana margin by the development
of ocean basins behind them. These oceans are referred to as
Palaeo-Tethys, Meso-Tethys and Ceno-Tethys.
The Indochina Block, with East Malaya, forms the core of SE
Asia and is considered to have separated from Gondwana by
Late Devonian times to amalgamate with the South China Block
by the Early Carboniferous. Indochina is characterized by an
Upper Palaeozoic to Mesozoic fauna and flora of Cathaysian
and Tethyan type, exemplified by the Gigantopteris flora of
Jengka Pass (Kon'no & Asama 1970; Hutchison 1994), related
to those of the North and South China blocks, but with no relationship to the flora and fauna of Gondwana. To this core was added
the Shah-Thai or Sibumasu Block, which separated from
Gondwana in the Permian and amalgamated with the Indochina
Block in the Late Permian or Triassic (Metcalfe 1999).
With the wealth of new data provided by the completion of the
reconnaissance mapping of Sumatra and the follow up palaeontological studies, attempts were made in the 1980s to identify the
crustal blocks that make up Sumatra, their relationship to adjacent
parts of SE Asia and to determine the timing of their separation
from Gondwana and their incorporation into Asia.
234
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
Fig. 14.2. Microplates in western Indonesia from Pulunggono (1985), after Pulunggono & Cameron (1984).
235
236
CHAPTER 14
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989) relate the fauna and flora of the
Vis6an Alas limestones to those found elsewhere in the Sibumasu
Block, in western Peninsular Malaya, Thailand and Burma. On the
other hand, they relate the fauna and algal flora of the limestones in
the Vis~an Kuantan Formation to those of the eastern Peninsular
Malaya and the Indochina Block in Thailand, Laos and
Vietnam. In contrast, Fontaine & Gafoer (1989, p. 24) point out
that the microfauna of the Kuantan Formation shows affinities
not only with that of the Indochina Block, Central Asia and
Western Europe, but also with the microfauna of NW Australia,
where a similar assemblage has been described from well cores
in the Bonaparte Basin (Mamet & Belford 1968), highlighting
the provinciality of the benthic macrofauna compared with the
universal distribution of planktonic micofossils throughout the
world.
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989) concluded that the Alas limestones
were deposited on the Sibumasu Block in a cool environment,
while the Kuantan limestones were deposited in a tropical environment on a separate plate related to the Indochina Block. In their
interpretation the Vis6an Alas and Kuantan formations were
deposited on separate plates, and were brought together in
Sumatra by post-Carboniferous movements. This relationship is
indicated on the Carboniferous palaeogeographic reconstruction
of Sumatra (Fontaine & Gafoer 1989) (Fig. 4.9) by an arbitrary
W N W - E S E boundary, which has no present structural expression, separating the Kuantan Formation from the outcrops of
the Kluet, Alas and Bohorok formations to the north.
As part of the study of the fauna and flora of Sumatra by
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989), Vozenin-Serra (1989) reviewed the
Jambi flora of West Sumatra and confirmed its Cathaysian affinity.
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989), from the fusulinid fauna in the marine
sediments interbedded with the plant beds, were able to date the
Jambi flora very precisely as earliest Permian (Late Asselian to
Sakmarian).
The relative lack of deformation in the Mengkarang Formation,
compared with adjacent isoclinally folded and cleaved Jurassic
and Cretaceous units, led geologists of the Netherlands Indies
Fig. 14.3. The Jambi Nappe and the Lematang Line, from Pulunggono & Cameron (1984), after Zwierzijcki (1930a) and Katili (1970).
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
text, the map showing the terranes and sutures in East and SE Asia
shows the major part of Sumatra as part of the Sibumasu Terrane
(Metcalfe 1996) (Fig. 4.14). In the Malay Peninsula the BentongRaub Line, which separates the Indochina/East Malaya from the
Sibumasu Terrane bisects the peninsula from north to south.
Metcalfe (2000) describes the Bentong-Raub Line as a 13 km
wide zone made up of ribbon-bedded cherts, schists and elongated
bodies of serpentinized mafic and ultramafic rocks. A characteristic feature is the occurrence of bodies of m~lange composed of
blocks of chert, limestone, and volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
in a fine-grained mud/silt matrix. The cherts contain radiolarian
faunas that range in age from Late Devonian to youngest Early
Permian; the limestones contain conodonts of Early to Late
Permian age (Spiller & Metcalfe 1995). No Triassic clasts have
been found in the melange.
The Bentong-Raub line is regarded as the suture zone marking
the site of subduction of a Devonian to Late Permian ocean,
Palaeotethys, which once separated the Indochina Block from
the Sibumasu Terrane. The suture also marks the site of the
collision of the two adjacent crustal blocks. Collision occurred
following the Late Permian, the age of the youngest rocks incorporated in the suture zone, and had been completed by the Late
Triassic, the age of the Malayan Main Range Granites which are
intruded into the suture zone (Metcalfe 2000).
There has been no consensus concerning the extension of
the Bentong-Raub Line southwards into Sumatra. Several alternative positions have been proposed using different criteria. The
problem is that nowhere in Sumatra is there exposed a zone that
has the characteristics of the Bentong-Raub Line. Hamilton
(1979) based the position of the line on the western limit of the
tin granites in Malaya, but further granites have been found to
the west of this line (see Chapter 5). Tjia (1989) suggested
that the Bentong-Raub Line crosses the Malacca Strait, passes
into the Bengkalis Graben, seen on oil company seismic data in
the Central Sumatra Basin, and abuts against the Tigapuluh
massif. On Metcalfe's (1996) map the Bentong-Raub Line is
shown continuing into Central Sumatra, following the Bengkalis
Graben, as proposed by Tjia (1989) and then turns sharply to the
NW, following the boundary, proposed by Fontaine & Gafoer
(1989), between the Kuantan Formation and Carboniferous
rocks of the Tapanuli Group to the north. As already pointed out
this line has no structural expression in Sumatra.
Metcalfe's (1996) map shows the Sibumasu Terrane extending
northwards from eastern Sumatra through the Langkawi Islands
and Perlis, the adjacent part of Peninsular Malaya, Phuket in
Peninsular Thailand, Mergui and Tenessarim on the west coast
of Burma and through eastern Thailand to Southern China
(Fig. 14.4). All these areas are characterized by the occurrence
of the glacigenic pebbly mudstones. In Sumatra, Metcalfe's
(1996) map shows a group of microcontinental blocks, the
Woyla Terranes, on the southwestern margin of the Sibumasu
Terrane. Metcalfe (1996, Fig. 2), follows Cameron et al. (1980),
in identifying these terranes as the Sikuleb, Natal and Bengkulu
terranes. This problem has been discussed by Barber (2000 and
in Chapter 4) who concludes that there is no convincing evidence
for microcontinental blocks in these areas.
237
238
CHAPTER 14
:9~o
I00~
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108 ~
106 ~
1({4~
EAST MALAYA
(Cathaysian)
6 o
Group
"Situtu
- 4 ~
4 ~_
"~~o~,~<3Si:#i~'i~i:i:i:i:~::...~
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WEST SUMATRA
I
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Carboniferous-Permianwithout ~
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Carboniferous-Permianwith ~
Diamictite (Pebbly mudstone)
KluangLimestone
(age unknown)
Mutus Assemblage
(of unknown age)
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
239
records (De Coster 1974). De Coster (1974) suggested a Cretaceous age for this massive limestone formation. Hutchison (1994)
by analogy with the Kuala Lumpur Limestone in Malaya suggests
a Silurian age. From the position of this occurrence, along strike to
the southeast of the outcrop of the Kuantan Formation, a more
reasonable correlation is with limestone units of the Carboniferous
Kuantan Formation, as suggested earlier in this volume (see
Fig. 4.18).
Fig. 14.6. Comparison of the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic sequences in the Sibumasu terranes of eastern Sumatra (after Cameron et
sheets), West Malaysia and Thailand (after Metcalfe 2000) and the Gondwana Terrane in NW Australia (Roberts & Veevers 1973).
al.
