1

Projections of Points and

Straight Lines I
PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTIONS
Projecting the image of an object to the plane of projection is known as projection. The
object may be a point, line, plane, solid, machine component or a building. Consider the
following illustration to project the image of an object on to a plane.

Figure 1.1 Projection of an object

In engineering drawing practice two principal planes are used to get the projection
of an object as shown in Fig.1.2.
They are,
(i) Vertical plane (VP) which is assumed to be placed vertically. The front view of the
object is projected onto this plane.

16

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

(ii) Horizontal plane (HP) which is assumed to be placed horizontally. The top view of
the object is projected onto this plane.
These principal planes are also known as reference planes or co-ordinate planes. The
planes considered are imaginary, transparent and dimensionless. The reference planes
VP and HP are placed in such a way that they intersect each other at right angles. As a
result of intersection, an intersecting line is obtained which is known as the reference
line or XY line.
Observe in Fig. 1.2 the reference planes (VP & HP) forming four quadrants namely,
(i) First quadrant
(iii) Third quadrant
(ii) Second quadrant
(iv) Fourth quadrant
It is assumed that the observer always stands at the right side of the reference planes.

Figure 1.2

When an object is assumed to be placed in first quadrant, the projection method

followed is called first angle projection. In this method, the object is placed between the
observer and the plane of projection.
The image of the object is projected and obtained on HP by observing it from top of
the object and is called topview or plan of the object. The image is projected and obtained
on VP by seeing the object from front and is called front view or elevation. As per the
general rule of drawing, the HP is rotated clockwise through 90. After rotation, the images
are drawn on HP and VP.

17

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

Figure 1.3

When the object is assumed to be placed in third quadrant, the projection method
followed is called third angle projection. In this method, the plane of projection lies between
the object and the observer.
As per BIS code IS: SP 46-1988, first angle projection method is to
be followed in engineering drawing practices

NAMING VIEWS
?
?
?
?
?

In drawing practice, capital letters A,B,C, etc. are used to represent objects in
space.
Their top views are represented by small letters a,b,c, etc.
The front views are represented by small letters with dashes a, b, c, etc.
These letters are used to represent a point, ends of a straight line, corners of a
solid, etc.
Actual projections in top and front views are drawn in thick lines. Construction
lines and projectors are drawn using thin lines.

18

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN FIRST QUADRANT

Consider a point A placed in the first quadrant. This is at a height h mm above HP,
at a distance d mm in front of VP. Its front view a is projected onto VP and the top view
a is projected onto HP.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.4

Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through 90 and is obtained in vertical
position. The projections will be seen as given in Fig. 1.4 (ii).
It is drawn with reference to XY line. Mark a point a at a height h mm above XY,
and a at a distance d mm below XY. The projector joining a and a is always perpendicular
to XY.

PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN SECOND QUADRANT

Consider a point B placed in the second quadrant. This is at a height h mm above
HP and at a distance d mm behind VP. Its front view b is projected onto VP and top
view b is projected on to HP.
Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through 90 and is obtained in vertical
position. The projections will be seen as given in Fig. 1.5 (ii). It is drawn with reference
to XY line. Mark a point b at a height h mm above XY and b at a distance d mm above
XY.

19

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.5

PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN THIRD QUADRANT

Consider a point C placed in the third quadrant. The point is at a height h mm below
HP and at a distance d mm behind VP. Its front view c is projected onto VP and the top
view c is projected onto HP.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.6

20

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through 90 and is obtained in vertical
position. The projections will be seen as given in Fig. 1.6 (ii). It is drawn with reference
to XY line. Mark a point c at a height h mm below XY and c at a distance d mm above
XY.

PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN FOURTH QUADRANT

Consider a point D placed in the fourth quadrant. This is at a height h mm below HP
and at a distance d mm in front of VP. Its front view d is projected onto VP and the top
view d is projected onto HP.
Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through 90 and is obtained in vertical
position. The projections will be seen as given in Fig. 1.7 (ii). It is drawn with reference
to XY line Mark a point d at a height h mm below XY and d at a distance d mm below
XY.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.7

Example 1.1
projections.

A point A is 20 mm above HP and 30 mm in front of VP. Draw its

Solution
To draw the projections Draw the reference line XY. Mark a point a at a distance of
20 mm above XY. Through this point draw a perpendicular line to XY and mark the top
view a at a distance of 30 mm below XY.

21

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.8

Example 1.2 A point B is 20 mm above HP and 30 mm behind VP. Draw its projections.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.9

To draw the projections Draw the reference line XY. Mark a point b at a distance of
20 mm above XY. Through this point draw a perpendicular line to XY and mark the top
view b at a distance of 30 mm above XY.

