Vibration Analysis

Basic Concepts

What is Vibration ?
Vibration is a pulsating motion of a machine or a
machine part from its original position of rest and
can be represented by the formula :

Vibration Amplitude Response =

Dynamic Force
Dynamic Resistance

Force Balance
C

K
M

1. The Exciting Force F such as Unbalance

2. The mass of vibrating system M
3. The stiffness of vibrating system K
4. The damping characteristics C

Vibration Characteristics

Amplitude

Frequency

Phase

Direction

Vibration Characteristics

Amplitude

Frequency

Phase

Direction

Vibration Displacement

Minimum Displacement

Pk-Pk

DISPLACEMENT

Max Displacement

Time

Amplitude Units

Displacement

Pk-Pk

mils or microns

Vibration Velocity

RMS

Velocity

Max Velocity

Minimum Velocity

RMS of a Sinusoidal Wave

1
T = __
f

Where T = period of one cycle of the vibration

vi = instantaneous velocity
t = the variable time

Amplitude Units

Displacement

Pk-Pk

mils or microns

Velocity

RMS

in/sec or mm/sec

Vibration Acceleration

Pk

Acceleration

Max Acceleration

Minimum Acceleration

Amplitude Units (Metric)

Displacement

Pk-Pk

microns

Velocity

RMS

mm/sec

Acceleration

Pk

gs

Amplitude Units (Imperial)

Displacement

Pk-Pk

mils

Velocity

Pk

in/sec

Acceleration

RMS

gs

Comparison of Amplitude Units

Displacement

Velocity

Acceleration

What do they measure?

Displacement

How far it moves

Mils or Microns

Velocity

How fast it moves

in/sec or mm/sec

Acceleration

How quickly velocity changes

g or in/sec2 or mm/sec2

How Much is too Much ?

Manufacturers specified limits

End User limits
Comparison with identical machines
Same Load, Mounting, Temp, Pressure
Standards specific to type
BS 4999 part 142 Electric Motors
General Standards
BS-4675 (ISO-2372), VDI - 2056
Historical Data

Conversion of Parameters
METRIC UNITS
Where:

D=Peak-To-Peak Displacement (m Pk-Pk)

V=Peak Velocity (mm/sec Pk)
A=Peak Acceleration (gs-Pk)
F=Frequency (CPM)

V = DF
19,100

V = 3690 A
F

A=

D = 9,100V
F

A=

D = 70,470,910
F2

VF
3690

DF2
70,470,910

Conversion of Parameters
ENGLISH UNITS
Where:

D=Peak-To-Peak Displacement (Mils Pk-Pk)

V=Peak Velocity (in/sec Pk)
A=Peak Acceleration (gs-Pk)
F=Frequency (CPM)

V = DF
19,100

V = 93640 A
F

A=

D = 19,100V
F

A=

D = 1,790,000,000
F2

VF
93,640

DF2
1,790,000,000

Amplitude Units

Displacement - microns

Total movement, value is from

Peak to Peak

Ignores all high frequencies and

looks at the low frequency

Acceleration - G-s

Value from the base line to the

peak amplitude

Looks a force generated in our

machine (High frequency
domain)

Velocity RMS - MM/Sec

RMS - root mean square,

appears at 0.707 the value of
the amplitude

Gives a good overall picture,

of the vibration in our
machine

Vibration Characteristics

Amplitude

Frequency

Phase

Direction

Vibration Frequency
Vibration Frequency is simply a measure of the
numbers of complete cycles that occur in a
specified period of time such as Cycles per
Second or Cycles per Minute. Frequency is
related to the period of vibration by this simple
formula :
Frequency = 1 / Period

DISPLACEMENT

Vibration Frequency

0.5

Time Period = 1.0 mili sec

Frequency = 1 / Time Period
Frequency = 1 / 10-3 CPS
Frequency = 1000 CPS or Hz
Frequency = 1000*60 CPM
Frequency = 60 kCPM

1.0

Time, mili sec

Significance of Frequency
The forces that cause vibration are usually
generated through the rotating motion of the
machine parts. These forces change in direction or
amplitude according to rotational speed of the
machine components, most vibration problems will
have frequencies that are directly related to the
rotational speeds.
Vibration Frequency is an Analysis or
Diagnostic Tool