240
CHAPTER 14
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
241
242
CHAPTER 14
Fig. 14.8. Comparison of the Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic sequences of the eastern Sumatra Sibumasu Terrane, after Cameron et al. (1980) and GRDC map
sheets, the Indochina Terranes of West Sumatra (after GRDC map sheets) and the eastern Malay Peninsula, alter Hutchison (1994) and Metcalfe (2000).
outcrop which lies to the west of the MSTZ, and was found to be
indistinguishable from the Kuantan Formation during the mapping
(Aspden et al. 1982b). Because of its temperate fauna the Alas
Formation itself is still considered to form part of the Sibumasu
Block. The Situtup Formation with its typical Middle Permian
Cathaysian fusulinids is considerd to form part of the West
Sumatra Block, as Pulonggono & Cameron (1984) and Hutchison
(1994) already proposed. There is no necessity to regard these outcrops as klippen overthrust on the Sibumasu Block as we previously suggested (Barber & Crow 2003).
Further to the SW, and occupying the whole of the western part
of Sumatra, is the volcanic island arc and imbricated ocean floor
materials of the Jurassic-Cretaceous Woyla Group, thrust over
the western margins of the Sibumasu and West Sumatra blocks
in the 'Woyla Nappe' which will be described in the following
section.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
243
11 I I 1 11 i ! 1 o ~ 1 1
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I]ll
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IIII11
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Fig. 14.9. Pre-Tertiary tectonic blocks in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, modified from Hutchison (1994) and Barber & Crow (2003). 'P' and 'Tp' along the Medial
Sumatra Tectonic Zone mark the position of the Pawan and Tanjungpuah members of the Kuantan Formation (Clarke et aI. 1982b).
the formation of new oceanic crust on the floor of the opening rift.
This new ocean crust formed part of Meso-Tethys. Volcanism
related to this extension may be represented by metabasics in
the Bohorok and Mentulu formations. The separation of Sibumasu
occurred at a time when northern Gondwana was covered by continental glaciers and ice sheets. It is visualized that ice sheets
extended as ice shelves across the opening gulf. As the ice
shelves and icebergs melted they released boulders and finer
grained materials to form tillite deposits on the developing continental shelves in the Bonaparte Gulf area of NW Australia and the
'pebbly mudstones' of the Bohorok Formation in Sibumasu.
During the Permian Sibumasu drifted northwards into a more temperate environment as Meso-Tethys expanded (Shi & Archbold
1995).
The situation described above is illustrated in a palaeogeographical map of the northern margin of northern East Gondwana
and the SE Asia terranes for the Early Permian (Fig. 14.11).
Sibumasu, at high latitudes between 50 ~ and 60~ is shown beginning to separate from NW Australia and 'Argoland', a block which
separated from Australia in the Late Jurassic and identified by
Metcalfe (1996) as West Burma, with the development of
Meso-Tethys. The opening gulf extended into the region of
Timor and the Bonaparte Gulf as two rift systems forming aulacogens (Charlton 2001). To the north, Sibumasu was separated from
Cathaysia (Indochina Block) by the Palaeo-Tethys which was
being subducted beneath the southern and western margins of
Cathaysia. The broad Palaeo-Pacific extended to the north of
Cathaysia and Gondwana.
In the sequence of events postulated by Seng6r et al. (1988) and
Metcalfe (1996) for the separation of continental blocks from
Gondwana, West Sumatra, like the other Cathaysian blocks had
separated at an earlier stage and now lay to the north of PalaeoTethys and therefore to the north of Sibumasu. In Figure 14.11
West Sumatra, with its Jambi Flora, is shown linking Cathaysia
244
CHAPTER 14
Gondwana
Palaeo-Tethys
--
Continental block
including Indochina and
East Malaya
t\_:~ I.J__LloLLI~,,LJ_L_I_I I i
.._~.~.\\'xt,.[LIWEST S U M A T R A . ! [L :; !
4b~\\\\\~l
i~t
i i i i i~1
i i i i i I li
~
q~-..~
"-.~....
!117]iiii
-i
I I I I I I I I I I ! I.
C A T H A Y S I A I i ! !.
i i i i ~ ~ t'l
~.,]_.]_%7]17r I I
I ! I
I~_.LTL:
Site of future
strike-slip fault
Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone)
Ocean-floor
Transient Ice Shelf C ontinental,
Spreading
Prograding Continental
Opening Gulf
Shelf Deposits
u aclers an(]
with icebergs Bohorok (titlites), Alas Ice Sheets
and tillites
MESO-TETHYS
I ! i l LI ~
Magmatic Arc
Volcanics
.~4~.Subducted
" ~ . ~ L segment of
!
Medial Sumatra
Tectonic Zone
BRS
"~Palaeo-
to Gondwana in the region of West Papua, the Bird's Head and the
Sula islands. These were all areas of subduction-related magmatism in the Early Permian (Charlton 2001), and the occurrence
of mixed Gondwana and Cathaysian floras in West Papua (Irian
Jaya) (Li & Shen 1996; Rigby 1998) suggests that Cathaysia
and Gondwana were linked at this point. The Cathaysia flora is
considered to indicate a tropical to subtropical environment, the
Jambi flora, for instance does not show annual tree rings. West
Papua and West Sumatra are therefore shown at between 30 <'
and 40~ latitude. Charlton (pers. comm. 2002) has suggested
that warm ocean currents in the Palaeo-Pacific may also have ameliorated the climate.
The problem to be addressed is: how did the West Sumatra
Block arrive in its present position on the southern side of
Sibumasu? The only plausible explanation is that proposed by
Hutchison (1994): that West Sumatra arrived in its present position outboard of the Sibumasu Block by strike-slip faulting
along the Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone. The position of this
zone is indicated in Figure 14.10(a, c). A model for the translation
of continental blocks along active continental margins is provided
by the history of Wrangellia, translated along the Pacific margin of
North America by oblique subduction during the Late Mesozoic
and Cenozoic (e.g. Coney et al. 1980).
Tethys
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
Fig. 14.11. Palaeogeographic map of NE Gondwana and the SE Asian terranes in the Early Permian.
Fig. 14.12. Palaeogeographic map of NE Gondwana and the SE Asian Terranes in the Mid-Permian.
245
246
CHAPTER 14
Fig. 14.13. Palaeogeographic map of NE Gondwana and the SE Asian Terranes in the Late Permian.
Fig. 14.14. Pataeogeographic map of NE Gondwana and the SE Asian Terranes in the Early Triassic.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
In Figure 14.10c it is suggested that during the Late Permian or
the very Early Triassic the final segment of Palaeo-Tethys, which
lay between the Sibumasu Block and Cathaysia, was subducted
beneath Cathaysia until East Sumatra and West Malaya (Sibumasu)
collided with East Malaya (Indochina). This is also illustrated in the
Late Permian palaeogeographic map (Fig. 14.13). The site of the
collision is marked by the Bentong-Raub Suture and its western
extension in the Semanggol-Bangka accretionary complex. Following collision, the site of the collision zone was invaded by
granite plutonism, accompanied by tin mineralization.
Hutchison (1994) suggested that translation of the West Sumatra
Block into its present position, outboard of Sumatra, occurred
during the Cenozoic, but the continuity of Middle to Upper
Triassic sediments across the West Sumatra Block, the MSTZ,
Sibumasu and East Malaya indicates that these blocks had their
present relationships before Mid-Triassic times. The translation
247
Fig. 14.15. Palaeogeographicmap of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula in the Mid- and Late Triassic.
248
CHAPTER 14
W O Y L A ARC
Late JurassicEarly Cretaceous
Oceanic Arc
_~
sea, ._c7~
reefs
S E G M E N T OF M E S O - T E T H Y S
Triassic - Mid-Cretaceous Ocean
Seamount
Accretionary
with c a r b o n a t e
Complex
Accretionary
can
Complex
MARGIN OF S U N D A L A N D
Middle JurassicEarly Cretaceous
Magmatic Arc
Asai-Rawas-Peneta
Forearc Basin
/b..
krn
(a) MID-CRETACEOUS
50
Renewed
Subduction
sea
level
i~r~\X-~"~'%,\'~.\
~
",*
9~*
'~"
,^,,-,,,,
^,,,
Yill,.,,.#lL,ii~lt
............
*~
, , ,-, ;-,
"r
..i"lll
l%l#"%PPEo
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I I I 1 "
III .... ~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, ,,.,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.~,~.--'1"
~
~SIBUMASU+t+H-I- l,~,t
. E ~ = ~ = s ~
km
.,
t i i i i l l l l l l i i ~ . 4 1 1 1 1 1 1
l I till
......
il 7.,_._.,, ............ ~ ,
IAl~l,,,,.; I I I..1t!1.t11111"1111111111111111i111
. . . . .
