Flow Assurance

Flow Assurance in Wellbores ,Pipelines and

Riser

Trends and Facts in Oil and Gas Production

Few new giant oil and gas fields are likely to be discovered
More than a quarter of the worlds oil and more than 15%
of its natural gas lies offshore

Most of the new discoveries are expected to occur offshore

New large fields are probable in deep waters
Develop new and cost effective solutions for small fields
Multiphase transport directly to shore
Tie-in of well stream from sub sea installation to platform

Multiphase Transport Solutions

Floating production system:

Transport directly to shore:

Multi-Phase Fluid Flow (Oil/Water/Gas)

Callenges for Deep Water Developments

(Hassanein and Fairhurst, BP 1997)

Long distance and deepwater challenges

General challenges:
Solids management : Hydrate control, Wax, scale, asphaltenes
Multiphase flow: Liquid control Pressure boosting
Umbilical
Power supply
Communications
Different challenges for different fluids:
Oil dominated
Gas condensate

Deep Water Developments

Drivers of future field developments

Increased oil recovery (IOR) solutions

King Multi-Booster system

Subsea separation West Africa gas / liquid separation

Subsea Compression Station(scs)

Flow assurance
The ability to produce hydrocarbon fluids economically from
the reservoir to export over the life of a field in any
environment.
(Forsdyke 1997)

Challenges:
Hydrates
Wax/paraffin deposition
Scale
Emulsions
Slugging
Sand

Fluid control

Flow control

Flow Control
The ability to actively or passively manipulate
a flow field in order to effect a beneficial
change.
(Gad-el-Hak, 1989)

RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Hydrocarbons

Saturates / Paraffin / Alkenes

Aromatics
Resins
Asphaltenes

Non-hydrocarbons

Water
Mineral salts
CO2, H2S, mercaptans, N2,
Metals
Microorganisms

RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Form the Basis for Flow Assurance and other design work;
Flow Assurance work is as good as the Reservoir Fluid
Sampling and Analysis.
PVT (Pressure, Volume, Temperature)
Describes the thermodynamic relationship between pressure,
volume, and temperature for all phases
Phase Behavior
Phase refers to the state of matter: gas, liquid, solid,
Temperatures & pressures the different phases form, and the
relative quantities of each phase
Fluid Properties
Chemical composition
Parameters related to solids formation

RESERVOIR FLUIDS

RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Sampling
Surface sample or down hole sample

Flow assurance and precipitation of solids

Hydrates: Ice substance

Wax: Paraffine wax crystallic
Asphaltenes: Aromatic solids
Scale: Wall deposited heavy soluble mineral deposits

Phase transitions

MULTIPHASE FLOW
Multiphase flow is the simultaneous flow of multiple fluid

phases (gas, oil, and water) inside a flow device.

The flow device can be:
Reservoir
Wellbore
Flowlines
Subsea pipelines
Risers
Export pipelines

Multiphase Transport
Flow with one or several components in more than
one phase

Gas-liquid flows
Gas-solid flows
Liquid-solid flows
Three-phase flows (e.g. gas-oil-water)

Simulation tools
Industry standard: OLGA (two fluid model)
PETRA objectoriented implementation in C++

MULTIPHASE FLOW

Flow Regimes in Pipes

Have great impact on pressure drop, liquid holdup, stability,
slug catcher sizing, etc.

Flow regimes in horizontal pipes

Flow regimes in horizontal pipes

Horizontal Two-Phase Flow
Segregated flow
Stratified
Annular
Wavy

Intermittent
Slug flow
Plug flow

Distributive flow
Bubble/mist flow
Froth flow

Flow Regimes in Pipelines

Flow regime map horizontal pipes

Flow pattern map for horizontal flow
Often specified in terms of superficial velocity of the
phases

Flow regimes vertical pipes

Flow regimes and map vertical pipes

Vertical flow
Bubble flow
Continuous liquid phase with
dispersed bubbles of gas

Slug flow
Large gas bubbles
Slugs of liquid (with small
bubbles) in between

Churn flow
Bubbles start to coalesce
Up and down motion of liquid

Annular flow
Gas becomes the continuous
phase
Droplets in the gas phase

Example - vertical flow

Slug flow

Bubble flow

Vertical Flow Map

Partly dependent
on upstream
geometry

SOLIDS
Hydrates, Asphaltenes
Calcium Naphthenates, Wax / Paraffins, Scale,
Sand, Thermal Management, Chemical
Injection, Erosion and corrosion

HYDRATES
Gas hydrates are crystalline materials where water molecules
form a framework containing cavities which are occupied by
individual gases or gas mixtures (e.g. methane, ethane, propane,
isobutene and inorganic molecules such as CO2 and H2S).

