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An Introduction To Fluid Mechanics: Notes For The First Year Lecture Course
An Introduction To Fluid Mechanics: Notes For The First Year Lecture Course
You must
attend them. Should you fail to attend either one you will be asked to complete
some extra work. This will involve a detailed report and further questions. The
simplest strategy is to do the lab.]
Homework:
Example sheets: These will be given for each section of the course. Doing these will
greatly improve your exam mark. They are course work but do not have credits
toward the module.
Lecture notes: Theses should be studied but explain only the basic outline of the
necessary concepts and ideas.
Books: It is very important do some extra reading in this subject. To do the examples
you will definitely need a textbook. Any one of those identified below is adequate and
will also be useful for the fluids (and other) modules in higher years - and in work.
Example classes:
There will be example classes each week. You may bring any problems/questions
you have about the course and example sheets to these classes.
Objectives:
x
The course will introduce fluid mechanics and establish its relevance in civil
engineering.
Demonstrate how these are used for the design of simple hydraulic components.
Fluids Lecture and Test Schedule
0.2
Consists of:
x
Week
Lectures:
20 Classes presenting the concepts, theory and application.
Worked examples will also be given to demonstrate how the theory is applied. You
will be asked to do some calculations - so bring a calculator.
0
1
Assessment:
1 Exam of 2 hours, worth 80% of the module credits.
This consists of 6 questions of which you choose 4.
2 Multiple choice question (MCQ) papers, worth 10% of the module credits.
These will be for 30mins and set during the lectures. The timetable for these MCQs
and lectures is shown in the table at the end of this section.
Laboratories: 2 x 3 hours
These two laboratory sessions examine how well the theoretical analysis of fluid
dynamics describes what we observe in practice.
During the laboratory you will take measurements and draw various graphs according
to the details on the laboratory sheets. These graphs can be compared with those
obtained from theoretical analysis.
You will be expected to draw conclusions as to the validity of the theory based on the
results you have obtained and the experimental procedure.
After you have completed the two laboratories you should have obtained a greater
understanding as to how the theory relates to practice, what parameters are important
in analysis of fluid and where theoretical predictions and experimental measurements
may differ.
The two laboratories sessions are:
1. Impact of jets on various shaped surfaces - a jet of water is fired at a target
and is deflected in various directions. This is an example of the application of
the momentum equation.
2. The rectangular weir - the weir is used as a flow measuring device. Its
accuracy is investigated. This is an example of how the Bernoulli (energy)
equation is applied to analyses fluid flow.
Introduction
6
7
8
9
10
day
17
18
24
25
31
February 1
7
8
14
15
21
22
28
March
1
7
8
14
15
21
22
April
11
12
Date
Month
January
May
19
20
26
27
3
4
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Tue
Wed
Subject
Lecture
Fluid properties
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Statics
Dynamics
Test
MCQ
Problem Sheet
Surveying
Surveying
Surveying
Surveying
Real fluids
Easter Vacation
Dimensional analysis
Revision Lectures
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
MQC
Introduction
0.3
Specific Elements:
x Introduction
x Fluid Properties
x Fluids vs. Solids
x Viscosity
x Newtonian Fluids
x Properties of Fluids
x Statics
x Hydrostatic pressure
x Manometry / pressure measurement
x Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
x Dynamics
x The continuity equation.
x The Bernoulli Equation.
x Applications of the Bernoulli equation.
x The momentum equation.
x Application of the momentum equation.
x Real Fluids
x Boundary layer.
x Laminar flow in pipes.
x Introduction to dimensional analysis
x Dimensions
x Similarity
0.4
Books:
These notes give more information than is found in the lectures. They do not replace textbooks.
You must also read at least one of the recommended fluid mechanics books. The notes
may be read online or printed off for personal use.
Any of the books listed below are more than adequate for this module.
(You will probably not need any more fluid mechanics books on the rest of the Civil Engineering
course)
Mechanics of Fluids, Massey B S., Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Fluid Mechanics, Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A, Longman.
Civil Engineering Hydraulics, Featherstone R E and Nalluri C, Blackwell Science.
Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Chadwick A, and Morfett J., E & FN Spon Chapman & Hall.
0.5
There are some extra teaching/learning resources available for you to use that are computer
based.
Online Lecture Notes
A more detailed set of lecture notes can be found on the WWW at he following address:
http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/cive
You get to this using Netscape from any of the computers in the university.
If you forget this address you can also get to the web pages via Dr Sleigh's web pages linked
from the department's main page.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
Introduction
Introduction
0.6
0.7
Why are we studying fluid mechanics on a Civil Engineering course? The provision of adequate
water services such as the supply of potable water, drainage, sewerage are essential for the
development of industrial society. It is these services which civil engineers provide.
Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Civil Engineering either directly or indirectly.
Some examples of direct involvement are those where we are concerned with manipulating the
fluid:
x
Dams;
Irrigation;
Ground-water flow.
As any quantity can be expressed in whatever way you like it is sometimes easy to become
confused as to what exactly or how much is being referred to. This is particularly true in the field
of fluid mechanics. Over the years many different ways have been used to express the various
quantities involved. Even today different countries use different terminology as well as different
units for the same thing - they even use the same name for different things e.g. an American
pint is 4/5 of a British pint!
To avoid any confusion on this course we will always use the SI (metric) system - which you will
already be familiar with. It is essential that all quantities are expressed in the same system or
the wrong solutions will results.
Despite this warning you will still find that this is the most common mistake when you attempt
example questions.
0.8
The SI System of units
The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all quantities may be described. For
convenience secondary units are used in general practise which are made from combinations
of these primary units.
And some examples where the primary object is construction - yet analysis of the fluid
mechanics is essential:
x
System of units
Primary Units
The six primary units of the SI system are shown in the table below:
Notice how nearly all of these involve water. The following course, although introducing general
fluid flow ideas and principles, will demonstrate many of these principles through examples
where the fluid is water.
Quantity
SI Unit
Dimension
length
mass
time
temperature
current
luminosity
metre, m
kilogram, kg
second, s
Kelvin, K
ampere, A
candela
L
M
T
T
I
Cd
In fluid mechanics we are generally only interested in the top four units from this table.
Notice how the term 'Dimension' of a unit has been introduced in this table. This is not a
property of the individual units, rather it tells what the unit represents. For example a metre is a
length which has a dimension L but also, an inch, a mile or a kilometre are all lengths so have
dimension of L.
(The above notation uses the MLT system of dimensions, there are other ways of writing
dimensions - we will see more about this in the section of the course on dimensional analysis.)
Introduction
Introduction
Derived Units
There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above primary units. Those
most used are shown in the table below:
Quantity
velocity
acceleration
force
energy (or work)
power
pressure ( or stress)
density
specific weight
relative density
viscosity
surface tension
SI Unit
m/s
m/s2
N
kg m/s2
Joule J
N m,
kg m2/s2
Watt W
N m/s
kg m2/s3
Pascal
P,
N/m2,
kg/m/s2
kg/m3
N/m3
kg/m2/s2
a ratio
no units
N s/m2
kg/m s
N/m
kg /s2
ms-1
ms-2
Dimension
LT-1
LT-2
kg ms-2
M LT-2
kg m2s-2
ML2T-2
Nms-1
kg m2s-3
ML2T-3
Nm-2
kg m-1s-2
ML-1T-2
kg m-3
ML-3
kg m-2s-2
ML-2T-2
1
no dimension
0.9
Example: Units
1.
A water company wants to check that it will have sufficient water if there is a prolonged drought
in the area. The region it covers is 500 square miles and various different offices have sent in
the following consumption figures. There is sufficient information to calculate the amount of
water available, but unfortunately it is in several different units.
Of the total area 100 000 acres are rural land and the rest urban. The density of the urban
population is 50 per square kilometre. The average toilet cistern is sized 200mm by 15in by
0.3m and on average each person uses this 3 time per day. The density of the rural population
is 5 per square mile. Baths are taken twice a week by each person with the average volume of
water in the bath being 6 gallons. Local industry uses 1000 m3 per week. Other uses are
estimated as 5 gallons per person per day. A US air base in the region has given water use
figures of 50 US gallons per person per day.
The average rain fall in 1in per month (28 days). In the urban area all of this goes to the river
while in the rural area 10% goes to the river 85% is lost (to the aquifer) and the rest goes to the
one reservoir which supplies the region. This reservoir has an average surface area of 500
acres and is at a depth of 10 fathoms. 10% of this volume can be used in a month.
a) What is the total consumption of water per day?
N sm-2
kg m-1s-1
Nm-1
kg s-2
b) If the reservoir was empty and no water could be taken from the river, would there be
enough water if available if rain fall was only 10% of average?
M L-1T-1
MT-2
The above units should be used at all times. Values in other units should NOT be used without
first converting them into the appropriate SI unit. If you do not know what a particular unit means
find out, else your guess will probably be wrong.
One very useful tip is to write down the units of any equation you are using. If at the end the
units do not match you know you have made a mistake. For example is you have at the end of a
calculation,
30 kg/m s = 30 m
you have certainly made a mistake - checking the units can often help find the mistake.