~ I t i J I
I
, , , ,
ii
J, I
EAST
IVI#"%L#'% l #'%
Fig. 14.16. Conceptual cross-sections to illustrate the origin of the Woyla Terranes and their role in the evolution of the southwestern margin of Sundaland in the Late
Mesozoic.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
249
The e m e r g e n c e o f the B a r i s a n M o u n t a i n s
250
CHAPTER 14
Fig. 14.17. The structure of the southwestern margin of Sundaland in Late Cretaceous times, according to the interpretation given in the text. Data from sources quoted in
the text. MSTZ: Median Sumatra Tectonic Zone. Note that the effects of post-Mid-Miocene movements along the Sumatran Fault Zone have been removed.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
251
Fig. 14.18. (a-d) Palaeogeographic maps for the Tertiary of Sumatra. The development of forearc and backarc basinal areas, separated by the Barisan Mountains
occurred in the latest Oligocene to earliest Miocene. Regional sag resulted in the gradual submergence of the Barisan Mountains and the deepening of the basins in
both the forearc and backarc areas. (e-h) Marine transgression continued until the Mid-Miocene when only a few isolated peaks of the Barisan Mountains still rose
above sea level. The Barisan Mountains were uplifted and eroded from the Mid-Miocene onwards. Uplift was accompanied by marine regression and dextral
movements on the Sumatra Fault System, until Sumatra gradually took on its present outline.
deepened so that the early Barisan Mountains were almost completely submerged, indicated by the occurrence of reef limestones
in the intramontane Ombilin Basin.
From the Mid-Miocene onwards (Fig. 14.18e-h), the uplift of
the Barisan Mountains and the forearc island area was faster
than the continuing regional sag which caused further subsidence
along the axes of the backarc and forearc basins and also in the
Gulf of Thailand. These movements coincided with the inversion
of basin sediments during the Miocene, and continued through the
Plio-Pleistocene, with the re-activation of faults, the folding of
basin sediments and the development of unconformities in the
sequence. These movements may be related to variations in the
angle and rate of convergence in the Sumatran subduction
system, leading to extension or compression in the backarc
(Cameron et al. 1980). They also coincide with activity of the
Sumatran Fault System in the Miocene and continued transtensional and transpressional movements along it from then until
the present day. Similar inversions in other parts of SE Asia
have been attributed to the rotation of Borneo (Hall 2002) or the
far field effects of collisions in Eastern Indonesia.
252
Fig.
C H A P T E R 14
14.18. ( e - h ) Continued.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
Basin. At that time the Barisan source area lay much further south,
and prior to its northward movement along the fault there was no
landmass immediately to the SW of the North Sumatra Basin
which could provide a source of sediments.
In their provenance study of the Mid-Miocene Keutapang Formation in the North Sumatra Basin Morton et al. (1994) found
that the sediments were derived from the west or the SW. Evidently the Barisans were uplifted and in a position to act as a
source for the North Sumatra Basin by Mid-Miocene times.
They also found that chrome spinel was abundant in the lower
part of the Keutapang Formation, but rare in the upper Keutapang.
This spinel must have been derived from an ophiolitic terrain, but
there is no such terrain in a suitable position at the present time.
The Pasaman ophiolite is too far south, and the northern Aceh
ophiolites are too far north. Either the ophiolite which supplied
spinel to the lower Keutapang Formation has been removed completely by erosion, or it has been moved northwards since the
Mid-Miocene by dextral movements of the order of 100 km
along the Sumatran Fault System (Morton et al. 1994).
The Early Oligocene palaeogeographic reconstructions also
provides a more convincing geography for the southwestern
margin of the Sundaland continental margin at that time
(Fig. 14.18a). The removal of displacement along the Sumatran
Fault Zone gives the continental margin a smoother outline,
with the North Sumatra Basin and its rifted grabens lying along
the Sundaland continental margin, rather than forming a basin
within the continent. In this position it is clear why the North
Sumatra Basin is the only basin in the present backarc area that
contains Eocene continental margin deposits, including platform
limestones (Tampur Limestone).
Palynspastic cross-sections
253
254
CHAPTER 14
Fig. 14.19. Palinspastic cross-sections across Sumatra from SW to NE. Letters a - h correspond to the palaeogeographic maps in Figure 14.18. The palaeogeographic
conditions for the stratigraphy of Sumatra were set when the topographic distinction between the basins in the forearc and the back arc and the Barisan Mountains
emerged in the Late Oligocene and continuing to the present day. This differentiation was combined by a regional sag of the order of 2 km during the period from
the Late Oligocene to Mid-Miocene. An eastward shift of the axis of uplift of the Barisan Mountains of c. 30 km has occurred since the Mid-Miocene, accounting for
the broader exposure of the backarc sediments in the eastern foothills, compared with those of the forearc to the west.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
similar orientation, and for the greater part of the Tertiary deposition was continuous across both forearc and backarc areas.
There is, therefore, no necessity to propose different modes of
origin for the basins in the forearc and backarc areas. In addition
there is no evidence for a major strike-slip fault in the Malacca
Strait.
An anticlockwise rotation of the Sunda region was proposed by
Holcombe (1977a, b). From a detailed geometrical analysis of the
faults mapped in the Malay Peninsula and extrapolated throughout
Southeast Asia, he postulated that the region of the Sunda Plate
(Sumatra and West Malaysia) had changed its shape since
Oligocene times, by movements along a large number of closely
spaced sinistral strike-slip shears.
The results of palaeomagnetic studies have not so far been of
much assistance in resolving the rotation problem. Results from
the Malay Peninsula are confusing, with clockwise rotations of
40 ~ reported from northern Malaya and Thailand and anticlockwise rotations reported from further south (Richter et al. 1999).
In Sumatra, Haile (1979) found, from a limited number of sites,
that the palaeomagnetic data indicated a clockwise rotation of
40 ~ since the Triassic. Haile's (1979) conclusions were based on
only one set of Triassic samples and two sets of samples of Early
Tertiary age. All of these sites lie adjacent to the Sumatran Fault
Zone, and Haile (1979) makes the caveat that the results may be
related to local rotations within the fault zone. Palaeomagnetic
studies in Borneo, which is also considered to be part of the
Sunda Plate, indicate 40 ~ of anticlockwise rotation since the Early
Cretaceous and 4 5 ~
~ between 25 and 10 Ma (Fuller et al. 1999).
In his animated plate tectonic model for the tectonic evolution of
SE Asia, Hall (2002) adopted the conclusions of Fuller et al.
(1999) from Borneo. Hall's (2002) Early Eocene reconstruction
shows Sumatra with a more north-south orientation; in later
reconstructions Sumatra is shown rotating anticlockwise together
with the Sunda Plate to reach its present N W - S E orientation.
On the other hand, recent GPS measurements suggest that the
Sunda Plate, including eastern Sumatra, is slowly rotating clockwise at a rate of c. 30 mm a - ~ with respect to the rest of Eurasia
(Rangin et al. 1999). The extent to which this movement could
be extrapolated back into the past is unknown. There is clearly a
need for more systematic palaeomagnetic studies, particularly of
Tertiary sediments in Sumatra, to resolve these ambiguities concerning the direction of rotation of the Sunda Plate and perhaps
throw more light on the origin of the Sumatran backarc basins.
Davies (1984) from his study of the North Sumatra Basin has
made the most systematic attempt to explain the structural development of Sumatran Backarc Basins in terms of regional tectonics.
He suggests that Sumatra forms the SW margin of a Sunda Microplate bounded by the Sumatran Fault System, the CiletuhMeratus and North Borneo accretionary complexes, the Thai and
Malay Basins and the Ranong and Khlong Marui faults in Peninsular Thailand and the Andaman Sea. He suggests, following the
earlier suggestion by Holcombe (1977a, b), that this microplate
has been rotating anticlockwise throughout the Tertiary, driven
initially by extension in the Thai and Malay basins, and later,
after the Mid-Miocene, by extension and the formation of
oceanic crust in the Andaman Sea.
Davies (1984) suggests that during the Eocene, when the Indian
Ocean spreading system was oriented east-west, Sumatra had a
north-south orientation and India was moving past the SE
Asian peninsula at a rate of c. 9 cm a -~. The northwards movement of the Indian Plate generated a series of overlapping
dextral transcurrent strike-slip faults along the Sumatran margin.