 Ice that burns

HYDRATES

HYDRATES

HYDRATES
Hydrate prevention - Chemical Inhibitors
Thermodynamic (shift chemical equilibrium)
Methanol
Glycols (MEG, DEG, TEG, others)
Low dosage (a.k.a. LDHI)
Anti-agglomerants (prevents accumulation)
Kinetic inhibitors (delay nucleation)
Hydrate prevention
Thermal management (maintain temperature above hydrate
formation conditions)
Insulation
Active heating
Water removal
Low pressure operation (maintain pressure below hydrate
formation conditions)

ASPHALTENES
Asphaltenes are high molecular weight polycyclic organic
compounds with nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur in their
structure, in addition to carbon and hydrogen.
Presence in petroleum fluids is defined as the fraction of
petroleum fluid (or other carbonaceous sources such as coal),
which is soluble in benzene and deposits, by addition of a lowboiling paraffin solvent.
Not crystallised upon deposition from petroleum fluids and
as a result, its phase-transition from liquid to solid does not
follow the same route as paraffin wax.
Not easily separated into individual purified components or
fractions. Ultimate analysis not very significant, since resins
are strongly adsorbed by asphaltenes - and not easily
quantitatively separated from them.

When can asphaltenes cause problems?

Asphaltenes can cause problems in oil production, transportation, and

processing. Amount of asphaltene in oil less important than asphaltene
stability.
Stability depends on asphaltene properties, and solvent properties of the oil.
Light oils with small amounts of asphaltenes more likely to cause problems
than heavy oil with larger amounts of material in the asphaltene fraction.
Heavier oil also contains intermediate components that are good asphaltene
solvents whereas the light oil consist largely of paraffinic materials in which,
by definition, asphaltenes have very limited solubility.
Unstable asphaltenes can form separate phase that might plug the oil-bearing
rock formation near a well. Can also aggregate at oil/water interfaces,
stabilizing water-in-oil emulsions or at oil/solid interfaces
Can alter surface wetting properties or accumulate and plug well bores and
flow lines. The first step toward predicting and avoiding any of these problems
is knowing how to evaluate asphaltene stability.

Asphaltenes
Asphaltenes Control
Inhibitors:
Chemical inhibitors are available to
prevent asphaltene deposition
Normally injected at the bottom of the well

CALCIUM NAPHTHENATES
Naphthenates are a solid that forms from
a reaction between calcium in produced
water and naphthenic acid in oil
Found in some West African and North
Sea fields
High TAN oils (TAN = total acid number)

WAX
What is wax?
Mainly long-chain alkanes with 20-50 carbon atoms, but also
contain minor quantities of branched and cyclic hydrocarbons.
Typical content in North Sea oils is 1-15 weight%.
What is cloud point?
Cloud point is the first temperature where wax starts to
precipitate when an oil is cooled. It is often referred to as the
wax appearance (or precipitation) temperature. Cloud point is
typically 30-40C, but may be as high as 50-55C.
What is wax melting point?
The melting point of wax deposits is normally about 20C higher
than the cloud point.

WAX
What is pour point and yield stress?
Pour point is the temperature where sufficient amount of wax
(about 4 weight %) is precipitated to make the oil take on a
solid-like (gel) structure. The pour point of North Sea oils may
be as high as 35C and lower than -50C. Below the pour point,
the oil has a yield shear stress, i.e. the oil cannot flow unless it
is subjected to a certain minimum shearing force shaking or
pumping).

Wax plugs

WAX

WAX
As wax solidifies from oil, there are three major concerns:
Wax deposition on tubing and pipe walls during normal flow
Gelling of the oil during shutdown
Increases in viscosity due to wax particles suspended in the
oil
Wax Management:
Pigging
Chemical injection
Insulation
Active heating
Operating procedures

WATER-OIL EMULSIONS control

What are emulsions?
When water and oil are mixed, one of the phases is dispersed
as droplets into the other. In oil production, water is most
often the dispersed phase. Depending on the supply of mixing
energy, the dispersion may separate readily into pure water
and pure oil, or it may stay as a stable emulsion.
Emulsions are stabilised by components naturally present in
the oil, such as asphaltenes, resins and organic acids. Solid
particles like wax, scale and fines may also act as stabilising
agents.

