CONICS SECTIONS AND SPECIAL CURVES

1. Define conics.
The conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that the ratio of its
distances from a fixed point (focus) and a fixed straight line (directrix) is always constant.

2. What will be the resulting shape of the section when the plane cuts the cone by a section plane parallel to
the axis of the cone?
Rectangular Hyperbola.

3. What do you mean by eccentricity is as applied to conic sections?

The ratio of the distance of the point P, from the focus F, divided by its perpendicular distance from the
   directrix is called eccentricity.

4. Name any four methods used to draw ellipse.

(i) Intersecting arc method (ii) Concentric circles method
(iii) Rectangle method (iv) Parallelogram method
(v) Four centres method

5. Name any four methods used to draw parabola.

(i) Rectangle method (ii) Parallelogram method
(iii) Tangent method (iv) Double ordinate method

6. Define involutes.
An involute is the locus of a point on a string, as the string unwinds itself from a line or polygon.

7. Define spirals.
Spiral is the locus of a point, which moves around a centre, called pole while moving away from the
centre.

8. Define epicycloids.
Epicycloids are a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls without slipping
on the outside of another circle.

9. Define cylindrical helix.

Cylindrical helix is defined as the locus of a point moving around and along the curved surface of a
cylinder with combined uniform angular and linear velocities, about and in the direction of the axis.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

1. Define projection.
The views of an object projected on an imaginary plane, by viewing it perpendicularly from the front, top
or side of the object are called as projection.

2. What do you mean by projection plane?

The plane in which an objects view is obtained is known as projection plane.

3. What are principal planes of projection?

The picture planes that are used for obtaining the orthographic projections are customarily called the
principal planes of projection or the reference planes.

4. What are vertical plane and horizontal plane?

The principal plane in front of the observer is the vertical plane (VP) and is denoted by as VP.
The other plane which is perpendicular to the VP is called the horizontal plane and is denoted by as HP.

5. What do you mean by profile plane?

The side view is obtained in profile plane which is perpendicular to both the vertical and horizontal
planes.

6. Define the front view and the top view.

Front view: The view of an object projected on vertical plane by viewing it perpendicularly from the
front side of the object. It is also called as Elevation.
Top view: The view of an object projected on horizontal plane by viewing it perpendicularly from the top
side of the object. It is also called as Plan.

7. Define Pictorial projection.

A three dimensional single view of the object obtained by the projection of the required object on a
single plane.

8. Define orthographic projection.

The projections of an object are perpendicular to the plane of projection on which the projection is
obtained; such a projection is called orthographic projection. It gives two dimensional view of the object.

9. What are the assumptions made in orthographic projection?

- The projections of an object are perpendicular to the plane of projection,
- Imaginary rays of vision sight from the observer’s eyes viewing the object from an infinite distance,
- The rays of vision is parallel to each other and perpendicular to the object and the projection plane.
10. What are projectors?
The straight lines drawn from various points on a contour of the object to meet the projection plane are
called as projectors.

11. What are the four quadrants?

When the planes of projection are extended beyond their line of intersection, they form four quadrants.
The four quadrants are named as I-quadrant, II- quadrant, III- quadrant and IV quadrant.

12. Sketch the symbols used to represent the first angle projection and the third angle projection.
Symbol for first angle projection Symbol for third angle projection

13. Define the methods, first - angle projection and third angle projection.
First Angle Projection: When the object is situated in the I-quadrant, the projection obtained is called
first angle projection. In first angle projection
- The object lies between the observer and the plane of projection.
- The object is situated above the HP and in front of the VP.
- The front view of the object comes above its top view with respect to the reference line.
Third Angle Projection: When the object is situated in the III- quadrant, the projection obtained is called
third angle projection. In third angle projection
- The planes of projection lie in between the object and observer.
- The object is situated below the HP and behind the VP.
- The top view of the object comes above its front view with respect to the reference line

14. What is a reference line?

The reference line is a line of intersection of vertical plane (VP) and horizontal plane (HP) and it is
represented using the letters XY.

15. What is freehand sketching?

Drawing prepared by a pencil without the use of the drawing instruments is called as free hand
sketching.

16. Why the second and fourth angle projections are not followed in practice?
Both the front and top views lies on one side of the reference line, which may causes confusion in
visualizing the object.
 PROJECTIONS

1. What do you mean by projection of a point and how it is obtained?

The perpendicular line is drawn from a point to meet the surface of the principal planes. The point of
intersection of the straight line with the plane is called the projection of the point on the plane.