By the Oligocene the Indian Ocean spreading ridge had assumed
its present N W - S E orientation and Sumatra had rotated so that
the angle of convergence of the Indian Ocean Plate with the
Sunda Plate increased, and active subduction commenced along
the Sumatran margin. Differential rates of movement along the
transcurrent faults set up extensional stresses along the western
continental margin of Sundaland opening up the backarc basins.
255
Several areas of high-grade metamorphic rocks have been identified in Sumatra. High-grade rocks adjacent to intrusive plutons
have usually been interpreted as metamorphic aureoles. Where
they contain cordierite and sillimanite, or include skarns from
metamorphosed limestones, this explanation is most probably
correct.
Some occurrences of gneissose rocks, for example the
Gunungkasih Complex near Bandarlampung, were regarded as
part of a Precambrian basement, but gave Cretaceous ages, and
have been interpreted as syntectonic granitic intrusions (McCourt
et al. 1996; Barber 2000). Earlier in this chapter it is suggested
that amphibolite-facies rocks that occur along the western margin
of the outcrop of the Kluet Formation near Tapaktuan have been
formed by burial beneath the Woyla Nappe. This hypothesis
could be tested by isotopic dating to determine whether or not
these rocks were metamorphosed during the Cretaceous.
It possible that some of these occurrences of amphibolite-facies
schists and gneisses represent the pre-Carboniferous crystalline
basement of Sumatra. High-grade metamorphic rocks associated
with the unmetamorphosed limestones in the Alas Formation are
probably the best candidates for representatives of such a
basement. According to the interpretation put forward earlier in
this chapter, these gneisses and schists occur within a major
shear zone (Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone) along which the
West Sumatra Block was juxtaposed with the Sibumasu Block
during the Triassic. Along this shear zone rock units of different
origins and derived from different crustal depths have been
brought together by large scale transcurrent fault movements. A
systematic programme of structural, petrographic, mineralogical,
geochemical and isotopic studies would test the validity of this
hypothesis and would establish whether the high-grade rocks
represent a pre-Carboniferous basement.
Geophysical methods could provide information concerning the
deep structure beneath Sumatra, Neither deep reflection nor deep
refraction seismic surveys on shore are likely to prove logistically
feasible for some time to come, but the wider application of
tomographic methods, using natural seismicity, could provide
information on the nature of the crust and mantle and on the presence of structural discontinuities. Such information could also
256
CHAPTER 14
(Cathaysian) Block. If this correlation is correct the Kluet Formation is most probably the same age as the Kuantan Formation
of central Sumatra, where limestones have also been dated
palaeontologically as Vis6an (Early Carboniferous) age. The
Alas and Kuantan formations are the same age but Fontaine &
Gafoer (1989) suggest that the fossils in the Alas Formation indicate that these limestones were deposited in a temperate environment, whereas those in the Kuantan Formation indicate a tropical
environment; the Alas and Kuantan formations must have been
deposited on different plates in different climatic zones.
At present there is no direct evidence of the age of the Kluet
Formation from the area near Tapaktuan in which it was originally
defined. However, the geological map (Cameron et al. 1982)
shows limestone lenses within the Kluet Formation which
might yield age-diagnostic macrofossils or microfossils. Turner
(1983b) in his detailed study of the sandstones and shales of the
Kuantan Formation near Muarasipongi reported abundant fragmental plant remains with spores, and of sponge spicules in calcareous concretions, providing the possibility that further searches for
spores and microfossils might yield age-diagnostic material from
both the Kluet and Kuantan formations.
In central Sumatra the Kuantan Formation with its tropical fauna
crops out adjacent to the Early Permian Mengkarang Formation
which contains the tropical Cathaysian 'Jambi Flora'. These two
formations define the West Sumatra Block. The Mengkarang
Formation and its flora was last studied systematically in the
1930s. Interbedded with the plant beds are limestones containing
fusulinids. Further palaeontological and palaeobotanical studies
to confirm the precise age and evolutionary and provincial
affinities of the flora are currently in progress (Isabel van
Waveren pers. comm. 2004).
Permian and Triassic fossils were reported from the limestones
of the Situtup, Kaloi and Batumilmil formations in northern
Sumatra, which were included within the Peusangan Group
(Cameron et al. 1980). Both Permian and Triassic fossils were
reported from the same outcrops, but the relationship between
limestones of different ages was not resolved during reconnaissance mapping. It has been suggested that important tectonic
events, including the collision of Sibumasu and Indochina and
the emplacement of the West Sumatra Block, occurred between
the Mid-Permian and the Mid-Triassic. Detailed study may
show that a major unconformity separates the Permian and
Triassic components of the Peusangan Group.
Very few radiolarian studies have been carried out in Sumatra.
Triassic bedded cherts occur in the Kualu Formation near Medan
and the Tuhur Formation near Solok, but their radiolarian fauna
has never been described. The 'oceanic assemblage' of the
Jurassic-Cretaceous Woyla Group, cropping out from Banda
Aceh in the north to the Garba Mountains in the south, frequently
includes bedded cherts. The age of these units was presumed to be
of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age from associated shelly
faunas. Only the chert outcrop at Indarung, near Padang, has
been studied for radiolaria, and unexpectedly yielded a Middle
Jurassic age (McCarthy et al. 2001). A systematic study of radiolaria from other occurrences of bedded chert in the Woyla
Group may extend the age of the segments of ocean floor (MesoTethys) which were subducted to form the Woyla accretionary
complex.
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
Block. A provenance study of the sandstones of the Bohorok and
Kluet/Kuantan formations may confirm that these units were
deposited on different continental blocks.
Cameron et al. (1982a), interpreted the alternation of sandstones
and shales, with slumped deposits and graded beds in the Bohorok
and Kluet formations as turbidites, but this suggestion has never
been examined critically, nor have current bedding and other indicators of transport directions yet been studied. As has already been
mentioned, the 'pebbly mudstones' of the Bohorok Formation are
interpreted as glacio-marine deposits, by analogy with the Singa
Formation of the Langkawi Islands, where dropstones have been
described, but comparable features have not yet been described
from Sumatra.
Cameron et al. (1980) proposed that the westerly decrease in the
size of pebbles in the mudstones in the Bohorok Formation, and in
the conglomerates in the Alas and Kluet formations, indicate that
the Tapanuli Group was deposited on a continental margin facing
an ocean towards the west. Since it is proposed earlier in this
chapter that the Bohorok Formation was deposited on Sibumasu,
and the Kluet Formation on the West Sumatra Block, this
interpretation requires re-examination.
Sedimentological studies are also needed on the Permian and
Triassic units of northern and central Sumatra, including the
Silungkang, Mengkarang, Kualu and Tuhur Formations to establish their provenance, directions of transport and environments
of deposition. These studies will result in the improvement of
our present palaeogeographic models for these periods. A sedimentological study of the Lower Permian Mengkarang Formation
is currently in progress (Isabel van Waveren pers. comm. 2004);
preliminary results have determined the palaeo-environments in
which the Jambi Flora was deposited.
Structural studies
Thrusts and refolded folds on vertical or steeply dipping axial
planes have been reported from the Bohorok Formation and equivalent units in eastern Sumatra. These units were deposited on the
Sibumasu Block but it has not been established whether the structures were formed by the Late Permian-Early Triassic collision
between the Sibumasu and Indochina Blocks.
It has been proposed earlier in this chapter that during the Early
Triassic the West Sumatra Block was emplaced against the
western margin of the Sibumasu Block along a major transcurrent
shear zone (Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone). The sense of movement and the extent to which earlier structures within the adjacent
crustal blocks have been modified by strike-slip movements can be
determined by a study of minor structures within the shear zone.
Triassic rocks which were deposited during or shortly after the
time of emplacement have been mapped within the shear zone
and in adjacent areas. A study directed specifically at the structures
within these Triassic rocks might better constrain the extent and
the age of movements along the MSTZ.
Earlier in this chapter it has been proposed that Carboniferous Permian rocks of the Pemali Group on the island of Bangka, some
of which have an oceanic origin, form part of an accretionary
complex due to subduction of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean which
lay between Sibumasu and Indochina, prior to their collision in
the Late Permian or Early Triassic. These rocks are described as
steeply dipping, highly deformed, folded and thrust, with the
development of slaty cleavage in argillaceous units (Ko 1986).