SCALE PRECIPITATION
What is oilfield scale?
Oilfield scale is mainly deposits of inorganic salts such as
carbonates and sulphates of barium, strontium or calcium.
Scale may also be salts of iron like sulphides, carbonates and
hydrous oxides

Scale formation mechanisms

Oilfield scale can form in one of two ways:
Brine (e.g. formation water) may undergo change in conditions
such as temperature or pressure. This generally gives rise to
carbonate scales.
Two incompatible waters (e.g. formation water rich in calcium,
strontium and barium and seawater rich in sulphate) mix. This
generally gives rise to sulphate scales.
The curves illustrate that calcite
precipitation occurs by a positive
feedback mechanism; pressure
drop gives prcipitation P1
,deposition gives a new pressure
drop, P2 , which in turn gives
increasing deposition,P3

Scale mitigation
What is a scale inhibitor?
Scale inhibitors are chemicals which stop or interfere with the
nucleation, precipitation and adherence of mineral deposits.
What is a scale dissolver?
Scale dissolvers are chemicals which dissolve scale by
complexing with ions like barium, strontium, calcium and iron.
What is chelation or sequestration?
Chelation or sequestration is the formation of soluble metal
ion complexes in the presence of substances which normally
would give a precipitate.
Other techniques ?

Electromagnetic
Inhibition

SAND
Small quantities of sand are typically produced from oil and gas
reservoirs
Sand can deposit in the pipeline and process equipment
Oscillating pressure and well production will increase sand
production
Sand can have detrimental impacts on production Erosion
Increase corrosion
Can form restrictions or plugging
It can settle in topsides equipment
Sand transport
If you can live with sand fines then a minimum velocity can be
defined for sand transport

SAND Prediction and Monitoring

Prediction in design phase
Core analysis & well test data
Erosion & solids transport modelling
Gravel packs and screens in completion
Continuous or periodic monitoring for sand
Limit well ramp-up
If a well begins to produce significant sand, then
Repair completion
Permanently shut-in
Operate at reduced flow rate
SAND Detection
Subsea sand detectors are
commercially available

THERMAL MANAGEMENT
Why are we interested in thermal management?
Many of the potential solids are temperature sensitive,
particularly hydrates and wax
Viscosity increases (sometimes significantly) with decreasing
temperature
Thermal management options
Insulation keep the heat you have
Active heating add energy
Insulation
Flowlines
Subsea equipment

CHEMICAL INJECTION
Chemicals are needed to control a number of potential solids
and production chemistry concerns
Chemical compatibility
Chemical Injection Design Philosophy
Reservoir fluid analyses
Chemical performance testing
Umbilical and injection system design
Operation monitoring

CHEMICAL INJECTION

EROSION
Erosion mechanisms
and materials

Corrosion can result in the loss of millions of

dollars if a pipeline is not protected

PIPESIM software quickly determines the maximum

erosion and corrosion rates for different production rates

Slug Flow
Slug Flow Classification, Slug flow generation,
Consequences of Slugging, Hydrodynamic slugging,
Slugs from Gas Lift, Slug formation in pipeline/riser,
Severe Slugging, Slug reduction/elimination
techniques

Slug Flow
Slug flow is where large frothy waves of liquid form a slug that
can fill the pipe completely. These slugs may also be in the
form of a surge wave that exists upon a thick film of liquid on
the bottom of the pipe.
A fascinating but unwanted and damaging flow pattern

Slug Flow Classification

Normal steady slugs Hydrodynamic slugging

Unaffected by compressibility
Incompressible gas (high pressure) or high liquid rate
Normally not an operational problem
Short period

Slugs generated by compressibility effects

Transient slugs

Severe slugging in a riser system (riser induced)

Hilly terrain slugs
(terrain induced)
Other transient compressible effects
Long period
Generated while changing inlet rate

Reservoir induced slug flow

Slug flow generation

Hydrodynamic slug growth two
criteria:
Wave growth due to Kelvin
Helmholtz instabilities
Slug growth criteria (the slug
has to grow to be stable)

Consequences of Slugging
Variations in flowrate to
1.stage separator
Shutdowns, bad separation,
level variations
Pressure pulses, vibrations and
tearing on equipment
Flow rate measurement
problems

Variations in gasflow

Pressure variations
Liquid entrainment in gas outlet
Flaring
Flow rate measurement
problems

Structural damages due to high flows

Structural damage due
to slug loading:

Flexible riser configurations may fatigue and fail

with severe slugging

Hydrodynamic slugging
Formed when waves reach the upper pipe wall; the liquid
blocks the pipe, and waves grows to slugs
Short slugs with high frequency
Gas rate, liquid rate and topography influences degree of
slugging

Triggers riser slugging

Slugs from Gas Lift

Gas lift is a technology to produce

oil and gas from wells with low
reservoir pressure

Gas lifts can result in highly

oscillating well flow

Casing-heading instabilities
Annulus

Slug formation in pipeline/riser

1.

Initiation and Slug formation

2.

Gas velocity too low to sustain liquid film

in riser
Liquid blocking
Gas pressure increases in pipe
No/low production

Slug production

3.