Vibration Frequency & Likely Causes

Frequency In
Terms of RPM
1 X RPM

Most Likely Cause

Other Possible Causes and Remarks

Unbalance

2 X RPM

Mechanical
Looseness

3 X RPM

Misalignment

Less than 1 X RPM

Oil Whirl (Less than RPM)

Synchronous AC
Line Frequency
2 X Synchronous
Line Frequency
Many Times RPM
Harmonically Related

Electrical Problems

1. Eccentric Journals
2. Misalignment or bent shaft if High Axial Vibration
3. Bad belts if RPM of belt
4. Resonance
5. Reciprocating Forces
6. Electric Problems
1. Misalignment if high axial vibration
2. Reciprocating Forces
3. Resonance
4. Bad belts if 2 X RPM of belt
Usually a combination of misalignment and excessive axial
clearances (looseness)
1. Bad Belt Drives
2. Background Vibration
3. Sub-Harmonic Resonance
4. Beat Vibrations
Common Electrical Problems include broken rotor bars, unbalanced
phases in poly-phase system, unequal airgap
Rare as a possible unless resonance is exited

High Frequency
Not Harmonically Related

Torque Pulses
Bad Gears
Aerodynamic Forces
Hydraulic Forces
Mechanical Looseness
Reciprocating Forces
Bad Anti Friction Bearings

1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Gear Teeth times RPM if bad gear

Number of fan blades times RPM
Number of impeller vanes times RPM
May occur 2,3,4 and sometimes higher harmonics if severe
looseness
Bearing Vibration
Cavitation, recirculation and flow turbulance cause random, high
frequency vibration
Improper lubricationof journal bearing (friction exciting vibration
Rubbing

Comparison of Parameters
F (CPM)
60
600
6,000
60,000
600,000

D (um)
100.00
10.00
1.00
0.10
0.01

V (mm/s)
0.314
0.314
0.314
0.314
0.314

A (g)
0.0002
0.002
0.020
0.201
2.012

Displacement

Force Indicator

10 um

LOG
AMPLITUDE
(um, mm/s, g)

.20 g

Velocity
.314 mm/s
.002 g

Fatigue Indicator
.314 mm/s
.1 um

Acceleration

Stress Indicator

60

600

6K

120K

LOG FREQUENCY (CPM)

600K

Vibration Characteristics

Amplitude

Frequency

Phase

Direction

What is Phase ?

The angular reference at a given frequency

at one instance in time of a moving part to a
fixed point

The angular reference at a given frequency

at one instance in time of two moving parts
to a fixed point

Vibration Phase
Phase

is

simply

convenient

means

of

determining the relative motion of two vibrating

parts of machines. It is measured in degrees or
clocks.

Vibration Phase

Phase Relationship as Used With Machinery Vibration

Phase - Phase Vs Amplitude Units

What we are going to see now is the significant difference between

the phase relationships of the three different amplitude units.

This is governed by the laws of physics

Using Displacement as the base unit, then readings taken in Velocity

will lead Displacement by 90. Acceleration will lead Velocity by 90,
therefor leading Displacement by 180.
Displacement Waveform
Velocity Waveform
Acceleration Waveform
+90

+90

It is important to understand the phase shifts with different amplitude

units, especially when comparing new data to previous data if
the units are different.

Phase - Acquiring Phase Data

How does the cross channel collect phase data, if phase is the
relationship between the peak value and the 1x Ts Pulse?

Cross channel uses the first transducer as a reference point, and

the second transducer as the comparison.

Taking the peak value from both waveforms over the same period of
time and calculating the difference in the same way as before

Cross Channel Phase

Phase - Acquiring Phase Data

As stated earlier phase data can be acquired by two means:

Single Channel

Dual Channel

Single Channel Phase Acquisition - How it Works!

Single Channel Phase

The Phase Angle is calculated using the formula:

Phase Angle =

(Difference in Time) X 360

(Time of 1 Revolution)

Phase - Amplitude Characteristics

In basic vibration training you were introduced to the three units to

measure amplitude:

Velocity
The most common unit used for trending data

Defined as the Rate of Movement

Acceleration
Used for high speed machinery were impacting is common - Gears, Trouble
Shooting Bearings, Peakvue
Defined as Change in Velocity over a period of time

Displacement
Mainly used when looking at relative motion or slow speed machines

Defined as Total movement from a reference point

Phase - Amplitude Characteristics

Basic vibration also introduced to the effects each unit has on the
spectral data

Velocity
Gives you a good overall level of vibration of both high frequency and low
frequency data

Acceleration
Accentuates the high frequencies and ignores the low frequencies. Good for
looking at impacts.