The Pemali Group is overlain by the more gently folded and
faulted Triassic Tempilang Formation, presumably unconformably, although the unconformity has not yet been described. The
rocks on Bangka are much disrupted and altered to hornfels by
granitic intrusions which host tin deposits, so that relatively
little attention has been paid to the structure of the country
rocks. It should be straightforward to establish, by a close examin-
257
258
CHAPTER 14
Neotectonics
GPS monitoring of recent crustal movements in Sumatra have so
far been concentrated on the Sumatran Fault Zone and the central
segment of the forearc region, defined by the Banyak Islands in the
north and the Batu Islands in the south. No information has been
obtained concerning the segmentation of the convergence zone,
which may prove to be crucially important in asssessing the
spatial distribution of hazards represented by Great Earhquakes.
It is particularly frustrating that there was only one station in the
segment ruptured during the 26 December 2004 earthquake
(where the pillar on a very small island may have been destroyed
by the tsunami) and there have been no repeat GPS measurements
in the Enggano region since the Magnitude 7.9 event in June 2000.
However, the spatial bias in the distribution of the stations that
have been established does at least mean that a start has been
made on monitoring the probable site of the next Great Earthquake
to the west of Sumatra. There is clearly an urgent need, in view of
the complexity of the forearc bathymetry, for predictive modelling
of likely tsunami travel paths from the sites of possible future ruptures. It is especially important that such methods be applied to the
very vulnerable central segment. Such an approach to hazard mitigation could well be more cost-effective, and could certainly be
more quickly implemented, than the full Indian Ocean tsunami
warning system now being proposed.
Vertical movements are more difficult to assess than horizontal
ones, but there is the intriguing possibility of obtaining significant
information in the forearc region by comparing the maps and
navigational charts from the Dutch colonial era with modern
observations. It is known that some smaller islands have been submerged completely in the intervening period, but no systematic
survey has yet been attempted.
Sumatra also provides a potentially valuable, but so far underused field laboratory for studying the interactions between subduction zones and features on the downgoing plate. Sidescan sonar
and swathe bathymetric studies of trench and outer forearc
structures in areas such as the junction between the trench and
the Investigator Fracture Zone would add significantly to our
knowledge and understanding of the processes involved and the
hazards that they represent.
Conclusion
Continued search for energy resources (coal, oil and gas)
Expanding demand for energy within Indonesia and worldwide,
and diminishing reserves elsewhere, will encourage petroleum
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
259
Appendix
Table AI. Radiometric age dates of volcanics and for the intrusion and cooling of plutons related to the Palaeozoic volcanism and plutonism in Sumatra
Lithology
Dating method
Age (Ma)
Reference
K-Ar, ?
348 10
Rb-Sr,
Rb-Sr,
Rb-Sr,
Rb-Sr,
Rb-Sr,
427
335
298
295
276
?
?
feldspar
?
feldspar
42
43
39
3
20
K-Ar, ?
248 l0
K-Ar, muscovite
K-Ar, ?
Rb-Sr, isochron
Rb-Sr, ? whole rock
Rb-Sr, muscovite
K-Ar, ?
K-Ar, biotite
287
277
264
257
256
246
246
PL UTONS
Singkarak (Ombilin)
Singkarak (Ombilin)
Sibolga Granite
Sibolga Granite
Singkarak (Ombilin)
Singkarak (Ombilin)
Sijunjung Granite
Granite*
Granite
Granite
Granite
3.5
13
_+ 6
24
6
7
12
Table A2. Radiometric age dates of volcanics and /br the intrusion and cooling plutons related to the Triassic-Early Jurassic" Plutonic Episode in Sumatra
Lithology
West Sumatra Plutonic Arc" (Eastern Province-type granites)
Sibolga Granite
Sibolga Granite
Sibolga Granite t
Sibolga Granite
Sibolga Granite t
Sibolga satellite Granite
Sibolga satellite Granite
Sumpur Granite t
Sumpur Granite ~
Sumpur Granite1Tantan-Dusunbaru Granite
Tantan-Dusunbaru Granite
Tantan-Dusunbaru Granite
Singkarak Granite
SE Padangsimpuan*
Sulit Air Diorite
Sulit Air (98/8) no plateau
Sulit Air (98/7) steps 1050- 1175~
Sulit Air Diorite
Sulit Air Diorite
Padang Ganting Granite (Sulit Air)
Dating method
Age (Ma)
Reference
K-At, hornblende
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar. biotite
K-Ar biotite
K-Ar biotite
K - A t biotite
K-Ar biotite
Rb-Sr feldspar
Rb-Sr. biotite
K-Ar biotite
K - A t feldspar
K - A t amphibole
K-Ar whole rock
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, biotite
4~
hornblende
4~
hornblende
K-Ar, hornblende
K-Ar, hornblende/biotite
K-At, ?
219 4
211 5
211 3
206 _ 3
206 + 2
217 4
212 _+ 3
216
215
215 ___3
209 3
201 5
199 4
206 3
202 2
203 6
193 4
192 0.4
183 13
149 5
149 3
Hehuwat (1976)
Aspden et al. (1982b)
Hehuwat (1976)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Hehuwat (1976)
Hehuwat (1976)
Hahn & Weber (1981b)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Fontaine & Gafoer (1989)
Wikarno et al. (1993)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
Imtihanah (2000)
hntihanah (2000)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
Koning & Aulia (1985)
(continued)
260
APPENDIX
Table A4.
261
Continued
Lithology
Atar (Sulit Air) Granodiorite
Sulit Air Diorite
Sulit Air Diorite
(Main Range Province type granites)
Sijunjung Granite
Muarasipongi Granite
Dating method
Age (Ma)
Reference
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, hornblende/biotite
K-Ar, hornblende
147 2
141 5
138 3
206 3
197 2
Kayumambang Granite
Sungai Isahan Granite-greisen
Sungai Isahan Granite-greisen
Rokan Granite*
Rokan Granite*
K-At,
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
biotite
muscovite
muscovite
biotite
biotite
198
197
193 +
189
186+
2
2
2
2
2
muscovite
albite
albite
?
208
206
206
203
7
8
8
4
Koning
Koning
Koning
Koning
&
&
&
&
Darmono (1984)
Darmono (1984)
Darmono (1984)
Darmono (1984)
Rb-Sr. isochron
Rb-Sr. isochron
Rb-Sr. isochron
Rb-Sr. isochron
Rb-Sr. isochron
Rb-Sr. isochron
Rb-Sr. biotite
Rb-Sr. whole rock
Rb-Sr. isochron
K-Ar, biotite
Rb-Sr, biotite
Rb-Sr whole rock
K-Ar, biotite
Rb-Sr, biotite
Rb-Sr whole rock
K-Ar, biotite
Rb-Sr isochron
Rb-Sr isochron
Rb-Sr errorchron
K-Ar, biotites
Rb-Sr, biotite
K-Ar, muscovite
K-Ar, muscovite
Rb-Sr, 'errorchron'
252 8
251 l0
229 7
226 8
225 -I- 9
223 16
217 5
217 _+ 5
216 3
216 6
216 6
216 6
216 6
215 5
215 5
214 6
200 + 4
213 4
2! 1 3
159 - 95
206 6
200 6
195 6
193 12
*Deformation suspected.
tLocation of sample point uncertain.
Locations in Figs 5.1, 5.2 & in references.
Table A3. Radiometric age dates of volcanics and f o r the intrusion and cooling of plutons related to the Mesozoic Volcanic and Plutonic Episodes and Phases in Sumatra
Lithology
Dating method
Age (Ma)
Reference
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-At,
whole rock*
?
?
?
?
181
143
140
122
121
5
4
10
4
2
PLUTONS
Kayumambang Granite
Kayumabang Granite
180+ 7
124_ 5
262
Table A4.
APPENDIX
Continued
Lithology
Kayumabang Granite
Beruk NE No. 2 muscovite-tourmaline granite
Lubuk Terap Granite
Bungo Batholith Granite
Bungo Batholith Granodiorite
Bungo Batholith Granodiorite
Bungo Batholith Granite
Bungo Batholith Quartz diorite
Bungo Batholith Quartz diorite
Bungo Batholith Granite
Berhala Island, gabbro
S. Salai Porphyritic Granite*
Tebingtinggi 1 well, Granite
Duabelas Mts. Granite
Muarasipongi Granite
Kluang Utara-49 well Granite
Way Sulan Gabbro
Bungsu-1 well Granite, Beruk
Tanjung Laban-1 well Granite
Sibolga satellite Granite
Tanjung Gadang Granite
Sibolga satellite Granite
S. Mentaus, Porphyritic Granite t
S. Muara, Porphyritic Granite Tigapuluh Mrs.
Kiri Granite*
S. Manggajahan Biotite Granite
Pakning No. 1 well, Granite
Panyabungan Batholith
Dating method
K-Ar, biotite
K-At, ?
