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JRE420 Reading Notes PDF
JRE420 Reading Notes PDF
Karim Bounekhla
Problems
-
Resistance to chance
Lack of cohesiveness
Communication problems
Interpersonal conflicts
Slower decision making
>Ethical Theories
helps us understand, evaluate and classify moral arguments
1) Consequential Theories of Ethics
Consequential Theories = emphasize the consequence or result of a
behavior
Consequence of action determines if its good or bad
Must maximize good effects for greater amount of people
Corporations often subscribe to this ethics
2) Rule-based Theories of Ethics
Karim Bounekhla
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability
Openness to experience
3) Thinking/Feeling
a. Describes the way we prefer to make decisions
b. Thinking type (T) makes decisions in logical, objective way
i. Male more likely to be thinking
ii. Show less emotion, and less confortable with others
emotional expressions
iii. Respond more readily to others thoughts
iv. Firm minded, and like to put things in logical framework
c. Feeling Type (F) makes decision in personal, value-oriented way
i. Female more likely to be feeling
ii. Base decisions on how the outcome will affect those
involved
iii. More confortable with emotions in workplace
iv. Enjoy pleasing people and receiving praise
4) Judging/Perceiving
a. Reflects ones orientation to the outer world
b. Judging Type (J) loves closure
i. Prefer to lead planned, organized lives
ii. Like to make decisions
a. Social context
i. Where meeting takes place (informal or formal, etc.)
b. Strength of situational cues
i. Some situation provide strong cues on how to act, others
dont (strong vs weak situations)
ii. We can then assume that the individuals behaviour is
accounted by the situation (Discounting principle)
iii. E.g. salesmen acting all nice
>Barriers to Social Perception
prevent us from perceiving others accurately
1) Selective Perception
a. Our tendency to prefer information that support our viewpoint of
the person or situation
b. We often ignore or dismiss information that threaten viewpoint
2) Stereotype
a. Generalization about a group of people
b. Reduces information about others to a workable level (simple)
c. Much stronger when they are validated by others
d. Can be negative because they generate false impressions that
are not proven
e. E.g. assume that co-workers from less-developed countries know
less
f. The way we treat others due to stereotype can also help confirm
the behavior we thought they had (e.g. treat hot girl nicely, she
will act nice in return)
3) First-impression error
a. Occurs when we observe brief bit of a persons behaviour and
base that on what theyre like
b. Important to give good first in interviews for example
4) Recency effect
a. Opposite of first-impression error
b. Describes tendency to weigh recent event more heavily than
earlier events
c. E.g. working harder before job evaluation to get a raise
5) Contrast effect
a. Rather be with someone inferior to look better in contrast, than
with someone to overshadow you
6) Projection
a. False-consensus effect misperception of commonness of our
own beliefs, values and behaviors that lead us to overestimate
the numbers of others who share them
b. Assume that others are similar to us, and if not then theyre
deviant
7) Self-fulfilling prophecies
a. Also called Pygmalion effect
b. Expectations affect the way we interact with someone, and we
get what we wished for
c. E.g. thinking that someone is smart, so you give him challenging
work and push him to grow, makes him smarter
d. Managers can improve productivity this way by expecting
positive results from everyone
>Impression Management
process by which individuals try to control the impressions others have of
them
Examples:
- name-dropping (casually mentioning important people or institution)
- face time, appearing to be putting in longer hours at work
- Ensuring everyone knows of your accomplishments
- Flattery and favours, agreeing, being a kiss-ass
>Attribution Theory
explains how we pinpoint the causes of our own behaviour and that of other
people
1) Internal and External Attributions
a. Can attribute events to internal source (individuals control) or
outside source (circumstances or situation)
b.
c.
d.
e.
Karim Bounekhla
Measured by
psychological
indicators, verbal
statements or feelings
I hate my boss
Measured by observed
behaviour and verbal
statements about
intentions
I want to change
jobs
Cognition (C)
Measured by attitude
scales and verbal
statement about beliefs
My boss is biased
towards me at work
* Emotional component of
attitude
*Reflects a persons
perceptions or beliefs
o Supervision/Co-workers
Job Description Index (JDI) and Minnesota Satisfaction
Questionnaire (MSQ) used to survey job satisfaction
However, if job satisfaction is low; survey wont tell you why
Things that make employees more satisfied
o Good relation with management and co-workers
o Good pay and job security
o Interesting work
More educated people may want more interesting jobs
Less educated just want the money
Misfit between individual and organizational value leads to no
satisfaction
Personality also affect this
o High core self-evaluation will be more satisfied
o People with negative affectivity will be less satisfied
More job satisfaction = more productivity (many exceptions tho)
Employees who get rewarded based on performance tend to
perform better
Job satisfaction does not predict individual performance well, but
rather that of the overall organization
Non-satisfied workers lead to other factors
o Skip work
o Quit job (lead to needing replacement)
o More health and psychological problems
satisfaction
Workplace Deviance any voluntary counterproductive behaviour
that violates organizational norms and causes harm to the org.
o Occur when employees are dissatisfied
o Also triggered by negative events (layoffs, downsizing,
unfairness etc.)