2. A point A is 20 mm above HP and 15 mm in front of VP. State its positions of front view and top view
with reference to XY line
Front view 20 mm above XY line and top view 15 mm below the XY line.

3. Describe the position of a point in all the four quadrants.

First quadrant - Above HP and in front of VP
Second quadrant - Above HP and behind VP
Third quadrant - Below HP and behind VP
Fourth quadrant - Below HP and in front of VP

4. When does both the front and top view of projections of a point lie above XY line?
If the point is located in second quadrant then both the front and top view of projections of a point will
lie above the XY line.

5. Define a straight line?

Line drawn through the shortest distance between any two points is called a straight line.

6. What is apparent angle of inclination?

The angles of inclination of the front and top views of a straight line inclined to both the HP and VP are
known as apparent angles of inclination. These are denoted by α and β. These angles are always greater
than the true angles of inclination.

7. State the position which shows the true length of a line in front view.
If the line is parallel to VP, then the front view reveals the true length of the line.

8. State the position at which shows the true length of a line in top view.
If the line is parallel to HP, then the top view reveals the true length of the line.

9. When will be the projection of line lie along the same projector line?
When the sum of the inclination of the line with HP and VP is equal to 90° then the final front and top
view will lie on a single projector.

10. When will be the side view of projection of line will give the true length of the line?
     When the sum of the inclination of the line with HP and VP is equal to 90° then the side view will give
the true length of the line.
11. List the methods available to find the true length and inclinations of a straight line
 (i) Rotating line method (ii) Rotating trapezoidal plane method
12. State the projections of a line when it is parallel to both the HP and VP.
Both the front and top views are parallel to the reference line and having the true length of the line.

13. State the projections of a line when it is parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP.
The front view will be a point and the top view of the line will be perpendicular to the reference line XY.
The top view will have the true length line.

14. State the projections of a line when it is inclined to HP and parallel to VP.
The front and top views is inclined to the reference line XY and having the true length of the line.
The top view is parallel to the reference line and the length of the line is less than the true length.

15. What is the maximum sum of true angles of inclination? Why?

The maximum sum of true angles of inclination is 90°. Hence the horizontal and vertical planes
perpendicular to each other.

16. Define a plane?

A plane figure is a two dimensional object (surface area) having length and breadth only. Its thickness is
always neglected.

17. What do you mean by traces of a line?

The point of intersection of the line with the reference plane, extended if necessary is known trace of the
line.

18. What is horizontal trace of a line?

The point of intersection of the line with the HP is known as horizontal trace and it is denoted as HT.

19. What is vertical trace of a line?

The point of intersection of the line with the VP is known as vertical trace and it is denoted as VT.

20. What is the difference between regular and irregular plane?

A Regular plane has equal sides and an irregular plane has unequal sides.

21. A square lamina is held perpendicular to both the HP and VP. What is the shape of its projections?
Both the front and top views are straight line and will lie on the same projector.

22. A circular lamina is held inclined to both the HP and VP. What is the shape of its projections?
Both the front and top view is ellipse.

23. What will be the front and top view of a rectangular lamina whose side view gives its true shape?
Both the front and top view are straight lines and are perpendicular to the reference line.
24. Define a solid?
An object having three dimensions like length, breath and height is called a solid.

25. How many views are required to represent an object in orthographic projection? Explain the views used
to represent the length, breadth, and height.
Minimum two views are required. Front view is used to represent length and height. Top view is used to
represent length and breadth. Sometimes the above two views are not sufficient to represent the details.
So the third view called as side view is required.

26. How do you classify the solids?

(i) Polyhedra (ii) Solids of revolution

27. What is the projection of a solid on a plane?

Various points on the boundary of an object are projected on a plane. Then, the points of intersection
of the projectors with the plane are joined in proper order. The resulting figure is called the projection
of the object on the plane.
28. Define the terms polyhedron?
A solid, which is bounded by plane surfaces or faces, is called a polyhedron.

29. How do you classify the polyhedra?

(i) Regular polyhedra (ii) Prisms (iii)Pyramids

30. Give some examples of regular polyhedron.

(i) Tetrahedron (ii) Hexahedron (iii)Octahedron

31. What is an octahedron?

A regular polyhedral bounded by eight equal equilateral triangles is called as octahedron.