Gas pressure equals liquid head

Liquid accelerates when gas enters riser
Large peak in liquid flow rate

Gas blow down

4.

Pressure drops as gas enters riser

Gas bubbles become continuous, liquid
film at wall
Gas velocity too low...

Liquid fallback

Liquid film flows down the riser

Riser-based slugging
Riser-based slugging, also known as severe slugging, is
associated with the pipeline risers often found in offshore oil
production facilities. Liquids accumulate at the bottom of the
riser until sufficient pressure is generated behind it to push
the liquids over the top of the riser, overcoming the static
head. Behind this slug of liquid follows a slug of gas, until
sufficient liquids have accumulated at the bottom to form a
new liquid slug.

Slug formation in pipeline/riser

Severe Slugging

Mechanical loads on bends due to severe slugging

Resultant force on bend:

Conditions for severe slugging

Flow maps for pipe/riser

Conditions from literature
Be 81, Taitel et al 90, Schmidt et
al 85, Fuchs 87
Pressure limits
Depend on pipe geometry

Based on steady state analysis

Inaccessible variables

Dynamic simulation
When does slugging occur?

Pipelines with dips and humps

Low gas-oil ratio
Decreasing pressure
Long pipelines
Deep water production

Important Severe Slugging Parameters

Gas and oil flowrate

Pipeline pressure

Upstream geometry

Important Severe Slugging Parameters

Gas and oil flowrate

Pipeline pressure
Upstream geometry

Gas injection at riser base

Self gas lifting

Choking

Active Choking

Optimize Well Production

- stabilizes

the oil production from the

well by active control of the production
and/or injection choke

Increased/controled gas injection rate in gas lifts

Minimizing Severe slugging

Slug reduction/elimination techniques

Design changes
Slug catchers and separators
Rate/GOR change or pressure change
Pipe diameter regulation (use of many smal pipes) (Yocum, 1975)
Gas injection at riser base (Hill, 1990)
Pipe insertion (self induced gaslift) (Sarica & Tengesdal, 2000)
Venturi tubes
Dynamic simulation (Xu et al, 1997)

Operational changes
Choking (Schmidt et al., 1979, Taitel, 1986, Jansen et al., 1996)
Feed-forward control of separator level
Dynamic simulation (Xu et al., 1997)
Pigging operations
Use of flow-improver
Foaming (Hassanein et.al., 1998)
Artificial gas lifts
Optimise well production
Increase gas injection in well

Feedback control
Miniseparators
Active choking
Model based regulation

Slug Control

Stratified interface drag

Interfacial drag in stratified flows:

For stratified flow in pipelines the interface is found to be

smooth for water for gas velocities less than approximately 3
m/s. At this velocity small amplitude regular Jeffrey waves
appear at the interface.
Above about 5 m/s Kelvin-Helmholtz waves are generated. For
velocities of about 10 m/s droplets are spewed from the crest
of the waves.
For liquids with a viscosity greater than 15 centipoise the
interface is smooth for gas velocities less than 5 m/s and
Kelvin-Hetmholtz waves are generated above this velocity.

Stratified interface drag

The appearance of Kelvin-Helmholtz waves is accompanied by
a large increase in the interfacial stress both for water and for
viscous liquids.
The wave heights for stratified flows in pipelines are roughly
of the order of 0.5 to 5 mm so they protrude into the gas
space an appreciable distance.
The magnitude of the form drag should increase linearly with
the wave height, h, and with the number of waves per unit
length.
A correlation by Andritsos based on measurements for 2.54
cm and 9.53 cm pipelines and for liquids with viscosities of 170 centipoises is:

Here

is the friction factor for a smooth interface.

Interfaces - liquid accumulation, wall wetting, and

corrosion
Wet gas pipelines:
CO2 and H2S may attack washed
pipeline parts lacking inhibitor.

Water condensing in the top of a wet gas pipeline will form small
droplets or a thin film on the steel surface. The condensed water can
become rapidly supersaturated with corrosion products, resulting in
increased pH and iron carbonate film formation.

The challenge of calculating pressure drop in long

traverses
The pressure gradient varies along the pipe due to variation in
pipe diameter, inclination and mixture density (pressure
dependent)

Pressure at exit:

(Sum of pressure drop

in all pipe segment)

Challenge in multiphase flow:

The pressure profile depends on the pressure!
Requires iterative numerical solver

Robust homogeneous pressure drop model

for two-phase flow

Two-phase pressure drop model Excel version

Numerical simulators available

Taitel and Dukler model:

Model output Taitel and Dukler in-house program

(Liquid height for
stratified flow case)

(Flow regime
determination and
pressure gradient)