Lying
Conflict of
Interest/Influence buying
Cheating
Personal Decadence
Interpersonal abuse
Organizational abuse
Rule violations
Ethical dilemmas
undesirable options
Corporate Social Responsibility Companies do nice things for the
community to build good reputation (E.g. Tim Hortons children camps)
>Factors that Affect Ethical Behaviour
Ethical decision making requires:
Competence to identify ethical issues and evaluate the
consequences of alternate courses of action
Self-confidence to seek out different opinions about the issues and
decide what is right in terms of a particular situation
Tough-mindedness, or the willingness to make decisions when all
that needs to be known cannot be known and when the ethical
issue has no established solution
1) Values
a. Enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or end state of
existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode
of conduct or state of existence.
b. Values can change as we grow older and develop sense of self,
also culture and society shapes your values.
c. Employer need to understand workers value, not try to change
them
d. Values change with time and culture (E.g. some culture value
family over work)
e. Work values ! influence individual perception of right/wrong on
the job (e.g. coworker values privacy less than his productivity
so he snoops in your desk to get something done faster)
2) Locus of Control
a. Recall that internal locus ! believe that your situation is affected
by you
b. Internal locus more likely to take responsibility for their ethical
or unethical behaviour, and more likely to be ethical too.
c. Internals also less likely to be influenced in doing unethical
3) Machiavellianism
a. A personality characteristic indicating ones willingness to do
whatever it takes to get ones own way
i. Manipulating others is the best way to achieve power
b. High-Mach individual ! thinks its better to be feared than loved
i. Cynical, deceitful and dont care for right and wrongs
c. Low-Mach individual ! less likely to manipulate and are
concerned with others
d. Can counter Mach behaviour by promoting team work rather
than one-on-one relationships.
4) Cognitive Moral Development
a. Process of moving through stages of maturity in terms of making
ethical decisions
b. With each stage, become less dependent on other peoples
opinion of right and wrong
i. Level 1 (Premoral) : Ethical behaviour based on selfinterest
ii. Level 2 (Conventional) : Ethical behaviour based on others
expectations
iii. Level 3 (Principled) : Ethical behaviour based on universal
values
Karim Bounekhla
Theory
3) Love/Social Needs
a. Opportunity to work in teams, social interactions/activities
4) Esteem Needs
a. Opportunity for responsibility and advancement
b. Recognition
c. Challenging goals
5) Self-actualization Needs
a. Opportunity for creative and challenging tasks
b. Autonomy to pursue own interest
Maslow model not useful for predicting individual needs (too many
exceptions) ! but important in prompting people that upper level needs
(3+) are also important
3) ERG Theory (By Alderfer)
Groups needs in three basic category : Existence, relatedness and growth
Alderfers Regression hypothesis when people are frustrated by their
inability to meet needs at next higher level, they regress to the next lower
category and intensify need to gratify these days.
>McClellands Need Theory
Identifies three learned needs, acquired through upbringing.
! Need for achievement, power and affiliation
These needs are subconscious, people cant just say which is more important
1) Need for Achievement
a. Need that concerns individuals desire for excellence,
competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming
difficulties.
b. People with this need perform best
c. Three unique characteristics:
i. Set goals that are moderately difficult, yet achievable
d.
2) Need
a.
b.
3) Need
a.