Displacement
Looks at the low frequency data (relative motion) and ignores the high
frequency impacting

As expected, the amplitude units effect the time domain much in the
same way they do the frequency domain

Phase - Amplitude Characteristics

Displacement

The spectral plot displays no high frequency data.

This is also apparent in the waveform by the lack of noise riding on the
40 - Dust Filter Fa n No.2 C/Mill
sinusoidal shape
M72 92 -F1H Fan Inboa rd Horiz ontal
P -P Disp in Microns

120

ROU TE SPECTRU M
18- Apr-02 18:04 :29
OVERALL= 5.46 V- DG
P-P = 94.2 7
LOAD = 10 0.0
RPM = 141 8.
RPS = 23.6 3

90

60

30

0
0

30

60

90

120

Displacem ent in Microns

Frequency in kCPM
80
60

ROU TE WA VEFOR M
18- Apr-02 18:04 :29
P-P = 87.3 8
PK (+) = 55 .85
PK (-) = 54 .21
CR ESTF= 1.81

40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
0

3
Rev olution Numbe r

Phase - Amplitude Characteristics

Velocity

Viewing the same data linearly across the spectra displays high and
low frequency data that was not apparent with Displacement.

The waveform displays an underlying sinusoidal waveform, but is

carrying the high frequency data as well - noisier waveform
RMS V eloc ity in m m /S ec

40 - Dust Filter Fa n No.2 C/Mill

M72 92 -F1H Fan Inboa rd Horiz ontal

7
6

ROU TE SPECTRU M
18- Apr-02 18:04 :29
OVERALL= 5.46 V- DG
RMS = 5.4 4
LOAD = 10 0.0
RPM = 141 8.
RPS = 23.6 3

5
4
3
2
1
0
0

30

60

90

120

V elocity in m m /S e c

Frequency in kCPM
20
15

ROU TE WA VEFOR M
18- Apr-02 18:04 :29
RMS = 4.8 4
PK (+) = 15 .15
PK (-) = 12 .86
CR ESTF= 3.13

10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0

3
Rev olution Numbe r

Phase - Amplitude Characteristics

Acceleration

The spectra displays a lot of high frequency data, raised noise floor level.

Waveform displays very distinct

impacting, common to the high frequency
40 - Dust Filter Fa n No.2 C/Mill
M72 92 -F1H Fan Inboa rd Horiz ontal
data
0.7
RMS Acce leration in G-s

0.6

Amplitude units also effect phase readings

0.5
0.4
0.3

ROU TE SPECTRU M
18- Apr-02 18:04 :29
OVERALL= 5.46 V- DG
RMS = 1.5 0
LOAD = 10 0.0
RPM = 141 8.
RPS = 23.6 3

0.2
0.1
0
0

30

60

90

120

Frequency in kCPM

Acc eleration in G-s

8
6

ROU TE WA VEFOR M
18- Apr-02 18:04 :29
RMS = 1.5 5
PK (+) = 6.6 4
PK (-) = 5.9 6
CR ESTF= 4.29

4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
0

3
Rev olution Numbe r

Limitations

There are a few disadvantages to using Single Channel Phase

analysis:

You have to have direct line of sight from the tachometer to the shaft
(which is not always possible)

Reflective tape needs to be on the shaft (This becomes a problem if the

machine is running and no tape is fitted?)

Direct sunlight or excessive vibration can cause error between the

tachometer reading and the analyzer.

Where to take Readings

Before we take any phase data it is important to understand why we

would want to collect phase data, and what can it tell us?

Phase data is a diagnostic tool and is most commonly used to confirm a

suspect fault, such as:

Imbalance

Misalignment

Looseness

Resonance

Common terminology used when analyzing phase data are:

In Phase (0)- Meaning the relationship between the two points are
moving uniformly in the same direction.

Out of Phase (180) - Meaning the relationship between the two points
are moving in different directions

Where to take Readings

We need to acquire phase data in a methodical way to enable us to

distinguish certain fault types, (which will be discussed in other topics)

When taking phase data, there is a lot of information we need to

remember (amplitudes, in or out of phase and phase angle). To make
things easier there is a simple method to follow:

Starting with the Driver take and

end-end Vertical Phase reading.
Note down the Phase and Amplitude
results

Next take an end-end Horizontal

Phase reading. Again note down
the phase and amplitude results

Precautions!