K-Ar, ?
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, hornblende
K-Ar, hornblende
K-Ar, biotite
K - A t , biotite
K-Ar, hornblende
K-At, biotite
K-Ar, ?
K-Ar, whole rock
K-Ar, ? whole rock
K-At, ?biotite
Rb-Sr, isochron
K-At, ?
K-Ar, hornblende
K - A t , muscovite
K-Ar, ?
K-Ar, biotite
Rb-Sr, ?
K-At, hornblende
K - A t , whole rock
K-Ar, whole rock
K-At, ?
K-Ar, whole rock
K-Ar, muscovite
K-Ar, biotite
Age (Ma)
123
179
175
169
156
154
153
148
131
129
167
166
160
159
158
153
151
150
149
147
145
144
144
135
134
128
122
121
Reference
-4- 3
-4- 3
-4- 6
-4- 23
-4- 5
+ 4
-4- 2
-4- 4
-4- 2
-4- 4
2
4- 3
3
-4- I
+_ 3
2
-4- 1
3
2.5
+ 3
_+ I
1
5
+ 5
-4- 5
+ 6
+ 7
4
-4- 4
-4- 7
-4- 4
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-At,
K-Ar,
?
whole rock
?
?
105
78.4
78
75
PL UTONS
120 4
118 + 4
117 3
115 _+ 4
104 _+ 3
100 3
89 2
86 3
82 3
80 1
116 3
113 3
111 3
112 24
I 12 2
105 + 1
101 i- 4
100 1
99 4
98 -t- 2
98 1
K-At, biotite
K-At, biotite
Rb-Sr, 4 determinations on
biotite & muscovite
K-Ar, K-feldspar
K-Ar, biotite
89.6
89 3
88
87.0
86 + 3
95 3
(continued)
APPENDIX
Table A4.
263
Continued
Lithology
Batu Madingding Diorite
Padean Granite
Padean Pluton Microdiorite
Padean Monzogranite
Padean Monzogranite
Padean Monzogranite
Padean Granite
Senawar Quartz Diorite
Hatapang Granite
Sibolga satellite granite
Dating method
K-Ar, whole rock
K-Ar, muscovite
K-Ar, muscovite (2 dets.)
K-Ar, biotite
K - A t , biotite
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, muscovite
K-Ar, whole rock
Rb-Sr, isochron
K-Ar, biotite
Age (Ma)
Reference
85 ___4
84.7 + 3.6
82 + 2
82 _+ 3
82 + 2
81 + 2
79 _ 2
83.6 _+ 4.2
80 _+ 1
75 _+ 1
*Deformed sample.
+Location of sampling point uncertain.
Locations on Fig 5.1 & in references.
Table A4. Radiometric age dates o f volcanics and Jbr the intrusion and cooling o f plutons related to the Tertiary Volcanic Episodes and Phases in Sumatra
Lithology
Dating method
Age (Ma)
Reference
51.3 + 1.5
55.5 _+ 1.5
57.9 + 1.4
63.1 _ 1.5
52.1 -t- 1.2
59.6 _ 1.4
62.5 _ 1.4
62.9 _+ 1.5
63.1 + 1.5
63.7 _ 1.5
63.3 + 1.9
60.3
55
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
K-Ar, whole rock?
K-Ar, whole rock?
K-At, '?whole rock
PL UTONS
Padangpanj ang
Jatibaru microgranite
Jatibaru microgranite
Well in N Sumatra Basin, Granite
Lassi Pluton gabbro
Lassi Pluton biotite tonalite
Lassi Pluton (98/3) Steps 1100-1250~
Lassi Pluton quartz diorite
Lassi Pluton (98/2)
Lassi Pluton (98/2) Steps 1100-1300~
Lassi Pluton diorite
Lassi Pluton granite
Lassi Pluton quartz diorite
Lassi Pluton (98/4)
Lassi microdiorite
Lassi Pluton (98/1) 750-900~ steps
Meulaboh-Meuko granodiorite
Meulaboh-Meuko granodiorite
Granite in well in N Sumatra Basin
Bungo Batholith quartz diorite
Bungo Batholith quartz diorite
Nagan granodiorite
Nagan granodiorite
Nagan granodiorite
Bukit Raja Pluton
Bukit Raja Pluton
Ulai (Sopan) granite
Ulai (Panti) pegmatitic granodiorite
Ulai granodiorite
Samadua granite
biotite
biotite
biotite
biotite
63.6 _+ 3.2
62 + 3
56 _+ 3
58
57 _+ 2
56.2 + 2.8
56.06 +_ 0.19
55 _ 2
55.02 + 0.7
54.78 _ 0.10
54 + 2
53 _+ 2
53 _+ 2
52.2 + 0.7
52 -t- 1.6
,-~48.5
56.2 _+ 2.2
53.2 _+ 3.3
56 + 1
54 + 2
54 + 2
54.4 _+ 0.5
53.5 +_ 0.9
51.5 _ 0.7
54.1 + 2.7
51.9 _ 2.6
52.2
52.4 + 0
47.7
52 ___ 1
Sato (1991)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
Wikarno et al. (1993)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
Sato (1991)
Imtihanah (2000)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
Imtihanah (2000)
Imtihanah (2000)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
Imtihanah (2000)
Koning & Aulia (1985)
Imtihanah (2000)
Kallagher (1990)
Kallagher (1990)
Hehuwat (1976)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
McCourt & Cobbing (1993)
Kusnama et al. (1993b)
Kusnama et al. (1993b)
Kusnama et al. (1993b)
JICA (1988)
JICA (1988)
Hahn & Weber (1991b)
Kanao et al. (1971)
Rock et al. (1983)
Cameron et al. (1982b)
(continued)
264
Table A4.
APPENDIX
Continued
Lithology
Samadua (Tapaktuan) granite
Batang Natal microdiorite dyke
Sibubung granite
Well in N Sumatra Basin
Gle Seukeun Complex granodiorite
Gle Seukeun Complex granodiorite
Gle Seukeun Complex hb diorite
Gle Seukeun Complex
Granite in well 100 km NW Pakanbaru
LATE MID-EOCENE VOLCANIC EPISODE (c. 4 6 - 4 0 Ma)
Dating method
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, whole rock
K-Ar, ?
K-Ar, biotite
K - A t , hornblende
K-At, biotite
K-Ar, hornblende
K-Ar, mean of analyses of a
hornblende and a biotite
K-Ar, ?
Age (Ma)
51
49.5
50.9
50
50
47.2
47.6
42
+
4
1
2.5
1
1.2
1
0.7
1.0
3
45 1
Reference
Cameron et al. (1982b)
Wajzer (1986)
Wikarno et al. (1993)
Hehuwat (1976)
Van Leeuwen et al. (1987)
Van Leeuwen et al. (1987)
Van Leeuwen et al. (1987)
Bennett et al. (1981a)
Eubank & Makki (1981)
VOLCANICS
4~176
4~176
4~176
41.1 0.9
45.8 _+ 1.1
43.5 1
PLUTONS
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-At,
K-Ar,
K-At,
whole
whole
?
whole
whole
rock
rock
rock
rock
40.1
35.4
40.1
40.1
37.6
2.7
3.6
2.0
1.6
1.3
Kallagher (1990)
Kallagher (1990)
JICA (1988)
Wajzer (1986)
Wajzer (1986)
40K_40Ar
40K 40Ar
40K_40Ar
31.6 0.85
37.4 _+ 0.9
37.3 1
K-At, hornblende
K-Ar, whole rock
29.7 +
28.2
Wajzer (1986)
Wajzer (1986)
4~K_40Ar
40K_40Ar
40K_40Ar
40K_40Ar
26.9
23.7
24.3
25.5
19.8 0.8
20.1 _+0.7
PL UTONS
1.6
1.2
+
+
0.72
0.55
0.60
0.59
Bellon
Bellon
Bellon
Bellon
et
et
et
et
al.
al.
al.
al.