Resolution of Inequity
Alter the persons outcome (e.g. ask for more)
Alter the persons input (e.g. work les)
Alter the comparison others outcomes (e.g. ask that other get less)
Alter the comparison others input (e.g. make other work harder)
Change who is used as a comparison (e.g. compare to another)
Rationalize the inequity (e.g. try to justify why)
Leave the organizational situation (e.g. quit)
New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Equity sensitive An individual who prefers an equity ratio equal to that of
other
Benevolent An individual who is comfortable with equity ratio less than
that of other
Entitled An individual who is comfortable with equity ratio greater than
other
People also sensitive to :
Procedural justice Fairness in how things are done
Interactional justice Fairness in how people are treated
>Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Equity ! social exchange process
Expectancy ! personal perceptions of the performance process
Valence the value or importance one places on a particular reward
Expectancy The belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality The belief that performance is related to reward
EFFORT (Expectancy what are the chances I get the job done with efforts)
! PEFORMANCE (Instrumentality what are the chances of getting a
reward if I perform well) ! REWARD (Valence what rewards do I value)
Important that employee see a strong link between effort and results
Goal setting The process of establishing desired results that guide and
direct behaviour
People with specific challenging goals > people with do your best mentality
or no goals at all
Karim Bounekhla
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=slfFJXVAepE&feature=youtu.be Taylor
on ABC World Report
Job Enlargement/Job Rotation
Job enlargement Method of job design that increases the number
of activities in a job to overcome boredom
Job Rotation Variation of enlargement where workers are exposed
to a variety of specialized jobs over time
Job Enrichment
Job enrichment Designing or redesigning jobs by incorporating
motivating factors into them
E.g. enriching lathe operator job by making him meet customers
CRITICAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL
STATES
PERSONAL AND
WORK OUTCOMES
Experienced
meaningfulness of the
work
Autonomy >>>>>>
Experience
responsibility for
Organization cant forget impact of hygiene factors (e.g. Employee can leave
perfectly designed job if he is not satisfied)
Skills and abilities must also be taken into consideration (e.g. highly
motivated worker can be unproductive if he doesnt understand the task)
GNS (Growth need strength) ! desire to grow and fully develop ones
abilities.
High GNS = thrive in job with variety and challenges
>Importance of Experienced Meaningfulness
JCM brings evidence that experience meaningfulness at work is
important
More meaningfulness ! more motivated to go to work, increased
output
Enhance meaningfulness:
o Bring workers in contact with those who benefit from work
o Giving feedback, autonomy, skill variety, task identity
JCM
Skill Variety Degree to which a job uses different skills
Task Significance Degree to which a job has an impact on others
Task Identity Degree to which a job requires the completion of a whole
or identifiable part
Autonomy Degree to which a job provides freedom in decision making
Feedback from job itself Degree to which job provides clear information
about the effectiveness of performance
>Expanding Job Characteristic Model
New model still include original JCM core dimensions, but add task variety
and divides autonomy into three types:
>work scheduling
>work methods
>decision-making.
Also adds three board categories:
>social characteristics
degree of interdependence between employees job and the job of
others
extent of interaction outside the organization
degree of social support and feedback from others
>knowledge characteristic
complexity
information processing
problem solving
specialization
Note: high knowledge demand lead to satisfaction BUT also feeling
of overload
>work context characteristics
physical demands
work conditions
ergonomics
Pg 237+, other learning outcomes not discussed. Just read it.
Karim Bounekhla
4) Psychoanalytic Approach
a. Believed that two elements of the personality interact to cause
stress
i. Ego-ideal Embodiment of a persons perfect self
1. Admirable attributes of parental personalities
2. Desired and/or imaginable qualities
3. Absence of any negative qualities
ii. Self-image How a person sees himself, both positively
and negatively
b. Stress results from discrepancy between ego-ideal and selfimage. Big difference = big stress
>The Stress Response
Body releases chemicals (adrenaline etc.)
Person shifts from neutral posture to offensive posture
Too much stress = bad, causes cardiovascular diseases and spreads
AIDS
>Sources of Work Stress
1) Work Demands
a. Task Demands
i. Technological innovation creates change and uncertainty
for many employees, requiring additional skill and
education
ii. technostress: people wonder if machine will replace them
iii. Technology blurs line between work and social life (e.g.
replying to work emails at home)
iv. Lack of control also major task-related source of stress,
can be caused by inability to..
1. Influence timing of tasks and activities
2. Select tools or methods for accomplishing work
3. Make decisions that influence work outcomes
4. Exercise direct action to affect the work outcomes
d. Physical Demands
i. E.g. Extreme environments, strenuous activities,
hazardous substances, and travel
ii. Ambient temperature also play role
iii. Business travel ! some pros, but a lot of cons (jet lag, no
sleep)
iv. Noisy workplace (e.g. stockbrokers) also cause more stress
v. Working with computers ! bugs, eyestrain, back pain
vi. Office designs with cubicles add stress, little privacy
2) Nonwork Demands
a. Home Demands
i. Work-family conflicts
ii. Traditional families may experience demands that create
role conflicts at work (or overload)
iii. Loss of good daycare ! dual-career family stress
b. Personal Demands
i. Self-imposed personal demands cause stress
ii. Workaholism An imbalanced preoccupation with work at
the expense of home and personal life satisfaction
iii. Civic activities, volunteer work and religious/public service
also demands that take time
>Job Demand-Control-Support Model (JDCS)
Asserts that high demands (work or Nonwork), low control, and low
support all contribute to strain.