There are a few precautions to consider when collecting and

analyzing phase data. These are:

1) Transducer Direction

2) Observation Errors

Transducer Direction!

The orientation of a transducer is

very important and is the most
common cause of interpretation
error (more common in the axial
direction)

Data taken across a coupling

shows 180 phase difference.

Are these in or out of phase?

180

Phase - Transducer Polarity

The selection of different amplitude units is just one source of

hardware induced phase shifts.

Another source of induced phase shift is Transducer Polarity This is

to do with the internal wiring of the transducer.

Two identical transducers can be wired the opposite way round to each
other causing a 180 phase shift between readings. (Only associated
with Cross Channel Phase

AB

Place the two transducers

side by side and acquire a
phase reading.

The phase angle should be

0 if it is 180 then this
should be deducted from all
phase readings thereafter

Phase Summary

It is important to understand phase as it is a useful tool for doing

Investigative vibration analysis.

Phase data is a useful tool for finding many common machine faults

Imbalance

Misalignment

Looseness / Soft Foot

It also helps the analyst to visualise the actual movement of the

machine

Like a basic ODS.

Be careful of Transducer Polarity and Transducer Direction as each

can effect the phase angle

Allow a 30 tolerance across all phase data

Vibration Characteristics

Amplitude

Frequency

Phase

Direction

Vibration Direction

Vibration is measured in three direction

Horizontal
Vertical
Axial

Measurement Points
OB

IB

IB

Motor
M1H
M1V
M1A

OB
Pump

M2H
M2V
M2A

P1H
P1V
P1A

P2H
P2V
P2A

Vibration Spectrum

Fast Fourier Transform

The term FFT stands for Fast Fourier Transform

It is named after an 18th century mathematician called Jean Baptiste

Joseph Fourier.

He established:

Any periodic signal could be represented as a series of sines and

cosines. Meaning if you take a time waveform and mathematically
calculate the vibration frequency along with their amplitudes, we
can convert this in to a more familiar frequency format.

Fast Fourier Transform

Complex
waveform
changes to a
simple waveform

The waveform is
converted to an
amplitude/frequency
domain

T
im
e

T
im
e

y
c
n
e
u
q
e
r
F

Amplitude

Amplitude Amplitude

This is called a
spectrum

Spectrum

Before we learn how to

diagnose potential faults within
a spectrum, we need to
understand the units of
measurement.

The vibration data that is

converted from the waveform
by the FFT process can be
seen very clearly

However there are a few

considerations we need to take
into account first.

The amplitude scale and the

amplitude units are important

As well as the frequency scale

and units

Energy in Spectrum

Synchronous Energy

Synchronous energy - related

to turning speed.

We can see from the

spectrum that the first peak
is at 1 Orders (which means
it is 1 x turning speed)

All the other peaks are

harmonics off, which means
they are related to the first
peak
Examples of synchronous energy:
1) Imbalance
2) Misalignment

3) Gearmesh

Non- Synchronous Energy

Non-synchronous energy not related to turning speed

We can see from the

spectrum that the first
peak is at 10.24 Orders.
This is not related to
turning speed.

Examples of non-synchronous energy:

Bearings

Multiples of belt frequency

Other Machine Speeds

Sub-Synchronous Energy

Sub-synchronous energy Less than turning speed

The spectrum shows the first

impacting peak below 1
Order. This is subsynchronous energy

Examples of subsynchronous energy are:

Belt Frequencies

Other Machine Speeds

Cage Frequencies

Lines of Resolution

Lines of Resolution (LOR) determine how clear the peaks(data)

are defined within our spectrum.

The more lines we have over the same F-max (Maximum

frequency scale). The more accurate our data will be

Example.

The diagram below shows data that has been collected using 400
LOR. Notice how the top of the peaks are capped. When the LOR
are increased the data becomes more accurate.