22

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

Example 1.3 A point C is 20 mm below HP and 30 mm behind VP. Draw its projections.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.10

To draw the projections Draw the reference line XY. Mark a point c at a distance of
20 mm below XY. Through this point draw a perpendicular line to XY and mark the top
view c at a distance of 30 mm above XY.
Example 1.4
projections.

A point D is 20 mm below HP and 30 mm in front of VP. Draw its

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.11

23

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

To draw the projections Draw the reference line XY. Mark a point d at a distance of
20 mm below XY. Through this point draw a perpendicular line to XY and mark the top
view d at a distance of 30 mm below XY.

BASICS OF STRAIGHT LINE

A straight line is the shortest route to join any two given points. It is a one-dimensional
object having only length (l).

Figure 1.12

The projections of a straight line are obtained by joining the top and front views of
the respective end points of the line. The actual length of the straight line is known as
true length (TL).

PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINE

A straight line is placed witlh reference to the planes of projections in the following
positions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Line
Line
Line
Line
Line
Line

perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP

perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP
parallel to both HP and VP
inclined to HP and parallel to VP
inclined to VP and parallel to HP
inclined to both HP and VP

In first angle projection method, the line is assumed to be placed in the first quadrant.
The projections of the line in the above mentioned positions are discussed below.

Projections of a Line kept Perpendicular to HP and Parallel to VP

Consider a straight line AB kept perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP (Fig. 1.13(i)). Its
front view is projected onto VP which is a line having true length. The top view is projected
onto HP which is a point, one end b of which is visible while the other end a is invisible
and is enclosed within ( ).

24

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.13

Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through 90 and is obtained in the
vertical position. The projections obtained are seen as given in Fig. 1.13 (ii). It is drawn
with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Draw the XY line.
2. Draw the front view ab, which is a line perpendicular to XY and having true
length (TL).
3. Project the top view ab. The end b is visible and the invisible end a is marked
inside ( ).

Projections of a Line kept Perpendicular to VP and Parallel to HP

Consider a straight line AB kept perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP (Fig. 1.14 (i)). Its
top view is projected onto HP which is a line having true length (TL). The front view is
projected onto VP which is a point, the end b of which is visible and the other end a is
invisible which is shown enclosed in ( ).

25

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through 90 and is obtained in the
vertical position. The projections obtained are seen as given in Fig. 1.14 (ii). It is drawn
with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Draw the XY line.
2. Draw the top view ab, a line perpendicular to XY and having true length (TL).
3. Project the front view ab. The end b is visible and the invisible end a is marked
inside ( ).

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.14

Projections of a Line kept Parallel to Both HP and VP

Consider a straight line AB kept parallel to both HP and VP (Fig. 1.15 (i)). Its front view
is projected onto VP which is a line having true length (TL). The top view is projected
onto HP which is also a line having true length.
Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through an angle of 90 and
is obtained in the vertical position. The projections obtained are seen as given in
Fig. 1.15 (ii). It is drawn with references to the XY line as follows.

26

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

1. Draw the XY line.

2. Draw the front view ab, a line parallel to XY and having true length (TL).
3. Project the top view ab which is also a line parallel to XY having true length (TL).

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.15

Projections of a Line kept Inclined to HP and Parallel to VP

Consider a straight line AB kept inclined to HP and parallel to VP (Fig. 1.16(i)).

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.16

27

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

Its front view is projected onto VP which is an inclined line at an angle to XY and
having true length (TL). The top view is projected onto HP which is also a line but smaller
than the true length and parallel to XY. The inclination of the line with HP is always
represented by the symbol .
Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through 90 and is obtained in the
vertical position. The projections obtained are seen as given in Fig. 1.16 (ii). It is drawn
with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Draw the XY line.
2. Draw the front view ab, a line inclined at an angle to XY and having true length
(TL)
3. Project the top view ab which is also a line parallel to XY and smaller than true
length.

Projections of a Line kept Inclined to VP and Parallel to HP

Consider a straight line AB kept inclined to VP and parallel to HP (Fig. 1.17 (i)). Its top
view is projected onto HP which is a line inclined at an angle to XY and having true
length (TL). The front view is projected onto VP which is also a line but smaller than
true length and is parallel to XY. The inclination of the line with VP is always represented
by the symbol f.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.17

Now the HP is rotated in the clockwise direction through an angle of 90 and

is obtained in the vertical position. The projections obtained are seen as given in
Fig. 1.17 (ii). It is drawn with reference to the XY line as follows.