So strain can be prevented by altering these factors
If worker has high demand, but also high control (decision making
power), then the high workload is more bearable
Job strain then caused by high demand but low control
Support also important, low support can magnify strain in high
demand/low control job
Low support can also be bad on its own
point
Individual differences (e.g. negative affectivity and type A
behaviour pattern) enhance vulnerability to strain under stressful
conditions
Other differences (e.g. personality hardiness, self-esteem, selfefficacy and self-reliance) can reduce vulnerability
assistance if needed
Clear structure, policies and expectations
Organizational change ! (p116)
Focus
Level
Aim
Organizational
stressors
Primary prevention:
stressor directed
Stress responses
Secondary
prevention:
response directed
Tertiary prevention:
symptom directed
>Individual Prevention
1) Positive Thinking
a. Optimistic, non-negative thinking style used by people to explain
good and bad events to themselves
b. Good health benefits, less stress and depression
c. View problems and stress as only temporary, and caused by
external event. Have hope
2) Time Management
a. Symptoms include rushing, missed deadlines, work overload and
sense of overwhelm
b. Use time management technique such as GP^3 method
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Karim Bounekhla
3) Extinction
a. Extinction Attempting to eliminate or weaken undesirable
behaviour by attaching no consequences to it
b. Requires time and patience, but eventually works
c. Good when combined with positive reinforcement (e.g.
complimenting for constructive comments but ignoring sarcastic
ones)
d. Punishment sometime better to deliver swift, clear lesson
e. Can backfire (e.g. manager let new guy work by himself (trust)
but he thinks hes being ignored)
Information Gathering
Intuitors
Sensors
Feelers
Third option to use hybrid approach: that is both individual and shared
reward ! leads to individual and team achievements in organization
If no apparent link between performance and reward, workers start to feel
entitled to reward regardless of performance
>Correcting Poor Performance
1) Identify cause or primary responsibility for poor performance
2) If primary responsibility is a persons, must determine the source of
the personal problem
3) Develop a plan for correcting poor performance
Some triggering problems:
Poorly designed work systems
Karim Bounekhla
8) Follow up
Decision-making is difficult ! must deal with risk and uncertainty, and lack
of information
[From PPT]
Unconscious decision making (System 1)
Fast, automatic, associative memory
o uses all accessible information
o Unconscious processing, with access to results (e.g., 2+2=?)
Effortful
Problems
o Well-defined vs Ill-structured
Information Gathering
o Instant and without cost vs Time-consuming and costly
Actors behaviour
o Perfectly logical vs Prone to cognitive bias and emotional
influence (System 1 is our autopilot)
Outcome
o Maximize vs Satisfice
Social design schemes simple rules user to determine final group decisions
(e.g. majority wins, or two-third wins, etc.)
Advantages
More knowledge and experience through pooling of group resources
Increased acceptance and commitment do decision (because
members had a voice in it)
Greater understanding of decision
Disadvantages
Pressure within group to confirm and fit
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYIh4MkcfJA
o Groupthink and overconfidence
o Group Polarization
Domination of group by one forceful member or clique
Takes longer to make decisions
Tasks that have correct solution ! better to have individual decision, unless
group has been working together for a long time
Limits of Group Decision Making
1) Groupthink
a. Groupthink deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing,
and moral judgment resulting from pressure within the group
b. High cohesiveness, homogeneity more likely to think alike
c. Having to make highly consequential decision and having time
constraint also lead to groupthink
d. Prefer to have concurrence in decision rather than argue
Symptoms of groupthink
Illusion of invulnerability members feel they are above criticism,
causes excessive optimism and risk
Illusion of group morality members feel they are above morality,
so their decision can be unethical
How to prevent
Ask each group member to assume role of critical evaluator
(actively voice objections)
Leader do not state his position on matter
Create several groups that work on same issue
Bring in outside experts
2) Group polarization
a. Group polarization tendency for group discussion to produce
shifts toward more extreme attitudes among members
b. Shifts toward more risky or more cautious positions
c. Views toward a situation shift to extremes
i. Either to reinforce initial views
ii. Want to be different, not average
>Techniques for Group Decision Making
and more
Not in notes, just read from pg.168
Karim Bounekhla
extend freedom
Power over ! suggests that power can be used to prohibit
behaviours, to limit freedom [Most common]
#
#
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BG46IwVfSu8
(Note: these are all related!)