More on this subject will be seen later in the section on dimensional analysis and similarity.
Introduction
Introduction
Section 0: Introduction
Section 1: Fluid Properties
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids
Section 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
Section 4: Real Fluids
Boundary layer.
Laminar flow in pipes.
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity
LECTURE CONTENTS
Fluids in motion
Consider a fluid flowing near a wall.
- in a pipe for example -
F
C
du
dy
E x
F
C
A Gz u Gx
W
b
F
A
F
C
F
A
Wv
W
Constant u
time
Constant u
I
t
= velocity gradient.
giving
x
y
du
dy
shear strain I
u
y
du
dy
x
t
Non-Newtonian Fluids
So
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics
Gu
A B
Gy
Newtonian
Shear stress,
Pseudo plastic
plastic
Dilatant
Ideal, (=0)
Properties of Fluids:
1. Mass density:
mass of fluid
volume of fluid
Units: kg/m3
ML3
Viscosity in Gasses
xMainly due to molecular exchange between layers
Mathematical considerations of this momentum
exchange can lead to Newton law of viscosity.
Typical values:
Air = 1.23 kg m
Water = 1000 kg m
3
3
, Mercury = 13546 kg m
3
3
.
Viscosity in Liquids
xThere is some molecular interchange between layers
in liquids - but the cohesive forces are also important.
xIncreasing temperature of a fluid reduces the cohesive
forces and increases the molecular interchange.
Resulting in a complex relationship between
temperature and viscosity.
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics
2. Specific Weight:
Viscosity
Z
Z
Ug
2 2
Dimensions: ML
Typical values:
Water =9814
Air =12.07
/ m3 (or kg/m2/s2)
du
dy
Force Velocity
Area Distance
Force u Time
=
Area
Mass
Length u Time
N m 3 , Mercury = 132943 N m 3 ,
P W
3. Relative Density:
U subs tan ce
U
$
H 2O ( at 4 c )
4$ c)
2. Kinematic Viscosity
Q = the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
P
U
Units: m2s-1
Dimension: L2T-1
Typical values:
Water =1.14 u 10-6 m2/s, , Air =1.46 u 10-5 m2/s m s ,
Mercury =1.145 u 10-4 m2/s, Paraffin Oil =2.375 u 10-3
m2/s.
2 1
Section 2: Statics
LECTURE CONTENTS
Section 0: Introduction
Section 1: Fluid Properties
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids
Section 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of
Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
Section 4: Real Fluids
Boundary layer.
Laminar flow in pipes.
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity
Section 2: Statics 20
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
STATICS
4 Lectures
Objectives
F1
F2
R1
R2
Fn
Rn
Section 2: Statics 21
Section 2: Statics 22
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Pressure
x curved surfaces
pressure
An element of fluid at rest is in equilibrium:
p
3. The sum of forces in any
direction is zero.
4. The sum of the moments of forces
about any point is zero.
Force
Area over which the force is applied
F
A
Uniform Pressure:
If the force on each unit area
of a surface is equal then
uniform pressure
Section 2: Statics 23
Section 2: Statics 24
Section 2: Statics
Pascals Law
Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions.
p x u Area ABFE
Fx x
ps
px
Fx s
p x Gx Gy
Section 2: Statics
D
x
( sin T
py
Gy
Gs )
Fx y
Remember:
No shearing forces
Fx x Fx s Fx y
p xGxGy psGyGz 0
px
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics
Section 2: Statics 25
ps
Section 2: Statics 26
Section 2: Statics
Fy Fy Fy weight
y
s
x
1
Fy
p y u Area ABCD
Section 2: Statics
p y GxGz
0
0
Fy
Gx
Gs
The element is small i.e. Gx, Gx, and Gz, are small,
so Gx u Gy u Gz, is very small
and considered negligible, hence
py
psGxGz
( cos T
Gx
Gs )
ps
We showed above
px
thus
Fy x
ps
0
px
py
ps
Section 2: Statics 27
Section 2: Statics 28
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
p2, A
Area A
Fluid density
z2
p1 A p2 A UgA z2 z1 = 0
z1
p2 p1
Vertical cylindrical element of fluid
cross sectional area = A
mass density = U
UgA z2 z1
p2 p1
UgA z2 z1
Section 2: Statics 29
Section 2: Statics 30
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Equality Of Pressure At
The Same Level In A Static Fluid
P
Fluid density
Area A
z
pr, A
pl, A
Face L
Face R
weight, mg
We have shown
pl = pr
mass density = U
pl
p p Ugz
pr
pq Ugz
and
pl A = pr A
so
p p Ugz
pp
pl = pr
Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.
