By: ______________

Class: ____________
Roll No: __________
1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge the valuable contribution of
Mr. Umesh Tyagi in providing me the proper
guidance to complete these demonstration
experiments. The experiments would not
have been completed without his support
and kind help. I would also be thankful of Mr.
Satpal Singh (Physics Laboratory Assistant).

*********************
3

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ___________________,

number
_______
of
Class
_____
successfully completed the
Demonstration Experiment under
supervision according to the guidelines
down by CBSE.

Teacher Incharge
Principal

Roll
has
my
laid

Vice Principal

CONTENTS
1) Demonstration Experiment 1_____________________________5
1.1) Aim
1.2) Apparatus
1.3) Principle
1.4) Circuit Diagram
1.5) Construction
1.6) Working
1.7) Description of parts
1.7.1) Step-Down Transformer
1.7.2) p-n junction diode
1.7.3) Capacitor
1.7.4) Load Resistance
2) Demonstration Experiment 2____________________________15
2.1) Aim
2.2) Apparatus
2.3) Theory
2.3.1) Diffraction
2.3.2) Diffraction through single slit (Graph)
2.3.3) Diffraction through single slit (Pattern Observed)
2.3.4) Single Slit Experiment
2.3.5) Condition for Secondary Minima
2.3.6) Condition for Secondary Maxima
2.3.7) Width of Central Minima
2.3.8) Width of Central Maxima
2.3.9) Angular Width of Central Maxima
2.3.10) Factors affecting width of Central Maxima
2.4) Observations
2.5) Result

To construct a Full Wave Rectifier

D1

A
P
D2

Input a.c. voltage

C

It is based on the principle that the diode offers low resistance when it is
forward biased and offers high resistance when it is reverse biased.
RL

B
D

The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil P of a step down transformer.
Two two ends of the secondary coil S of the transformer are connected to
the p- regions of the junction diodes D1 and D2 . A load resistance RL is
connected beteen the n-regions of the two diodes and the ncentral tapping
of the secondary coil. The out put d.c. is obtained across the load reistance.

Output d

10

11

12

13

14

15

A.C. Input
Voltage
D.C. 0utput
Voltage

Suppose that during first half of the input, the upper end A of the secondary
is at + ve pot. and lower end B is at () ve pot. So the diode D1 gets
forward bias and D2 gets reverse bias hence current flows through D1 in
load resistance from C to D. During the next half cycle A becomes ve and
B becomes +ve and hence D1 gets reverse bias and D2 gets forward bias.
Thus the current flows through D2 from C to D in load resistance.
Hence the full wave rectifier, rectifies the both halves of a.c. The output d.c.
is continuous but pulsating. To reduce the fluctuations, filter circits are used
in output circits. Electrolytic condenser and zener diodes are use to reduce
the fluctuations of d.c.

1. Step-Down Transformer
2. p-n Junction Diode
3. Capacitor
4. Load Resistance

16

1. Step-Down Transformer
It is used to decrease the alternating voltage with increase in current. It
works on the principle of mutual indication. It consists of soft iron core over
which two coils are wound. One of them is connected with A/C input source
is called primary coil and the other one is connected with the output called
secondary coil. The primary coil consists of large no. of turns of thin
insulated copper wire and secondary coil consists less no. of turns of thick
insulated copper wire.

When alternating e.m.f. is applied across the primary coil of transformer

then induced e.m.f. is developed in the primary coil due to self induction.
e

- N d/dt . (I)

N is the no. of turns in primary coil and d/dt is the change in magnetic
flux with each turns of primary coil.
Because both primary coil & secondary coil are wound on a same core, so
mutual induction takes place between them and induced e.m.f. is developed
in the secondary coil.
es

= - Ns d/dt . (II)

Ns is the no. of turns in secondary coil.

Es/ep = Ns/Np

= Ip/Is

=k

k is constant and is called transformation ratio.

17

2. p-n Junction Diode

When p-type semiconductor is brought into close contact with n-type
semiconductor then p-n junction is formed.
When p-n junction is formed, diffusion of
majority of charge carrier take place
across the junction, the holes move
from p to n leave their counter ve
charge in p-region and the elctrons
move from n to p leaving their +ve
charge in n-region. These +ve & -ve
charge accumulate near junction and
form a layer called depletion layer in
which no free charge carrier is
available.

Due to accumulation of +ve & -ve

charge at the junction, a potential
difference is developed and is called
potential barrier as it stops further
diffusion.

Biaising of p-n junction

Connection of battery with p-n junction is called biaising.