[End PPT]
Bullying in Organizations
Contributes to creating toxic workplaces
repeated, health-harming mistreatment of a person by one or
more workers (verbal abuse, intimidation, humiliation, sabotage)
Bullying tactics:
o Blame for errors
o Unreasonable work demands
o Criticism of ability
o Threatening job loss or benefits
o Insults/put-downs
o Denial of success
o Stealing credit, etc. bad stuff
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZwfNs1pqG0 - Stanford Prison Exp.
Intergroup Sources of Power
When a group controls a resource that another group desire, first
group holds power ! can influence action of other group
Reward power
Verify compliance
Make feasible, reasonable requests
Make only ethical requests
Offer credible and desirable rewards
Coercive power
Legitimate power
Referent power
Expert power
Maintain credibility
Act confidently and decisively
Keep informed
Recognize concerns and do not threaten self-esteem
1) Does the behaviour produce a good outcome for people inside and
outside the organization?
a. If it only serves individuals self interest, it is unethical
2) Does the behaviour respect the rights of all parties?
a. Free speech, privacy, and due process are to be respected
3) Does the behaviour treat all parties equitably and fairly?
a. distributive justice, should not treat or benefit one party at the
expense of another
>Positive versus Negative Power
Personal power power used for personal gain
power hungry, approach relationships with an exchange
orientation
More interested in their own needs and interest
Encourage ethical behaviour by encouraging principled dissent
o voice in key issues to prevent unethical use of power
Social power power used to create motivation or to accomplish group goals
Approach relationships with communal orientation, focus on the
needs and interests of others
Four power-oriented characteristics
o Belief in the authority system believe that institution is
important and that its authority system is valid; their source
of power is the authority system in which they are part
o Preference for work and discipline like their work and are
very orderly, like work ethics and believe that work is good
for people (not just for the $)
o Altruism publicly put the organization and its needs before
their own needs; see their well-being as tied to the
organization well-being
o Belief in justice believe justice is to be sought above all
else, people should get what they are entitled and earn
>Symbols of Power
(not in notes tho)
Things that signal that individual has power
1) Kanters Symbol of Power
a. Ability to intercede for someone in trouble
b. Ability to get placement for favored employees
c. Exceeding budget limitations
d. Getting items on agenda at meeting
e. Access to early information
2) Kanters Symbols of powerlessness
a. Lack of power
b. Three symptoms in first-line supervisors
i. Overly close supervision
ii. Inflexible adherence to rules
iii. Tendency to do job themselves rather than training others
3) Kordas Symbol of Power
a. Furniture can show things (e.g. locked cabinets $ big secrets)
b. Full calendar, busy schedule ! mr powerful over there
c. Keeping people near their phone so you can call them anyways
i. Power : there are more people who inconvenience
themselves on your behalf than there people on whose
behalf you inconvenience yourself
d. Status
>Political Behaviour in Organization
organizational politics the use of power and influence in organization
political behaviour Actions not officially sanctioned by an organization that
are taken to influence others in order to meet personal goals
1) Influence Tactics
a. Process of affecting the thoughts, behaviour, or feeling of
another person
b. Most commonly used:
i. Consultation
1. Seek your participation in making a decision, or
planning how to implement a policy etc.
ii. Rational persuasion
1. Person uses logical arguments and actual evidence
to persuade you that a proposal/request is viable
iii. Inspirational appeals
1. Person makes emotional request or proposal that
arouses enthusiasm
iv. Ingratiation
1. E.g. flattery, opinion conformity
2. Used for impression management
Women less likely to take part in politics, they see it as distasteful
! lack of awareness of politics is barrier to women going up exec ranks
2) Political Skill
a. Political skill ability to get things done through favourable
interpersonal relationships outside formally prescribed
organizational mechanisms
b. Leader with political skill ! Positive effect on team performance,
trust for leader, and support for leader
c. Ability to accurately understand others and use knowledge to
influence others in order to met personal or org. goals
d. Social astuteness
i. Accurate perception and evaluation of social situations
ii. Manage situations in way which portray them in favorable
light
e. Interpersonal influence
i. Subtle and influential personal style that is effective in
getting things done
ii. Flexible in adapting their behaviour to differing targets, or
differing context to achieve goals
f. Networking ability
i. Individual capacity to develop and retain diverse and
extensive social networks
ii. Good at building alliances, negotiating
g. Sincerity
i. Ability to portray forthrightness and authenticity in all of
their dealings
ii. Seem more sincere and gain trust
>Managing Political Behaviour in Organizations
Politics cant be eliminated, but can be managed.
