Short notes

 Scale: A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of object as represented in drawing to the
actual dimensions of the object itself.

 Full size drawing: When linear dimensions of object as represented in drawing is equal to the actual
dimensions of the object itself, said to be a full size drawing or the scale of drawing is 1:1.

 Nature of scale or scale of drawing: It may not be always possible to prepare full size drawings, so they
are drawn proportionately smaller or larger than the actual size of object.
1. When the drawings are drawn smaller than the actual size of object (as in case of buildings, bridges,
large machines etc), the scale used is said to be a Reducing Scale.
2. When the drawings are drawn larger than the actual size of object (as in case of small machine,
machine of watches etc), the scale used is said to be an Enlarging Scale.

 Expression of scale: The scale can be expressed in following three ways:

1. Engineer’s scale: In this case, the relation between the dimension on the drawing and the actual
dimension of the object is mentioned numerically in the style as 10mm = 5m etc.
2. Graphical scale: when the scale of drawing is drawn on the drawing itself is said to be graphical scale.
We can measure the drawing by using graphical scale with the help of divider.
3. Representative fraction or factor: It is the ratio of the length of the object represented on the
drawing to the actual length of object represented is called the representative fraction.

When, When,
Actual length of object = 1m. Actual length of object = 2mm.
Length of drawing = 1cm Length of drawing = 1cm
→ →
Then scale of drawing is 1:100 (Reducing scale) Then scale of drawing is 5 : 1 (Enlarging scale)

 Type of scale : The scale used in practice are classified as under:

1. Plain scales: A plain scale consists of a line divided in to suitable number of equal part or units, the
first of which is sub-divided into smaller parts. Plain scales represent either two units or a unit and its
sub-division.
2. Diagonal scales: A diagonal scale is used when very minute distances such as 0.1 mm etc are to be
accurately measured or when measurement are required in three units, for example, dm, cm and mm
or yard, foot and inch.
3. Comparative scales: Scale having same representative fraction but graduated to read different units
are called comparative scales. A drawing drawn with a scale reading inch units can be read in metric
units by means of metric comparative scale, constructed with the same representative fraction.
Comparative scales may be plain scales or diagonal scales and may be constructed separately or one
above the other.
4. Vernier scales: Vernier scales, like diagonal scales, are used to read to a very small unit with great
accuracy. A vernier scale consist of two parts- a primary scale and a vernier. The primary scale is plain
scale fully divided into minor divisions. As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor division in the
ordinary way, it is done with the help of the vernier. The graduations on the vernier are derived from
those on the primary scale.
5. Scale of chords: The scale of chords is used to set out or measure angles when a protector is not
available. It is based in the lengths of chords of different angles measured on the same arc.

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  Regular polygon: A polygon which have all side equal and angles between two adjacent are also equal
known as regular polygon. Example : regular hexagon, regular octagon etc. (make diagram)

 Ogee curve: An ogee curve or a reverse curve is a combination of two same

curves in which the second curve has a reverse shape to that of the first curve. In
other words, any curve or line consist of a continuous double curve with the
upper part convex and lower part concave, to some extent having shape of “S”.
Figure 1: Ogee curve
 Regular polygon: A polygon which have all side equal and angles between two adjacent are also equal
known as regular polygon. Example : regular hexagon, regular octagon etc. (make diagram)

 Conic section: The section obtained by the intersection of a plane in different position with a right circular
cone.

Figure 2: Conic section

1. Ellipse is a conic section which is produced, when the section plane is inclined to the axis and cuts all
the generators
2. Parabola is a conic section which is produced, when the section plane is inclined to the axis and
parallel to one of the generators.
3. Hyperbola is a conic section which is produced, when two cone that point towards one another are
intersected be a plane that is parallel to the axis of the cone. A hyperbola is a plane curve having two
separate parts or branch.

 Helix: Helix is defined as a curve generated by a point, moving around

the surface of a right circular cylinder or a right circular cone in such a
way that its movement in the direction of the axis of the cylinder or
cone is uniform with its movement around the surface of the
cylinder or the cone. The axial advance of point during one
complete revolution is called the pitch of the helix.
Figure 3: Helix and its pitch
 Loci of points: a locus (plural loci) is the path of a point which moves in space. Also known as Line.

 Orthographic projection: Practical solid geometry deals with the

representation of points, line, planes and solid on a flat surface,
in such a manner that their relative positions and true forms can
be accurately determined by using the method of projection.
When the projectors are parallel to each other and also
perpendicular to plane, the projection is called orthographic
projection.
In other words, a method of projection in which an object is
depicted using parallel lines to project its outline on to a plane. Figure 4: Orthographic projection, reference
plane, reference line

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  Reference plane or projection plane: The two planes employed for the purpose of orthographic
projection are called reference plane or principal planes of
projection. They intersect each other at right angle. The vertical
plane of projection is denoted by V.P. or F.P. (frontal plane) and
the horizontal plane of projection denoted by H.P.

 Reference line or ground line: The line in which the projection

planes intersect is termed as the reference line (XY) or ground line
(G.L.)