(2004)
(2004)
(2004)
(2004)
PL UTONS
18.7 1.9
18.9 1.2
18.8
14.5
21.4
21.1
18.7
18.8
18.8
18.3
17.7
17.5
17.1
16.4
16.1
15.9
15.0
13.7
19.6
18.2
16.8
16.8
17.2
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
4oK_4oAr
4OK_4OAr
4OKr_4OAr
~oK J 0 A r
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
K-Ar, whole rock
4OK_4OAr
K-Ar, whole
K-Ar, whole
K-Ar, whole
K-Ar, whole
40K_40Ar
rock
rock
rock
rock
+ 0.49
1.17
0.59
0.60
0.44
+ 0.59
0.45
+ 0.44
0.7
0.42
0.9
0.6
3.9
+ 1.0
+ 0.38
+ 2.7
0.58
0.45
+_ 0.47
0.39
+ 5
(continued)
APPENDlX
Table A4.
265
Continued
Lithology
Dating method
Age (Ma)
0.48
0.44
1.5
0.54
0.45
0.45
Reference
4~176
4~176
K-Ar, ?
4~176
4~176
4~176
?KAr
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
4~176
19.7
18.2
22
19.2
19.1
19.0
17.5
14.3
16.5 +
13.2
12.8
12.8 +
19.7
17.1 +
16.9 +
15.1 _
14.4
0.34
0.38
0.43
0.31
0.38
0.47
0.44
0.44
0.38
0.35
11.2
10.3
8.;74
10.9
0.7
0.4
0.82
0.43
KalIagher (1990)
Kallagher (1990)
Kallagher (1990)
Bellon et al. (2004)
16
15.12
15.06
!1
9.0
7.89
6.03
5.82
5.81
5.8
5.66
5
4.67
14.3
13.1
9.97
13.0
12
12.1
I1
10.4
9.77
9.1
8
8.5
7.9
0.7
0.18
0.13
1
0.1
0.1
0.07
0.07
0.13
0.1
0.04
0.2
0.1
1
0.25
0.50
0.5
1
0.5
0.6
0.9
0.7
2
0,1
PLUTONS
Granite, SE Padang
Lolo Pluton (98/13)
Lolo Pluton (98/13) Steps 900-1150'C
Lolo granodiorite
Lolo Pluton (98/11) Steps 1100-117P'C
Lolo Pluton (98/9)
Lolo Pluton (98/11)
Lolo Pluton (98/10)
Lolo Pluton (98/9) Steps 800-1250<C
Lolo Pluton (98/10) Steps 900-1100~
Lolo Pluton (98/11) Steps 1100-1200~
Lolo Pluton
Lolo Pluton (98/9) no plateau
Geunteut granodiorite
Tangse stock, quartz diorite porphyry
Tangse stock, dacite porphyry
Timbahan granite
Medan granite
Diorite in well in N Sumatra Basin
Sigalagala granite
Air Bangis granite
Granodiorite in well in N Sumatra Basin
Sigalagala granite
Lampung granite
Binail microdiorite
Granite in well near Baturaja
K-Ar
Rb-Sr, biotite
4~
biotite
K-At, hornblende
4~
hornblende
Rb-Sr, biotite
Rb-Sr, biotite
Rb-Sr, biotite
4~
biotite
4~
biotite
4~
biotite
K-Ar, biotite
4~
plagioclase
K-At, biotite, mean of 3 analyses
K-Ar, hornblende
K-At, hornblende
K-Ar, hornblende
K-Ar, whole rock
K-At, hornblende
K-Ar, whole rock
K-Ar, whole rock
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, biotite
K-Ar, biotite
K-Arl biotite
0.2
4OK_4OAr
40K_4OAr
1.76 0.06
5.66 0.14
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
2.88 _ 0.07
2.09 0.29
1.89 _+ 0~23
5.35 0.23
5.4 _+ 0.3
2.99 0.08
1.76 0.05
6.45 0.2
5.40 0.14
5.47 0.14
5.21 0.5
4.23 0.15
K-Ar, ?
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
4oK_4oAr
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
4OK_4OAr
(continued)
266
APPENDIX
Dating method
Age (Ma)
4~176
4~176
K-Ar
4~176
2.91
2.41
4.76
4.93
0.09
0.08
_+ 0.32
0.13
K-Ar, hornblende
4~
biotite
K-At, ?biotite, mean 2 dets.
K-Ar, plagioclase
3.48 0.5
~5.5
3.5
2.5 1
Reference
PLUTONS
Langkup Granodiorite (* ?)
Sungeipenuh, no plateau
Sungaipenuh granitoid*
Granite in well N Sumatra Basin
Table AS. Radiometric dates of deformed and metamorphosed rocks from Sumatra
Unit
Age (Ma)
Reference
K-Ar, mica
276 10
INDOSINIAN OROGENY
Berembang well, phyllite
Berembang well, phyllite
90 km NNW Pakanbaru, 'quartzite'
Talawi, hornfels (?contact metamorphism)
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
K-Ar,
251
247
222
154
10
10
3
5
Katili (1973)
Katili (1973)
Eubank & Makki (1981)
Koning & Aulia (1985)
K-Ar, muscovite
K-Ar, amphibole
K-Ar, amphibole
K-Ar, amphibole
K-Ar,?
K-Ar, ?
6
5
6
5
5
3
K-Ar, ?
Method
muscovite
feldspar
?
?
+
_
_
123 _
125
115
108 +
116
95
54.5 + 0.6
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Index
Page numbers in italics refer to figures; page numbers in bold refer to tables.
A-type granites 60, 61, 159
accretionary complex 4, 5, 13
models of evolution 179-183
seismic section 178, 179
tectonic evolution 186-187
Aceh
Woyla Accretionary Complex 76
Woyla Group exposures 40-43
Aceh Fault 206, 207
Actiastraea minima 43
administrative boundaries 1, 2
Agam Formation 214
Agathammina /Agathaminoides 35
Agathiceras sundaicum 38
Ai Manis Limestone 91
Air Bangis granite 115, 265
Air Benakat Formation 90, 95, 101,
138, 139, 140, 141,231,266
Air Kuning Formation 67
Air Mabara granite 209, 210
Airbangis Volcanic Formation 110, 111
Akul Volcanic Formation 107, 108, 109
Alas Formation
palaeontology 256
stratigraphic setting 25, 26, 27, 28, 32
structural setting 190, 191, 194, 195
tectonic setting 234, 236, 238, 241,242
volcanic setting 63,66, 66, 71
Alem Formation 101, 110, 114, 265
Alloclionites timorensis 37
Allotriophyllum chinese 27
alluvial gold 171, 175
Aman Basin 135, 136
Areas Formation 110, 111
Andaman Basin 19
Andaman Sea, opening 121
Angkola Fault 208
Angkola Volcanic Formation
100, 101, 110, 116, 264, 265
anthracite 145
Anu Batee Fault 206
4~
dating 260, 263, 264,
265, 266
arc volcanoes 124-125
Archaediscus 30
Arminina asiatica 38
Aroguru granite-diorite pluton 55,
58, 59, 60, 262
arsenic mineralization 160
Arun Field 132, 134
283
284
INDEX
stratigraphy 87- 88
volcanism 102, 105
radiometric dating 100, 264
tectonic relations 113
Eoendothyranopsis 30
Epigondondolella postera 35
extension events 110
extension rate 96
extrusion tectonics 110-111
fault slip rates 205-206
Fenestella retiformis 35
fission track dating 123
fold structures
Ombilin Basin 226-228
Tertiary back-arc basin 215- 217
forearc basins 4, 176, 177
basement 185
depositional history 185-186
gravity 20-22
seismic section 178
setting 184-185
tectonic evolution 186-187
volcanism 99
forearc ridge and islands
m61ange origin 183-184
models of evolution 179-183
role of Mentawai Fault 184
volcanism 99
fossil suites
Carboniferous-Early Permian 27, 30, 38
Jurassic-Cretaceous 41, 43
Permo-Triassic 35, 36, 37
Triassic 38
fuel resources see coal; petroleum
Fusulina 38
Fusulinella 38
Fusulinella lantenoisi 37
Gadang granite 55
Gadis Fault 209, 210
Ganggsal Formation 71
Gangsal Formation 30-31, 31, 71,
192-193, 195
Garba Formation 31, 50, 249
Garba granite batholith 55, 59, 159, 262
Garba inlier 50
Garba Mts basalt 263
gas see petroleum resources
gas exploration, future potential 258-259
Gawo Formation 107, 108, 109, 183
Genako Trough 219
geochemistry
future researches 258
granites 58-60
volcanics
Permian 69-70
Tertiary 109-110, 113, 114, 116
Woyla Group 79, 81
geological maps 6
geological research, history of 1-6
Geological Survey of Indonesia (GSI) 3
Geumang Line 201
Geumpang Formation 41-42, 75, 76
Geunteut granodiorite 55, 265