Open communication
o Communication that reduces uncertainty will reduce political
behaviour
o Communicate sanctioned and nonsanctioned political
behaviour in organization
Clarify expectations
o Clear, quantifiable goals
Karim Bounekhla
Negative Consequences
Diagnosing Conflicts
POWER NETWORKS
Equal vs Equal
two individuals from different project teams
Tendency toward suboptimization (focus on win-lose approach, win
at expense of other)
Can cause depression, low self-esteem and other distress
Prevent by improving coordination, work toward common goal
High versus Low
Boss vs employee
More powerful wants more control, less powerful people try to be
more autonomous
Can cause job dissatisfaction, low org. commitment and high
turnover
Prevent by changing leadership style (coaching, counseling instead)
High versus Middle versus Low
Classic conflict felt by middle managers
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Fixation aggressive mechanism in which an individual keeps up a
dysfunctional behaviour that will obviously not solve conflict
Displacement aggressive mechanism in which individual direct his anger
toward someone who is not source of conflict
Negativism aggressive mechanism in which person responds with
pessimism to any attempt at solving problem
Compensation compromise mechanism in which an individual attempts to
make up for a negative situation by devoting himself to another pursuit with
increase vigor
Identification compromise mechanism whereby an individual patterns his
behaviour after anothers
Rationalization compromise mechanism characterized by an individual
trying to justify his behaviour by constructing bogus reasons for it
Flight/withdrawal withdrawal mechanism that entails physically escaping
conflict (flight) or psychologically escaping (withdrawal)
Conversion withdrawal mechanism in which emotional conflicts are
expressed in physical symptoms
Fantasy withdrawal mechanism that provides an escape from a conflict
through daydreaming
GOOD
Nonaction
o Doing nothing in hope that conflict disappears
Secrecy
o Attempting to hide a conflict or issue that has the potential to
create conflict
Administrative orbiting
o Delaying action on a conflict by buying time
Due process Nonaction
o Procedure set up to address conflict that is so costly, time
consuming or risky that nobody will use it (e.g. sexual
harassment claim forms)
Character Assassination
o Attempt to label or discredit an opponent
Superordinate Goals
o Organization goal that is more important to both parties in a
conflict than their individual or group goals
o Appeal for this goal to focus parties on larger issue that
benefit them both
Expanding Resources
o Providing more resources if the conflict is because of scarcity
o E.g. hiring more secretaries
Changing Personnel
o Firing whoever is root cause of problem (e.g. some manager)
Changing Structure
o Change structure of organization ! create integrator
o Integrator (neutral 3rd party) that is liaison between groups
with different interests
o Using cross-functional teams, improve coordination, less
delays
o Or break up work, and use smaller teams
Confronting and Negotiating
Group Stereotypes
When we meet a stranger, we want to know two things about them
1) What is your intent?
If different from mine, potentially hostile!
i.e., how warm are you?
o Referent group ~ compatible goals ~ safe ~ warm
o Outgroup ~ incompatible goals ~ potential threat ~ cold
2) Are you capable of carrying out your intent?
i.e., how competent are you?
Profession stereotypes:
Karim Bounekhla
Chapter 8 Communication
>Interpersonal Communication
Communication evoking of a shared or common meaning in another
person
Interpersonal communication communication between two or more people
in an organization
Interpersonal Communication Model
Communicator person originating a message
Receiver person receiving a message
e.g., Physical separation can be countered by periodic face-toface interactions, regular meetings for interrelated units
1) Gender Differences
a. Men and women have different conversational styles (e.g.
women like to face each other, men can look elsewhere)
b. Also, women found to send less information to supervisors
c. Gateways:
i. Develop awareness of gender-specific differences
ii. Actively seek clarification of the meaning instead of
guessing
2) Cultural Diversity
a. Differences in work-related values among different cultures !
impact motivation, leadership and teamwork
b. E.g. Germans place value on hierarchical difference, so wont
engage in open talk with supervisor
c. If view others through stereotype, can be misled in
communication (e.g. think all Americans are arrogant)
d. Gateways:
i. Increase awareness and sensitivity
ii. Provide seminars for expatriate managers to learn culture
iii. Acquire map for understanding (e.g. describe a nation in
terms of complex metaphors)
3) Language
a. Different meaning of words in different countries (e.g. lift)
b. Technical terminology not understood by everyone
c. Gateways:
i. Simple, direct, declarative language
Karim Bounekhla
>Group Behaviour
1) Norms of Behaviour
a. Norms of behaviour standards that a work group uses to
evaluate the behaviour of its members
b. May be written or unwritten, express or not, explicit or not
c. Specify who does what, wear what, say what or not (E.g. dress
code, how members react to managers, etc.)
d. Help create awareness and regulate emotions
2) Group Cohesion
a. Group cohesion interpersonal glue that makes members of a
group stick together
b. Enhances job satisfaction and organizational productivity
3) Group Cohesion
a. Enables a group to exercise effective control overs its members
in relation to its behavioural norms and standards
b. Threats to cohesion include clique, goal conflict, unpleasant
experience
c. Has calming effect on members ! reduce stress, tensions
i. Better communication, commitment, satisfaction
d. Does not really affect productivity (like productivity norms do)
e. Changes over time, varies by size of group, prestige/social
status
f. External pressure can enhance cohesiveness internal
competition may decrease it.