28

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

1. Draw the XY line.

2. Draw the top view ab, a line inclined at an angle to XY and having true length
(TL).
3. Project the front view ab, which is also a line parallel to XY but smaller than
true length.

TRACE OF A LINE
The point of intersection or meeting of a line with the reference plane, extended if
necessary, is known as the trace of a line. The point of intersection of a line with the HP
is known as the horizontal trace, represented by HT and that with the VP is known as
the vertical trace, represented by VT. No trace is obtained when a line is kept parallel to
a reference plane. Note that HT always lies on plan or extanded plan, VT always lies on
elevation or extended elevation.
Example 1.5 A line AB 60 mm long has its end A 20 mm above HP and 30 mm in
front of VP. The line is kept perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. Draw its projections.
Also mark the traces.
Solution Assume that end A of the line is nearer to HP. The front view ab is a line
having true length. The top view is a point, the end b of which is visible and a is invisible
which is enclosed in ( ).
The line is extended to meet HP to obtain the horizontal trace (HT). No vertical trace
(VT) is obtained because the line is kept parallel to VP.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.18

29

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

The projections obtained are drawn with reference to XY line as shown in Fig. 1.18 (ii).
1. Mark the projections of the end A by considering it as a point. Its front view a
is 20 mm above XY and the top view a is 30 mm below XY.
2. The front view of the line ab is obtained by drawing a line perpendicular to XY
from a and having a length of 60 mm.
3. Top view of the line is obtained by projecting the other end b which coincides
with a. The invisible end a is enclosed in ( ).
4. The horizontal trace (HT) is marked coinciding with the top view of the line. No
vertical trace (VT) is obtained.
Example 1.6 A line AB 60 mm long has its end A 20 mm above HP and 30 mm in
front of VP. The line is kept perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP. Draw its projections.
Also mark the traces.
Solution Assume that end A of the line is nearer to VP. The top view ab is a line having
true length. The front view is a point, the end b of which is visible and a is invisible
which is enclosed in ( ).
The line is extended to meet VP to obtain the vertical trace (VT). No horizontal trace
(HT) is obtained because the line is kept parallel to HP.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.19

30

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

The projections obtained are drawn with reference to the XY line as shown in
Fig. 1.19 (ii).
1. Mark the projections of the end A by considering it as a point. Its front view a is
20 mm above XY and top view a is 30 mm below XY.
2. Top view of the line ab is obtained by drawing a line of length 60 mm perpendicular
to XY from a.
3. Front view of the line is obtained by projecting the other end b which concides
with a. The invisible end a is enclosed in ( ).
4. The vertical trace (VT) is marked coinciding with the front view of the line. No
horizontal trace (HT) is obtained.
Example 1.7 A line AB 60 mm long has its end A 20 mm above HP and 30 mm in
front of VP. The line is kept parallel to both HP and VP. Draw its projections.
Solution The front view ab and top view ab are lines having true lengths. No horizontal
and vertical traces are obtained because the line is kept parallel to both HP and VP.
The projections obtained are drawn with reference to the XY line as shown in
Fig. 1.20 (ii).
1. Mark the projections of end A by considering it as a point. Its front view a is
20 mm above XY and top view a is 30 mm below XY.
2. The front view of the line ab is obtained by drawing a line parallel to XY from a
having a length of 60 mm.
3. The top view of the line ab is obtained by drawing another line parallel to XY from
a, also of length 60 mm.
4. No traces are marked because the line is kept parallel to both HP and VP.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.20

31

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

Example 1.8 A line AB 60 mm long has its end A 20 mm above HP and 30 mm in

front of VP. The line is kept inclined at 40 to HP and parallel to VP. Draw its projections,
also mark the traces.
Solution The front view ab is a line inclined at an angle of 40 to XY having true length.
Top view ab is parallel to XY and smaller than true length.
The line is extended to meet HP to obtain the horizontal trace (HT). No vertical trace
(VT) is obtained because the line is kept parallel to VP.
The projections obtained are drawn with reference to the XY line as shown in
Fig. 1.21 (ii).
1. Mark the projections of end A by considering it as a point. Its front view a is
20 mm above XY and top view a is 30 mm below XY.
2. The front view of the line ab is obtained by drawing a line inclined at 40 to XY
from a and having a length of 60 mm.
3. The top view of the line ab is obtained by drawing a line parallel to XY from a and
drawing a vertical line (projector) from b. It is parallel to XY and smaller than the
true length.
4. To mark the horizontal trace (HT), the front view of the line ab is extended to
intersect with the XY line at h. Then by drawing a vertical line from h and a
horizontal line from the top view ab, the HT is located. No vertical trace (VT) is
obtained.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.21