32. What is meant by prisms? Give some examples.

A prism has two equal and similar end faces called the top and the bottom faces. The rectangular faces
connecting the top and bottom faces are called lateral or side faces.
Examples are
(a) Triangular prism (b) Square prism
(c) Rectangular prism (d) Hexagonal prism

33. What is meant by pyramids? Give some examples.

A pyramid has a base and an equal number of isosceles triangular faces that meet at a common point is
called as vertex or apex. The line joining the apex and a corner of its base is called the slant edge. Some
of the pyramids are given below.
(a) Triangular pyramid (b) Square pyramid
(c) Rectangular pyramid (d) Hexagonal pyramid
34. Define vertex, base, slant edge of a pyramid.
Vertex: All the isosceles triangular faces of the pyramid meets at a common point called vertex or apex.
Base: The bottom face of the pyramid is called as base.
Slant Edge: The line joining the apex and a corner of its base is called the slant edge.

35. How the cylinder, cone and sphere are obtained?

Cylinder is obtained by the revolution of a rectangular surface about one of its longer sides, which
remains fixed.
Cone is obtained by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about one of its perpendicular sides, which
remains fixed.
Sphere is obtained by the revolution of a semi-circle about its diameter that remains fixed.

36. How to obtain the projections of a solid when its axis is inclined to the HP and parallel to the VP?
Its projections are obtained in two stages.
First, the projection of solid in the initial simple position is drawn such that the solid is assumed to be
kept with its axis perpendicular to the HP.
Second the front view is tilted to the required angle and the second top view is projected from the
tilted front view.

37. Describe the change of position method.

In this method, the projection of solid in simple position is drawn at the first stage.
If the axis of the solid is inclined to any one of the plane then the second stage projection is obtained by
changing the first stage projection to the required position.
If the axis of the solid is inclined to both the planes then the third stage projection is drawn by tilting the
second stage projection to the required position.

38. Describe the change of reference method.

In this method, the projection of solid in simple position is drawn at the first stage.
If the axis of the solid is inclined to any one of the plane then the second stage projection is obtained
with one auxiliary plane by tilting the auxiliary plane to the required angle.
If the axis of the solid is inclined to both HP and VP, then the final front and top view is obtained with
two auxiliary planes.

39. What will be the shape of projections of a sphere?

Projection of a sphere is always a circle and the diameter of the circle is equal to that of the sphere.

40. What will be the shape of projection of a hemisphere when it rests on flat surface on HP?
Its front view is a semi-circle and top view is a circle.
 SECTIONS OF SOLID

1. Define sectioning of an object.

The process of cutting the object by an imaginary cutting plane and removing the portion between the
observer and the cutting plane is known as sectioning. It helps to know the interior details of the
complex object.

2. What are the uses of sectioning?

• To show the interior details of the component clearly.
• To show the cross section of the exterior shape of objects like connecting rod with elliptic
configuration,
• To enhance the use of drawing at the time of machine assembly.

3. Define a cutting plane or section plane.

The imaginary plane, which is assumed to cut the object as required, is called a cutting plane or a section
plane.

4. What do you mean by sectional front view?

When the section plane is parallel to vertical plane and perpendicular to horizontal plane then the
sectional view obtained in front view is known as sectional front view.

5. What are the types of section

Sections can be classified into two types. They are
(i) Apparent section: Apparent section is the projection of the section of a solid cut by a plane that is
inclined to horizontal plane or vertical plane.
(ii) True shape of section: True shape of section of a solid is obtained by viewing the object normal to
the section and projecting the section on a plane parallel to it.

6. Define frustum.
When a solid is cut by a cutting plane parallel to its base, the remaining portion obtained after removing
the top portion is called frustum.

7. Define truncated solid.

When a solid is cut by a cutting plane inclined to its base, the remaining portion obtained after removing
the top portion is called truncated solid.

8. What is the true shape obtained when a cone is cut by a cutting plane parallel to its base?
Circle

9. Where can we get the apparent section, when an object is cut by a plane perpendicular to HP and
inclined to VP?
The apparent section will be seen in the front view.
 Development of Surfaces

1. What do you mean by development of surfaces?

Development of surfaces of an object means the imaginary representation of the unfolding of all the
surfaces of the object such that all of them lie together on one common plane.

2. What are the two methods of development of surfaces?

(i) Parallel line development (ii) Radial line development

3. List the types of solids that cannot be developed accurately.

Solids bounded by warped (like hyperboloid, conoid) and double curved surfaces (like sphere, paraboloid)
cannot be developed accurately.

4. Give some applications of development of surfaces.

(i) In sheet-metal work for funnels, chimneys, ventilating pipes, boilers, ducts, etc.
(ii) Mainly used in automobile, aeroplane and ship building.