4) Status Structure
a. Status structure set of authority and task relations among a
groups members
b. May be hierarchical or egalitarian (e.g. democratic)
c. Important to have well-understood status structure
d. Basically who decides what (e.g. task master, who sets agenda)
[pg 147-153 not in notes, skim textbook]
Karim Bounekhla
3) Other attributes
a. Social skills, intelligence, scholarship, speech fluency,
cooperativeness, insight
b. Evidence that good leaders = more intelligent, verbal,
cooperative and higher level of scholarship
None of these very strong or conclusive though
Largely based on prototypicality
o How similar is this person to what I think of when I imagine a
leader?
i.e. Largely based on stereotypes
>Behavioural Theories
Emerged to make up for trait theories deficiency, to study how leaders
behave
1) Foundational Behavioural Research
a. Leaders have three basic styles
i. Autocratic style leader uses strong, directive, controlling
actions to enforce the rules, regulations, activities and
relationships at work
1. Followers have little discretionary influence over
nature of work or accomplishments
ii. Democratic style leader takes collaborative, responsive,
interactive actions with followers concerning the work and
work environment
1. Followers have high degree of discretionary
influence, although leader has ultimate authority and
responsibility
iii. Laissez-faire style leader fails to accept the
responsibilities of the position
1. Abdicates authority, often results in chaos
2. Causes role ambiguity for followers, and ill-defined
goals and responsibilities $ interpersonal conflicts
Involve the belief that leadership style must be appropriate for the particular
situation.
if-then theories: if the situation is x, then appropriate leadership is y
1) Fiedlers Contingency Theory
a. Crossed in notes, not covered?
b. Pg197-199 tho
2) Path-Goal Theory
a. Based on expectancy theory of motivation
b. Basic role of the leader is to clear the followers path to goal, can
use any appropriate leader behaviour styles to do that
c. Leader selects from four leader behaviour styles (one that is
most helpful for the situation)
i. Directive style when leader must give specific guidance
about work tasks, schedule work, and let followers know
what is expected
ii. Supportive style when leader needs to express concern
for followers well-being and social status
iii. Participative style when leader must engage in joint
decision-making activities with followers
iv. Achievement-oriented style when leader must set
challenging goals for followers and show strong confidence
d. Must consider both follower and workplace characteristics
e. Theory assumes leaders adapt their styles to fit those
characteristics, but has seen conflicting evidence to that
Summary
Leaders..
Assess their followers needs
o Requires perspective-taking and empathy
Assess their followers attributes
o Requires knowledge of requirements
Assess the context
o Requires expertise and information, political skill doesnt hurt
[end notes]
>Recent Leadership Theories
1) Leader-Member Exchange
a. Not in notes, read it pg202 tho
2) Transactional (from notes)
a. Formal rewards and punishments to shape behaviour
b. Legitimate, reward and coercive power
3) Inspirational Leadership
a. Transformational Leadership
i. Inspire and excite followers to high levels of performance
ii. Rely on their personal attributes instead of official position
iii. Four dimensions:
1. Charisma
a. Based on referent power, provides role model
b. Desire to identify/be like the leader
2. Individualized consideration
a. How much leader shows he cares (e.g. mentor)
3. Inspirational motivation
a. Extent to which leader articulates a vision that
appeals
b. Create intrinsic motivation
4. Intellectual stimulation
a. Challenging assumptions, taking risks, and
nurturing creativity and independent thinking
iv. Encourages followers to set goals congruent with their
own, so they see their work as important and their goals
aligned with who they are
b. Charismatic leadership
i. E.g. Steve Jobs, was able to convince skeptics that his
plans are worth supporting. Can be bad (e.g. Hitler)
ii. Charismatic leadership leaders use of personal abilities
and talents in order to have profound and extraordinary
effects on followers (referent power)
c. Authentic Leadership
i. Includes transformational, charismatic, or transactional as
situation might demand
ii. Differs from other kinds in that authentic leaders have
conscious and well-developed sense of values (morals)
iii. Arouse and motivate followers, similar to charismatic
iv. E.g. Gandhi, Mandela
Emerging Issues in Leadership
1) Emotional Intelligence
a. See pg 205 cuz not in notes
2) Trust
a. same
3) Gender and Leadership
a. same
4) Servant Leadership
a. Belief that leaders lead by serving others
i. Work exist for the person as much as the person exist for
work (deep)
b. Leadership a trust and desire to leave the organization in better