Lines of Resolution
TA 16

0.5

L2 - TA 16
-M1H Motor Outboard H orizontal
A nalyze Spectrum
13-Mar-01 09:13:53
PK = .7078
LOA D = 100.0
R PM = 1496.
R PS = 24.94

PK A cce leration in G -s

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

400

800
Frequency in H z

1200

1600

The spectrum shown

displays data at 800 L.O.R
with an Fmax of 1600 Hz

Lines of Resolution
TA 16

0.20
0.5

L2 - TA 16
-M1H Motor Outboard H orizontal
A nalyze Spectrum
13-Mar-01 09:14:16
09:13:53
PK = .3852
.7078
LOA D = 100.0
R PM = 1497.
1496.
R PS = 24.95
24.94

PK A cce leration in G -s
PK A cce leration in G -s

0.16
0.4

The spectrum shown

displays data at 800 L.O.R
with an Fmax of 1600 Hz

The second spectrum

displays the same data but
with 3200 L.O.R over the
same Fmax

0.12
0.3

0.08
0.2

0.04
0.1

0
0

400

800
Frequency in H z

1200

1600

Lines of Resolution

There are 8 LOR settings we can choose from on the analyzer.

These start at 100 Lines and go up to 6400 Lines.

The average number of LOR is around 800 Lines for a typical

motor/pump set up

To change the LOR settings we need to alter our parameter set.

This is done in the Database Setup program
Remember. If you double your lines of resolution you double your
data collection time.

Questions

mils

3
0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

sec

CPM

mils

3
0.001

0.002

0.004

0.003
T=

0.002

F=

1/T

F=

1/0.002

F=

500

Hz

F=

500 x 60

CPM

F=

30000

CPM

Mils P-P

sec

60000

90000

CPM

In / sec

3
0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

sec

CPM

In/sec

3
0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

sec

In / sec Pk

60000

90000

CPM

2
Gs

0.003

0.006

0.009

0.012

sec

CPM

2
Gs

0.003

0.006

0.009

0.012

sec

Gs RMS

1.414

20000

30000

CPM

Bonus : if RPM = 1000

What type of Energy is this?

mils

11
0.015

0.030

0.045

0.060

sec
Bonus : if RPM = 3000, and
Fmax = 50 x RPM, Using
LOR = 1600, Calculate
BW in CPM & Hz?

In/sec

4.2
0.01

0.02

0.03

sec

Bonus : if RPM = 3600

What type of Energy is this?

10

Gs

0.04

0.032

0.064

0.096

0.112

sec

3
mils

0.9
0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

sec

CPM

3
mils

0.9
0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

sec

Mils P-P

1.8

60000

90000

CPM

In / sec

10
4
0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

sec

CPM

In / sec

10

In / sec Pk

4
0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

sec

10

12000

18000

24000

CPM

100
Acceleration can be
measured in which
unit?
A: mm/sec

B: G-s

C: Microns

D: Hz

200
The unit RMS or
mm/sec can equate
to which amplitude
measurement?
A: Acceleration

B: Displacement

C: Velocity

D: Peak to Peak

300
Displacement
measures which
value of a
waveform?
A: Peak to Peak

B: Peak

C: RMS

D: Average

500
What are the three
units of Frequency?

A: Hz CPM RMS

B: Hz CPM Peak

C: Peak Hz RMS

D: Hz CPM Order

1,000
The Peak value of a
waveform relates to
which amplitude
measurement?
A: Velocity

B: Displacement

C: Average

D: Acceleration

2000
What does
Synchronous energy
mean?

A: Below 1 Order

B: Related to 1 Order

C: Bearing Defect

D: Above 1 Order

4,000
What unit is best
used to detect
bearing defects?

A: Velocity

B: Displacement

C: Average

D: Acceleration

8,000
If a motor runs at
1500RPM how many
orders would 4500
CPM be?
A: 1 Order

B: 2 Orders

C: 2.5 Orders

D: 3 Orders

16,000
Sub Synchronous
Data is?

A: Below 1 Order

B: Equal to 1 Order

C: Up to 5 Orders

D: Above 1 Order

32,000
A Spectrum is
defined as:
Amplitude versus ?
A: Time

B: CPM

C: Frequency

D: Hz

64,000
The measurement
point P2P is taken
where on the
machine?
A: Inboard D/E

B: Inboard ND/E

C: Outboard ND/E

D: Outboard D/E

125,000
The measurement
point F2A means?

A: Fan inboard axial

B: Fan inboard peakvue

C: Fan inboard vertical

D: Fan outboard axial

250,000
Locating turning
speed will
distinguish?

A: The Frequency Units

B: Peak Amplitudes

C: The Amplitude Units

D: Synchronous Energy

500,000
Bearing Defects
are?

A: Non Synchronous

B: Synchronous

C: Undetectable

D: Only Detectable with

Peakvue

1,000,000
Electrical defects are
what type of energy..?

A: Synchronous

B: Sub Synchronous

C: Undetectable

D: Non Synchronous