32

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

Example 1.9 A line AB 60 mm long has its end A 20 mm above HP and 30 mm in

front of VP. The line is inclined at 40 to VP and parallel to HP. Draw its projections.
Also mark the traces.
Solution The top view ab is a line inclined at an angle of 40 to XY and having true
length. Its front view ab is parallel to XY and smaller than true length.
The line is extended to meet VP to obtain the vertical trace (VT). No horizontal trace
(HT) is obtained because the line is kept parallel to HP.
The projections obtained are drawn with reference to XY line as shown in Fig. 1.22(ii).
1. Mark the projections of end A by considering it as a point. Its front view a is
20 mm above XY and top view a is 30 mm below XY.
2. The top view of the line ab is obtained by drawing a line inclined at an angle 40
to XY from a and having a length of 60 mm.
3. The front view of the line ab is obtained by drawing a line parallel to XY from a
and drawing a vertical line (projector) from b. It is parallel to XY and smaller than
the true length.
4. To mark the vertical trace (VT) the top view of the line ab is extended to intersect
with XY line at v. Then by drawing a vertical line from v and a horizontal line
from ab, the VT is located. No horizontal trace (HT) is obtained.

(i)

(ii)
Figure 1.22

33

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

Tips to solve problems

When a line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other plane.
(a) When a line is inclined to HP and parallel to VP:
obtained as follows:

The projections are usually

There are three variables namely TL, and TV marked in the drawing. In a problem
usually any two variable values will be given and the third variable value can be obtained
graphically by completing the drawing as mentioned below. Draw the projections a and
a of the given end A.
(i) When TL and are given. Draw the front view ab from a using TL and . Top
view (TV) ab is projected and obtained by drawing a line parallel to the XY line
and a vertical line (projector) from b.
(ii) When TL and TV are given. Draw the top view ab using TV parallel to XY line.
Draw the vertical line (projector) from b. Using TL as radius and a as centre, mark
a point in the vertical line to get b. Join a and b to complete the front view ab
of the line. The inclination of ab with XY is measured to get .
(iii) When TV and are given. Draw the top view using the length of TV parallel to the
XY line. Draw the vertical line (projector) from b. Using the angle , draw a line
which intersects the projector at b. Join a and b to complete the front view ab
of the line. The length of ab is measured to get TL.

Figure 1.23

34

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

(b) When a line is inclined to VP and parallel to HP: The projections are usually
obtained as follows.
There are three variables namely TL, and FV marked in the drawing. In a problem
usually any two variable values will be given and the third variable value can be obtained
graphically by completing the drawing as mentioned below. Draw the projections a and
a of the given end A.

Figure 1.24

(i) When TL and are given. Draw the top view ab using TL and . The front view
(FV) ab is projected and obtained by drawing a line parallel to XY and a vertical
line (projector) from b.
(ii) When TL and FV are given. Draw the front view ab using FV parallel to the XY
line. Draw the vertical line (projector) from b. Using TL as radius and a as centre,
mark a point in the vertical line to get b. Join a and b to complete the top view ab
of the line. The inclination of ab with XY is measured to get .
(iii) When FV and are given. Draw the front view ab using FV parallel to the XY
line. Draw the vertical line (projector) from b. Using the angle , draw a line which
intersects with the projector at b. Join a and b to complete the top view ab of the
line. The length of ab is measured to get TL.

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

Space for Rough Work

35

36

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

37

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Problem 1. Draw the projections of the following points on a common reference line.
Take 30 mm distance between the projectors.
A, 35 mm above HP and 25 mm in front of VP.
B, 40 mm below HP and 15 mm behind VP.
C, 50 mm above HP and 25 mm behind VP.
D, 45 mm below HP and 20 mm in front of VP.
E, 30 mm behind VP and on HP.
F, 35 mm below HP and on VP.
G, on both HP and VP.
H, 25 mm below HP and 25 mm in front of VP.

Problem 2 A line EF 40 mm long has its end E 20 mm above HP and 15 mm in front

of VP. The line is inclined at 35 to VP and parallel to HP. Draw its projections.
Solution
The top view ef is a line inclined at an angle of 35 to XY and having true length. Its
front view ef is parallel to XY and smaller than true length.
The projections obtained are drawn with reference to XY line as follows.
1. Mark the projections of end E by considering it as a point. Its front view e is 20
mm above XY and top view e is 15 mm below XY.
2. The top view of the line ef is obtained by drawing a line inclined at an angle 35
to XY from a and having a length of 40 mm.
3. The front view of the line ef is obtained by drawing a line parallel to XY from e
and drawing a vertical line (projector) from f. It is parallel to XY and smaller than
the true length.