pq Ugz
pq
Section 2: Statics 31
Section 2: Statics 32
Section 2: Statics
Horizontal
If T
(p + p)A
Area A
Section 2: Statics
dp
ds T 90$
Fluid density
s
dp
dx
dp
dy
Vertical
pA
If T
A cylindrical element of fluid at an arbitrary
orientation.
dp
dz
Ug
dp
ds
Ug cos T
Section 2: Statics 33
p2 p1
z2 z1
Ug
p2 p1
Ug z2 z1
Section 2: Statics 34
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
dp
dz
Ug ,
integrating gives
p = -Ugz + constant
Gauge pressure is
pgauge = U g h
y
x
Ugh constant
patmospheric
constant
pabsolute = U g h + patmospheric
so
p
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics
Ugh patmospheric
Section 2: Statics 35
Section 2: Statics 36
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Ugh
500 u 103
1000 u 9.81
p
Ug
h1
50.95m of water
A
500 u 10
3
h2
3.75m of Mercury
13.6 u 10 u 9.81
In head of a fluid with relative density J = 8.7.
The tube is open to the atmosphere,
remember U = J u Uwater)
3
500 u 10
586
. m of fluid J = 8.7
8.7 u 1000 u 9.81
Section 2: Statics 37
Section 2: Statics 38
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
An Example of a Piezometer.
Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid h1
pA = U g h 1
pB = U g h 2
Section 2: Statics 39
Section 2: Statics 40
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
We know:
pB = pC
Important points:
1. The manometric fluid density should be
greater than of the fluid measured.
Uman > U
pB = pA + Ugh1
Fluid density
D
pB = pC
Manometric fluid density
man
Section 2: Statics 41
Section 2: Statics 42
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
BUT:
Section 2: Statics 43
Section 2: Statics 44
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
pressure at C = pressure at D
pC = pD
pC = pA + U g ha
pD = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
pA + U g ha = pB + U g (hb + h) + Uman g h
Fluid density
pA - pB = Uman g h
Manometric fluid density man
Section 2: Statics 45
Section 2: Statics 46
Section 2: Statics
Fluid density
B
ha = 1.5m
Section 2: Statics
p1
diameter D
hb = 0.75m
h = 0.5m
diameter d
z2
Datum line
z1
we know
p1 - p2 = Uman g h
Section 2: Statics 47
Section 2: Statics 48
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Volume moved
Area of left side
z 2 Sd 2 / 4
SD 2 / 4
d
z2
D
Result:
d
Ug z 2 z 2
D
d 2
Ugz 2 1
D
Result:
Inclined manometer
CIVE1400: Fluid Mechanics
Section 2: Statics 49
Section 2: Statics 50
Section 2: Statics
p1
p2
diameter d
diameter D
e
ad
le
ca
Re
z2
Datum line
z1
Section 2: Statics
Ugz2
but,
z2
p1 p2
x sin T
Ugx sin T
Section 2: Statics 51
Section 2: Statics 52
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Choice Of Manometer
Disadvantages:
x Slow response - only really useful for very slowly
varying pressures - no use at all for fluctuating
pressures;
x For the U tube manometer two measurements
must be taken simultaneously to get the h value.
x It is often difficult to measure small variations in
pressure.
x It cannot be used for very large pressures unless
several manometers are connected in series;
x For very accurate work the temperature and
relationship between temperature and U must be
known;
Advantages of manometers:
x They are very simple.
F = puGA
Section 2: Statics 53
Section 2: Statics 54
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
F =p A1
1 1
F =p A
2 2 2
F =p A
n n n
Section 2: Statics 55
Section 2: Statics 56
Section 2: Statics
zGA is known as
O
Fluid
density
elemental
area A
Resultant
Force R D
G
area A
x
C
Sc
area A
p = Ugz
zGA
So force on element
u sinT
Ug zGA
x sin T )
Ax sin T
F = UgzGA
Section 2: Statics
R
Section 2: Statics 57
UgAz
UgAx sin T
Section 2: Statics 58
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Sum of moments
Moment of R about O =
s GA
2
Sc
Ax
UgzGA
Ug s sin T GA
Ug sin T s 2 GA
Force on GA
R u S c = UgAx sin T S c
Equating
UgAx sin T S c
As the plane is in equilibrium:
The moment of R will be equal to the sum of the
moments of the forces on all the elements GA
about the same point.