shape for future
c. E.g. Aboriginal leadership
i. Focuses on the community and connections
ii. Order is to be maintained by harmony
iii. Spirituality has a significant role in shaping action
iv. Values are guides for action
v. Actions are selected through decision sharing/consensus
vi. Respect important criteria for leaders
Types of Followers
Active VS Passive
Independent (critical thinking) VS Dependent (uncritical thinking)
o Alienated followers thinking independently but are passive
# Become psychologically and emotionally distanced from
their leaders
Potentially disruptive and threat to the health of
organization
Sheep followers do not think independently and are passive
# Just do as they are told
Yes people followers who also do not thinking
independently, but they are active
# Uncritically reinforce the thinking and ideas of leader,
without questioning or challenging wisdom
# Dangerous as give false positives
Survivors least disruptive and lowest risk followers in
organization
# Perpetually sample wind, better safe than sorry
Effective followers contribute actively and think
independently
# Most valuable to a leader
# Practice self-management and self-responsibility
% Leader can delegate work without worrying
# Committed both to organization and a purpose,
principle or person outside themselves
% Not self-centered or self-aggrandizing
# Invest in their own competence and focus energy for
maximum impact
% Look for challenges and ways to add to their
talents
# Courageous, honest and credible
#
o
o
Karim Bounekhla
1) Artifacts
a. Artifacts symbols of culture in the physical and social work
environments; visible but often not decipherable
b. E.g. company facility, gyms, open-concept or close offices,
facilities, open-book management (know where money goes)
c. Also in the form of rewards (e.g. free tuition to attend courses)
d. Some artifacts :
i. Personal Enactment
1. Behaviour that reflects the organizations value
2. E.g. CEO donating salary to help employee hospital
bill, personal thank you calls, etc.
3. Leads to modeled behaviour, i.e. employees will
learn from what leader do < so use it wisely
ii. Ceremonies and Rites
1. Relatively elaborate sets of activities that repeatedly
enacted on important occasions
d.
e.
f.
4. Need
on !
reacts to mistakes
About getting fired show what events lead to
people getting fired (warning)
About how company deals with X how the
company reacted to some event, like employee
relocating (did they help or not, etc.)
About employees rising in rank starting from
the bottom no we here
About crisis how it overcomes obstacles
How everyone gets treated equally CEO not
let in building because he forgot I.D.
to be realistic and consistent with whats going
lead to cynicism and mistrust
Nonadaptive
Core values
Common behaviour
- behave insularly,
politically and
bureaucratically
- do not change or
adjust quickly
Ethical Culture
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XBmJay_qdNc
o Tell story of how they became managers, how they deal with
things
Encourage whistleblowing (and protect them)
Use code of ethics ! show whats right and wrong
o Can sometime backfire; lead to cynicism and resentment if
employee see is as management showpiece
o Also if follow it blindly, employee forgets to think
Sub-Cultures
Sub-culture culture created within a small subset of employees within the
organization
Different functions in organization develop different cultures (E.g.
sales vs engineers team)
Powerful norms that affect behaviour (e.g. culture emphasize doing
little work, so student will try to hide studying/accomplishment)
Pg 271 read more, boring stuff
[Also pg 271-275 not in notes, just skim]
>Changing Organizational Culture
Feasible but difficult; because assumptions (deepest level of culture) is
subconscious and norms and behaviours are deeply engrained
Also important, must display artifacts that support new culture and values
and be consistent
Action #4 & 5
Involve shaping the workforce to fit intended culture- can be in
recruiting/interview process and firing those who resist changes.
Difficult and long to do, should be gradual and subtle.
Blending Cultures
1) Merger or Acquisition
a. blending of two distinct cultures after companies merge =
difficult
2) International Ventures
a. Different cultures have different cultures, so international
companies will run into troubles
b. Negative effect because it reflects differences in norms and
values
Pg 276-279 just skim real quick tho
Karim Bounekhla
>Basic Structures
Simple structure - centralized form of organization that emphasizes direct
supervision and low formalization
E.g. small computer consulting company
o Owner supervise the work and works alongside technicians as
needed
o Specialized functions (book-keeping, advertising) contracted
out
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Forces
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