38

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

39

Problem 3 A line PQ 80 mm long has its end P 30 mm above HP and 15 mm in front

of VP. Its top view (plan) has a length of 50 mm. Draw its projections when the line is
kept parallel to VP and inclined to HP. Also find the inclination of the line with HP.
Solution
The projections of the line are drawn with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Mark the projections of end P by considering it as a point. Its front view p is
30 mm above XY and top view p is 15 mm below XY.
2. The top view of the line pq is drawn parallel to XY to the given length of 50 mm.
3. Draw a vertical line (projector) from q.
4. Using true length 80 mm as radius and p as center, mark a point in the vertical
line to get q. Join p and q to complete the front view pq of the line.
5. The inclination of pq with XY is measured to get .

Problem 4 A line PQ has its end P 25 mm above HP and 15 mm in front of VP. Its
plan has a length of 45 mm. The line is inclined at 45 to HP and parallel to VP. Draw
its projections and find the true length of the line.
Solution
The projections of the line are drawn with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Mark the projections of end P by considering it as a point. Its front view p is
25 mm above XY and top view p is 15 mm below XY.
2. The top view of the line pq is drawn parallel to XY to the given length of 45 mm.
3. Draw a vertical line (projector) from q.
4. Using the angle 45, draw a line from p to get the front view pq of the line.
5. The length of pq is measured to get the true length of the line.

40

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

41

Problem 5 A line GH 60 mm long has its end G 15 mm above HP and 20 mm in

front of VP. Its front view has a length of 40 mm. The line is kept parallel to HP and
inclined to VP. Draw its projections and find the true inclination of the line with VP.
Solution
The projections of the line are drawn with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Mark the projections of end G by considering it as a point. Its front view g is
15 mm above XY and top view a is 20 mm below XY.
2. The front view gh of the line is drawn parallel to XY for a length of 40 mm.
3. Draw a vertical line (projector) from h.
4. Using true length 60 mm as radius and g as centre, mark a point in the vertical
line to get h. Join g and h to complete the top view gh of the line.
5. The inclination of gh with XY is measured to get .

Problem 6 A straight line GH has its end G is 15 mm above HP and 20 mm in front

of VP. Its elevation has a length of 45 mm. The line is inclined at 50 to VP and parallel
to HP. Draw its projections and find the true length of the line.
Solution
The projections of the line are drawn with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Mark the projections of end G by considering it as a point. Its front view g is
15 mm above XY and top view g is 20 mm below XY.
2. The front view gh of the line is drawn parallel to XY for a length of 45 mm.
3. Draw a vertical line (projector) from h.
4. Draw a line to the given angle of 40 from g to complete the top view gh of the
line.
5. Measure the length of gh to get the true length of the line.

42

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

q = 50

Projections of Points and Straight Lines I

43

Problem 7 A line RS 70 mm long has its end R 20 mm above HP and 25 mm in front

of VP. The line is inclined to HP and parallel to VP. Draw its projections when the
distance between the projectors is 45 mm. Also mark the traces of the line.
Solution
The projections of the line are drawn with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Mark the projections of end R by considering it as a point. Its front view r is
15 mm above XY and top view r is 25 mm below XY.
2. The top view of the line rs is drawn parallel to XY to the given length of 45 mm.
Note that the distance between end projectors is equal to the length of top view.
3. Draw a vertical line (projector) from s.
4. Using true length 70 mm as radius and r as centre, mark a point in the vertical
line to get s. Join r and s to complete the front view r s of the line.
5. The inclination of r s with XY line is measured to get q.

Problem 8 A line EF 50 mm long is in VP and inclined to HP. The top view measures
30 mm. The end E is 10 mm above HP. Draw the projections of the line.
Solution
The projections obtained are drawn with reference to the XY line as follows.
1. Mark the projections of end E by considering it as a point. Its front view e is
10 mm above XY and top view e is on the XY line.
2. The top view of the line ef is obtained by drawing a line on XY from e to the given
length of 30 mm.
3. Draw a vertical line (projector) from f.
4. Using true length 50 mm as radius end e as centre, mark a point in the vertical
line to get f . Join e and f to complete the front view ef of the line.
5. The inclination of ef with XY line is measured to get .

44

Lesson Plan for Engineering Graphics

Space for Rough Work