INDEX
Geureudong volcano 126
Geureuggand Fault 208
Gigantopteris 38, 234
Gle Seukeun complex 264
Gnathodus girtyi rhodesi 27, 30
gold mineralization 148, 258
alluvial 171, 175
contract of work signings 149
Eocene-Miocene 161
Jurassic-Cretaceous 158-159, 160
Late Cretaceous 159, 160, 161
Miocene-Pliocene 163-164
Palaeocene 159, 161
Woyla Group 160
Golok Tuff Formation 78, 262
Gomo Formation 95
Gondwana terrane 188
affinities 123,237, 239, 240, 242, 243-244
breakup 65, 82, 82, 83
palaeogeography 244, 245-248
granites
distribution maps 55, 71, 72, 157
isotopic ages 54-55
recent research 58-60
Sundaland compared 60-61
tin suite 56-57
volcanic arc suite 57-58
gravity
East Sumatra 19
forearc basin 20-22
long wavelength field 22-23
regional patterns 16-19, 122
sedimentary basins 19-20
Toba-Tawar low 19
gravity field 17
gravity stations 18
Guguchina pluton 60
Gumai andesite 262
Gumai Formation 90, 92, 93, 94, 138,
139, 140, 231
Gumai-Garba Line 80, 80
Gumai inlier 50
Gumai Mts basic volcanics 261
Gumai Mts diorite 262
Gume Formation 42
Gunung Batu andesite 264
Gunung Dempu andesite 263
Gunung Mang diorite 262
Gunungkasih Complex 25, 31, 78, 80
Gunungsitoli Formation 95, 183
Halobia 35, 36, 37
Haranggoal Volcanic Formation 101, 108, 265
Hatapang granite pluton 55, 56, 57, 57,
58, 58, 60, 61, 159, 263
Helatoba-Tarutung volcano 126
Hemogordius 37
Hindeodella 27
Hindeodella triassica 36
Hippogriffe rocks 63, 66, 66
hot springs 212
Hulubelu volcano 127
Hulusimpang Formation 101, 106, 108,
109, 114, 115, 265
Hutapanjang volcano 127
285
Kikim Tufts 88, 90, 98, 104, 248
Kikim Volcanics 98, 99, 100, 111
Kiri basin 135, 136
Kiri granite 262
Kiri Trough 219
Kla-Alas Fault 206, 209
Kla Line 201
Klabat batholith 55
Kluang Limestone 24-25
Kluet Fault 100
Kluet Formation
mineralization 148, 149
palaeontology 258- 259
stratigraphic setting 25, 26, 27-28, 32, 33
structural setting 190, 191, 192, 195,
196-197, 198
tectonic setting 234, 236, 238, 241
volcanic setting 63, 66, 66, 68
Kompas Volcanic Member 108, 109
Koninckopora 30
Korinci Formation 89, 137, 144
Kotabakti Volcanic Formation 110, 111
Krakatau volcano 127, 130, 213
Kuala Lansa High 132, 133
Kualu Formation
palaeontology 257
stratigraphic setting 24, 28, 36-37, 39, 40
structural setting 194, 195, 196
tectonic setting 239, 242
Kuantan Formation
palaeontology 256-257
stratigraphic setting 29-30
structural setting 190, 192, 193, 197,
199, 218
tectonic setting 234, 236, 238, 241
volcanic setting 64, 64, 66, 82
Kuantan granite 54, 55
Kubu High 136, 219
Kundur granite 55
Kunyit volcano 127
Kutacane Graben 208, 209
Lagoi granite 261
Lahat Formation 90, 90, 92, 103, 104,
105, 109, 114, 140, 144, 230
Lahomie Formation 110, 111, 183
Lakat Formation 89, 92
Lakitan Formation 112, 266
Lam Minet Formation 42, 75, 76
Lain Teuba Volcanics 101, 265
Lamno Limestone Formation 43, 81
Lampung, Woyla Accretionary Complex 33, 78
Lampung granite 262, 265
Lampung Formation 112
Lampung High 19, 138, 138
Lampung tufts 123
Langkat Formation 136
Langkup granodiorite 112, 266
Langsat Volcanic Formation 47, 100,
103-104, 106, 113, 115, 264
Lassi granite batholith 54, 55, 57, 59,
60, 100, 103, 262, 263
Latoceandra ramosa 41
lead mineralization
Eocene-Miocene 161
286
INDEX
INDEX
287
288
INDEX
INDEX
Tarikan M41ange 91
Tawar Formation 27, 35, 39
tectonics
models for evolution
evaluated 234-239
revised 239-242
role in igneous events
Eocene 113
Eocene-Miocene 113-118
extrusion 110-111
Miocene 118-119
Miocene-Pliocene 119
Palaeocene 111
Palaeogene rotation 110
Telaga Limestone 92
Telaga Said Field 86, 131
Telaga Tiga Field 86
Telisa Beds 90
Telisa Formation 89, 92, 93, 94, 110,
111, 136, 137, 219, 220, 221
Telisa Group 90
Telukkido Formation 28, 37, 39
Tempilang Sandstone 38, 154, 190
Tertiary see Palaeocene; Eocene;
Oligocene; Miocene; Pliocene
Tetehosi Formation 183
Teunom Limestone Formation 43, 81,201
Thaumatoporella porvosiculifera 43
Thecosmilia 35
Tigapuluh Arch 214, 217
Tigapuluh Group 30-31
Tigapuluh High 135, 136, 138
Tigapuluh Mts 30, 31, 151
Tikus granite 261
Timbahan granite 265
tin front 154, 158
tin islands 1
granites 54, 60-61, 147
mineralization 148, 152, 155-156
tin mineralization
association with granite 149-150
contract of work signings 149
Cretaceous magmatic arc 159, 160, 161
Late Triassic-Early Jurassic arc
Indosinian foreland 154
Medial Sumatra Tectonic Zone 150-153
SE belt 154-158
West Sumatra 150
Toba Caldera 8, 9-10, 18, 121 - 122, 124
Toba Lake 123
Toba tufts 108, 123, 124, 214
Toba volcano 126
Toba-Tawar gravity low 19
Tobali granite 261
Tolopulai Formation 91
topography 2
Toru Fault 206, 209
Toru Formation 110, 111,116, 119
Toweren Member 76
trace element analyses 113, 114
transcurrent faulting 187
Transition Formation 89
Triassic
mineralization 149-158
palaeogeography 65, 246, 247
289
290
INDEX
Woyla Nappe 2 0 0 - 2 0 3 , 2 4 8 - 2 4 9
Woyla Terranes 235, 237
Zaphrentites 27
zinc mineralization
Eocene-Miocene 161
Jurassic-Cretaceous 160
Late Cretaceous 161
Miocene-Pliocene 163-164
Palaeocene 161
Palaeozoic basins 148-149, 152
Woyla Group 159, 160
zircon ages 54
Sumatra
Geology, Resourcesand Tectonic Evolut,on
Edited by A. J. Barber, M.J. Crow and J. S. Milsom
This volume provides the first comprehensive account of the geology of Sumatra since the
masterly synthesis of van Bemmelen (1949). Following the establishment of the Geological Survey
of Indonesia, after WW II, the whole island has been mapped geologically at the reconnaissance
level, with the collaboration of the geological surveys of the United States and the United
Kingdom. The mapping programme, completed in the mid-1990s, together with supplementary
data obtained by academic institutions and petroleum and mineral exploration companies, has
resulted in a vast increase in geological information, which is summarized in this volume. The
synthesis of structural controls on sedimentation and magmatism during the tectonic evolution
of Sumatra since the late Palaeozoic has provided a background for the formation of economic
deposits of metallic minerals, coal, oil and gas. The volume provides a sound basis for future
geological research and for the exploration of the energy and mineral resources of the island.
Cover illustration:
ISBN 1-86239-180-7
Top right: eruption of Merapi from Bukit Tinggi, 19 July 1993; photograph
by A. J. Barber.Bottom right: oil-drilling rig in the jungle, central Sumatra;
photograph by ChuckGaughey,Caltex Pacific, Indonesia.
>