5. Describe the parallel line development.

Two parallel lines spaced at a distance equal to the height of the object are drawn at the side of the front
view called stretch out lines. The length of the stretch out lines which is equal to the perimeter of the object
is drawn at the top and bottom side of the lateral surface respectively.

6. For what type of solids, may the parallel line development method be followed?
Parallel line development method is used for the development of cubes, prisms and cylinders.

7.Describe the radial line development.

Arc of radius equal to the length of slant edge of the pyramid or extreme generator of the cone is required
to develop the surface of the object.

8. For what type of solids, may the radial line development method be followed?
This method of development is used for pyramids and cones.

9. Describe the cone development.

The developed view of a cone will be the sector of a circle whose radius R will be equal to the true length
of the slant generator and the length of the sector arc equal to the circumference of the base of cone.
The angle of the sector can be found by using the following formula
θ = Radius of the base circle / True length of the extreme generator

10. Why only the true length of the object is used in development of surfaces?
In sheet metal work, the exact size and shape of the sheet is to be cut. Hence the development of surfaces is

drawn to the actual sizes.

 INTERSECTION OF SOLIDS

1. Give the applications of intersection of surfaces.

(a) Sheet metal works (b) Automobile body building (c) Ship building (d) Aircraft construction (e) Pipe
fittings

2. What do you mean by line of intersection of surfaces?

The two surfaces of the solid meeting at a line common to both the surfaces is known as the line of
intersection of surfaces..

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

1. Define isometric projection.

An isometric projection of an object is a single view on the plane of projection. In isometric projection, the
object is placed so that all its principal axes are equally inclined to the plane of projection.

2. Define isometric axes

The lines AB, AD and AE meeting at the point A and making an angle of 120° with each other are called
the isometric axes.

3. Define isometric lines and non isometric lines

Lines parallel to any of the isometric axes are termed as isometric lines.
Lines that are not parallel to any of the isometric axes are termed as non isometric lines.

4. Define isometric planes

Plane which are parallel to the planes containing the isometric axes are termed as isometric planes
5. Define isometric scale
The isometric length is less than the actual length of an object. The isometric length is 0.82 times the true
length of the object.

6. State the difference between isometric view and isometric Projection

Isometric view Isometric Projection

The picture drawn to the actual size The picture is drawn to isometric scale

The lines parallel to the isometric axes that The lines parallel to the isometric axes that
represent the object are drawn to true lengths. represent the object are foreshortened to
 0.82 times the actual length.

7. What are the methods available to obtain the isometric projections?

(i) Box method (ii) Co-ordinate or offset method

8. For what types of solids is box method used?

Box method is used for Prisms, frustum and truncated solids.

9. For what types of solids is co-ordinate method used?

Co-ordinate method is used for cone and pyramids.

10.Explain how the isometric projections are drawn using box method?
In box method the given solid is enclosed in a box whose edges will be parallel to the isometric axes. All
the measurements are made parallel to the main edges of the box.

11. What are the methods available to draw a circle in isometric projections? What is the shape of circle?
The methods available to draw a circle in isometric projections
(i) Method of points (ii) Four centre method
The shape of circle in isometric projection is an ellipse.

PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

1. What do you mean by perspective projection?

Perspective projection is a method of pictorial projection and in this method the three dimensional object is
represented in a single view. Its shows the three dimensional objects as they appear to the eye.

2. Define picture plane.

It is a transparent plane situated between the observer and the object, which is to be viewed. The
perspective is formed on this picture plane.

3. Define the terms, horizon line, ground line and centre of vision.
Horizon line: The line in which the horizon plane intersects the picture plane. It is parallel to the ground
line.
Ground line: The line of intersection of the picture plane with the ground plane is called the ground line.
Centre of vision: The point in which the picture plane is pierced by the perpendicular axis is called the
centre of vision.

4. What are the methods used to draw perspective projections?

(i) Visual ray method (ii) Vanishing point method

5. What do you mean by vanishing point?

Based on the optical illusion, all parallel edges of an object converges to a single point is known as
vanishing point.

6. Explain the visual ray method?

In this method two views of the object are required to develop a perspective view. Corners and edges of the

top view are connected to the station point by visual rays and the intersection points of the visual rays with
the picture plane are determined. Corners and edges of side view are connected to the centre of vision by
visual rays. The intersection points of visual rays with the picture plane are determined. The intersection
points of top and side views are projected to get the perspective view.