18

19

Forward Biaising
When p-type is connected with +ve terminal and n-type is connected with
ve terminal of the battery then p-n junction is said to be in forward bias.

Forward bias batteries push the majority charge carriers towards the
junction and oppose the formation of depletion layer. When an electron
combines with a hole, they neutralize each other at the same instant. One
electron leaves the ve terminal of the battery & enters n-region tp
compensate the electron. Simultaneously one covalent bond breaks in pregion. The electron leaves p-region & enters into the +ve terminal of the
battery. So the current flows in the circuit. This current increases the
forward bias voltage and p-n junction offers very low resistance in forward
bias.

20

Reverse Biaising
When p-type is connected with ve terminal and n-type is connected with
+ve terminal of the battery then p-n junction is said to be in reverse bias.

Reverse bias batteries push the majority charge carriers away from the
junction but support the minority charge carriers move towards the junction.
It also supports the formation of depletion layer. As a result depletion layer
increases. In this connection very small current flows at high reverse bias
voltage due to minority charge carriers and p-n junction forms high
resistance in reverse bias.

21

3. Capacitor
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electrical component consisting of an
insulating or dielectric layer between two conductors. When a voltage
potential difference occurs between the conductors, an electric field occurs
in the insulator. This field can be used to store energy, to resonate with a
signal, or to link electrical and mechanical forces.
Capacitors are
manufactured as electronic components for use in electrical circuits, but any
two conductors linked by an electric field also display this property. The
effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly separated
conductors.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C,

defined as the ratio of charge +Q on each conductor to the voltage V
between them:
C = Q/V
The unit of capacitance is thus coulombs per volt, or farads. Higher
capacitance indicates that more charge may be stored at a given energy
level, or voltage. In actual capacitors, the insulator allows a small amount
of current through, called leakage current, the conductors add an additional
series resistance, and the insulator has an electric field strength limit
resulting in a breakdown voltage.

22

4. Load Resistance
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage
across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current through it in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR

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23

To observe the effects of changing the distance

between screen and slit on the width of central
maxima in diffraction

24

1. Laser Source
2. Single Slit
3. Optical Bench
4. Screen
5. Scale & Pencil

25

Diffraction
Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light around corners of
an obstacle or aperture in the path of light. On account of this bending, light
penetrates into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle. The light thus
deviates from its linear path. Or in other words, Diffraction is normally taken
to refer to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle. It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small
obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings.

Diffraction of light through single slit

(Graph)

26

Diffraction of light through single slit

(Pattern Observed)

Single Slit Experiment

In this experiment, light coming from a monochromatic source, falls on a
convex lens and a parallel beam of light is obtained. This parallel beam of
light falls on the single slit. The rays of light bend through the edge and
superimpose in the different phase on a different point in the screen.
As a result alternate dark and bright bands are obtained. These are called
secondary bands i.e. secondary maxima or secondary minima. The central
point has the maximum intensity and maximum width called Central
Maxima.

Condition for Secondary Minima

Path difference

= n
= asin

(n=1, 2, 3)

Where,
a = width of slit
Therefore,

asin = n
It is because path difference between the waves coming from two paths of
same wave front is /2 each. Hence, minima is obtained when path
difference is a multiple of .
27

Phase Difference

= 2n
Thus
nD
a

xn =

Condition for Secondary Maxima

Path Difference

Phase Difference =

asin = ( 2n+1 )

( 2n +1 ) =

Thus,
(2 n+1) D
2a

Xn =

Width of Central Minima

It is the distance between two first secondary minima on both sides of
central point.
For secondary minima : asin = n
For n=1
asin =
sin =

For small angle : sin = =

( 1 )

Xn
D

( 2 )
28

29

From 1 and 2:
Xn
=
a D

Thus,

Xn =
D
a

Width of Central Maxima

= 2Xn =

2 D
a

If lens are very close to the slit , then D f

=

2 f
a

Angular Width of Central Maxima

Xn
Sin a = D
Xn
a= D
2 2Xn
Angular width = 2 = a = D

Factors affecting Width of Central Maxima

Considering the expression xn =

D
a

Width of central maxima varies with the following parameters:

1. It varies directly with the wavelength of light.
2. It varies directly with the distance between the screen and the slit.
3. It is inversely proportional to the width of slit.
30

S.no

Distance of screen
( cm )

Width of central maxima

( cm )

1.
2.
3.

The observations obtained show that width of central maxima increases with
increase in the distance between the slit and the screen.

31

1.

Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia

2.

Physics NCERT Class XII

3.

Textbook of Physics Pradeeps

4.

Encarta Encyclopedia

5.

Britannica Encyclopedia

32