 Four quadrants of projection: When the planes of projection are

extended beyond the line of intersection, they form four
quadrants. The object may be situated in any one of the quadrants,
its position relative to the plane being described as “above the HP
or below the HP” and “in front of VP or behind the VP”
Figure 5: Four quadrants

 First angle projection: When the object situated in front of the VP and above the HP i.e. in the first
quadrants and then projected it on these planes. This method of projection is known as first angle
projection method. This method of projection is now recommended by bureau of Indian standards (BIS)
form 1991.

 Third angle projection: In this method of projection, the object is assumed to be situated in third
quadrant i.e. below HP and behind VP. This method of projection is known as third angle projection
method. This method of projection is used in USA and other countries.

First angle projection Third angle projection

Figure 6: First angle projection and third angle projection

 Third angle projection: In this method of projection, the

object is assumed to be situated in third quadrant i.e.
below HP and behind VP. This method of projection is
known as third angle projection method. This method of
projection is used in USA and other countries.

 True length of line: When a line is parallel to a plane, its

projection on that plane will show its true length and the
true inclination with the other plane.

 Traces of a line: When a line is inclined to a plane, it will Figure 7: Trace of line
meet that plane, produced it if necessary. The point in which the line or line produced meets the plane is
called its trace. The point of intersection of the line with the HP is called the Horizontal trace (HT), and
the point of intersection of the line with VP is called the Vertical trace (VT).

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  Planes: Geometrical shape that have only two dimension, i.e. length and breadth and they do not have
thickness known as planes. Planes may be divided into two main types: (a) perpendicular planes (b)
oblique planes.

 Perpendicular planes: Planes perpendicular to the reference plane known as perpendicular planes.
Perpendicular planes can be divided into following sub categories:
1. Perpendicular to both the reference plane
2. Perpendicular to one reference plane and parallel to the other
3. Perpendicular to one plane and inclined to other

Figure 8: Perpendicular plane

 Oblique plane: Planes which are inclined to both the reference planes are called oblique planes.

 Solid: geometrical forms having three dimensions, i.e. length, breadth and thickness (height) termed as
solid.

 Type of solid: Solid may be divided into two main groups.

1. Polyhedra or polyhedron
2. Solid of revolution.

 Polyhedron: A solid bounded by planes (faces) known as the polyhedron. When all the faces are equal
and regular, the polyhedron is said to be regular. There are seven type of regular polyhedron.
1. Tetrahedron: It has four equal faces, each an equilateral triangle.
2. Cube or Hexahedron: It has six faces, all are equal squares.
3. Octahedron: It has eight equal equilateral triangles as faces.
4. Dodecahedron: It has twelve equal and regular pentagons as faces.
5. Icosahedrons: It has twelve faces, all equilateral triangles.
6. Prism: This is a polyhedron having two equal and similar faces called its ends or bases, parallel to each
other and joined by other faces which are parallelograms.
7. Pyramid: This is a polyhedron having a plane figure as a base and a number of triangular faces meeting
at a point called the Vertex or Apex(highest point of the pyramid)

Slant height

Figure 9: Polyhedron

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  Axis: The imaginary line joining the apex of pyramid with the centre of the base or the imaginary line
joining the centre of the both bases of the prism known as Axis.

 Slant height: the slant height of a pyramided is the distance between the apex and the centre of the side
of the base.

 Solids of revolution: A solid of revolution is a solid form obtained by rotating a plane around a straight
line (the axis of revolution).

1. Cylinder: A right circular cylinder is a solid generated by

the revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides which
remains fixed. It has two circular bases. The line joining the
centres of the bases is the axis which is perpendicular to
the bases.
2. Cone: A right circular cone is a solid generated by the
revolution of a right angle triangle about one of its Figure 10: Solids of revolution
perpendicular sides which is fixed. It has one circular base its axis joins the apex with the centre of the
base to which it is perpendicular.
3. Sphere: A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter as the axis.
The midpoint of the diameter is the centre of the sphere. All points on the surface of sphere are
equidistant from its centre.

 Generators: The imaginary straight lines drawn on the surface of cone from the apex to the
circumference of the base circle or imaginary perpendicular lines on the surface of cylinder from a point
on circumference of one base to the point on second base known as generators .

 Frustum: When a pyramid or a cone is cut

by plane parallel to its base, thus removing
the top portion, the remaining portion is
called its frustum.

 Truncated or Elongated frustum: when a

pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane inclined
to the base. The remaining portion of it
known as truncated/elongated frustum. Figure 11: Frustum and truncated frustum

 Section plane: A section plane or a cutting plane is the imaginary plane which
represents that, the object is being cut through or sectioned by it. The part of the
object between the cutting plane and observer is assumed to be removed and the view
is then shown in section.

 True shape of a section: The projection of the section on a plane parallel to the section
plane will show the true shape of the section. But when the section plane is inclined,
the section has to be projected on an auxiliary plane parallel to the section plane, to
obtain its true shape. When the section plane is perpendicular to both the reference
plane, the sectional side view will show the true shape of the section. Figure 12: True shape

 Development of surfaces: Imagine that a solid is enclosed in a wrapper of thin

material such as Paper. If this covering opened out and lay on a flat plane, the
flattened-out paper is the development of the solid. Only the surface polyhedron
such as prism and pyramid and single curved surfaces such as cone and cylinders
can be accurately developed. Double curved surfaces like sphere are Figure 13: Development of
undevelopable. These can however be approximately develop by dividing them up surface
into a numbers of parts.

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