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3c3-TaylorSeries Stu PDF
3c3-TaylorSeries Stu PDF
In Section 8.7 we considered functions f with derivatives of all orders and their Taylor
series
f na
x an
n!
n0
The nth partial sum of this Taylor series is the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a:
Tnx f a
f a
f a
f na
x a
x a2
x an
1!
2!
n!
We can write
f x Tnx Rnx
where Rnx is the remainder of the Taylor series. We know that f is equal to the sum of
its Taylor series on the interval x a R if we can show that lim n l Rnx 0 for
x a R.
Here we derive formulas for the remainder term Rnx. The first such formula involves
an integral.
in I , then
Rnx
1
n!
x t n f n1t dt
(by FTC 2)
1
k!
x tk f k1t dt
1
k 1!
x tk1 f k2t dt
Again we use integration by parts, this time with u x t k1 and dv f k2t. Then
du k 1x t k dt and v f k1t, so
1
k 1!
x tk1 f k2t dt
1
x t k1 f k1t
k 1!
0
tx
ta
k1
k 1!
1
1
x a k1 f k1a
k 1!
k!
y x t
y x t
a
f k1t dt
f k1t dt
f k1a
x a k1 Rk x
k 1!
f x Tkx
f k1a
x a k1
k 1!
f x sin x
f 0 0
f x cos x
f 0 1
f x sin x
f 0 0
f x cos x
f 0 1
f 4x sin x
f 40 0
Since the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, we can write the Maclaurin series as
follows:
f 0
f 0
f 0 2
f 0 3
x
x
x
1!
2!
3!
x
x3
x5
x7
x 2n1
1n
3!
5!
7!
2n 1!
n0
1
n!
x tn f n1t dt
Since f n1t is sin t or cos t, we know that f n1t 1 for all t. We use the fact
that, for a b,
f t dt y
f t dt
Thus, for x 0,
1
R x n! y
n
1
n!
x tn dt
1
n!
1 x n1
x n1
n! n 1
n 1!
Rnx
1
n!
y
0
xt
n
1
n!
x tn f n1t dt
f n1 t dt
1
n!
t xn dt
x n1
n 1!
For some purposes the integral formula in Theorem 1 is awkward to work with, so we
are going to establish another formula for the remainder term. To that end we need to prove
the following generalization of the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals (see Section 6.4).
2 Weighted Mean Value Theorem for Integrals If f and t are continuous on a, b and
t does not change sign in a, b, then there exists a number c in a, b such that
a x b
and so
b
If xab tx dx 0, these inequalities show that xab f xtx dx 0 and so Theorem 2 is
true because both sides of the equation are 0. If xab tx dx 0, it must be positive and
we can divide by xab tx dx in (3):
m
xab f xtx dx
xab tx dx
Then, by the Intermediate Value Theorem (2.4.10), there exists a number c in a, b such
that
f c
xab f xtx dx
xab tx dx
and so
f n1c
x a n1
n 1!
Proof The function tt x t n doesnt change sign in the interval from a to x, so the
Weighted Mean Value Theorem for Integrals gives a number c between a and x such that
x t n f n1t dt f n1c y x t n dt
a
f
x t n1
c
n1
n1
tx
f n1c
ta
x a n1
n1
Then, by Theorem 1,
Rnx
1
n!
x t n f n1t dt
1 n1
x a n1
f n1c
f
c
x a n1
n!
n1
n 1!
The formula for the remainder term in Theorem 4 is called Lagranges form of the
remainder term. Notice that this expression
Rnx
f n1c
x a n1
n 1!
is very similar to the terms in the Taylor series except that f n1 is evaluated at c instead
of at a. All we can say about the number c is that it lies somewhere between x and a.
In the following example we show how to use Lagranges form of the remainder term
as an alternative to the integral form in Example 1.
EXAMPLE 2 Prove that Maclaurin series for sin x represents sin x for all x.
SOLUTION Using the Lagrange form of the remainder term with a 0, we have
Rnx
f n1c n1
x
n 1!
where f x sin x and c lies between 0 and x. But f n1c is sin c or cos c. In any
case, f n1c 1 and so
f
c
x
R x n 1! x n 1!
n1
n1
n1
3
(a) Approximate the function f x s
x by a Taylor polynomial of degree 2 at a 8.
(b) How accurate is this approximation when 7 x 9?
SOLUTION
3
f x s
x x 13
(a)
f 8 2
f x 13 x23
f 8 121
1
f 8 144
83
f x 10
27 x
f 8
f 8
x 8
x 82
1!
2!
1
2 121 x 8 288
x 82
(b) Using the Lagrange form of the remainder term we can write
R2 x
3
f c
5x 83
83 x 8
x 83 10
27 c
3!
3!
81c 83
where c lies between 8 and x. In order to estimate the error we note that if 7 x 9,
then 1 x 8 1, so x 8 1 and therefore x 8 3 1. Also, since x 7,
we have
5 x8
R x 81c
83
51
0.0004
81 179