Ug sin T s 2 GA
Ug s sin T GA u s
Ug sin T GAs 2
Section 2: Statics 59
Section 2: Statics 60
Section 2: Statics
Io
s 2GA
Sc
Section 2: Statics
and
Section 2: Statics 61
Section 2: Statics 62
Section 2: Statics
Io
I GG Ax 2
Shape
Section 2: Statics
Area A
bd
bd 3
12
bd
2
bd 3
36
SR 2
SR 4
Rectangle
b
Sc
D
I GG
x
Ax
I
sin T GG x
Ax
Triangle
h
G
h/3
Circle
(In the examination the parallel axis theorem
R
G
SR 2
Semicircle
G
Section 2: Statics 63
R
(4R)/(3)
01102
.
R4
Section 2: Statics 64
Section 2: Statics
An example:
Find the moment required to keep this triangular
gate closed on a tank which holds water.
1.2m
D
2.0m
1.5m
Section 2: Statics
pressure diagram.
z
H
2H
3
R
p
gH
Section 2: Statics 65
Section 2: Statics 66
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
1
u AB u BC
2
1
HUgH
2
1
UgH 2
2
2
H
3
1
UgH 2
2
( N / m)
Section 2: Statics 67
Section 2: Statics 68
Section 2: Statics
UgAz
oil o
UgAx sinT
H
Ug H u 1 sinT
2
1
UgH 2
2
water
0.8m
1.2m
g0.8
Section 2: Statics
I
sin T o
Ax
g1.2
Io
I GG Ax 2
1u H3
H
1 u H
2
12
H3
3
H 3 / 3
D 2
H / 2
2
H
3
Section 2: Statics 69
Section 2: Statics 70
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Calculate the
C
B
G
O
FAC
RH
Rv
Section 2: Statics 71
Section 2: Statics 72
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
RH
FAC
We know
1. The force on a vertical plane must act
horizontally (as it acts normal to the plane).
Section 2: Statics 73
Section 2: Statics 74
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
Resultant force
C
B
G
Resultant force
2
RH
RV2
Rv
Section 2: Statics 75
Section 2: Statics 76
Section 2: Statics
Section 2: Statics
B
G
1.0m
FAC
RH
Section 2: Statics 77
Section 2: Statics 78
Section 2: Statics
Horizontal force
Section 2: Statics
Vertical force
C
B
G
FAC
RH
A
A
Rv
Section 2: Statics 79
Section 2: Statics 80
Section 2: Statics
Resultant force
Section 2: Statics
2
RH
RV2
R
tan 1 V
RH
Section 2: Statics 81
Section 2: Statics 82
LECTURE CONTENTS
Fluid Dynamics
Section 0: Introduction
Section 1: Fluid Properties
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids
Section 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
Section 4: Real Fluids
Boundary layer.
Laminar flow in pipes.
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
Objectives
1.Identify differences between:
xsteady/unsteady
xuniform/non-uniform
xcompressible/incompressible flow
2.Demonstrate streamlines and stream tubes
3.Introduce the Continuity principle
4.Derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation
5.Use the continuity equations to predict
pressure and velocity in flowing fluids
6.Introduce the momentum equation for a fluid
7.Demonstrate use of the momentum equation
to predict forces induced by flowing fluids
Fluid dynamics:
Flow Classification
uniform:
Flow conditions (velocity, pressure, crosssection or depth) are the same at every point in
the fluid.
non-uniform:
Flow conditions are not the same at every point.
steady:
Flow conditions may differ from point to point
but DO NOT change with time.
unsteady:
Flow conditions change with time at any point.
Fluid flowing under normal circumstances
- a river for example conditions vary from point to point
we have non-uniform flow.
If the conditions at one point vary as time
passes then we have unsteady flow.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
Three-dimensional flow
In general fluid flow is three-dimensional.
Two-dimensional flow
But:
Since flow must be zero at the pipe wall
- yet non-zero in the centre there is a difference of parameters across the
cross-section.
Pipe
Ideal flow
Real flow
Streamlines
Streamtubes
m
dm
dt
Flow rate
mass
time taken to accumulate this mass
discharge, Q
A simple example:
An empty bucket weighs 2.0kg. After 7 seconds of
collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0kg, then:
volume of fluid
time
A simple example:
If the bucket above fills with 2.0 litres in 25 seconds,
what is the discharge?
2.0 u 10 3 m3
25 sec
0.0008 m3 / s
0.8 l / s
A simple example:
If A = 1.2u10-3m2
And discharge, Q is 24 l/s,
mean velocity is
um
um t
Q
A
2.4 u 10 3
x
Pipe
12
. u 10 3
2.0 m / s
area A
Cylinder of fluid
Q=
Q
volume A u um u t
=
t
time
Aum
u
um
umax
Applying to a streamtube:
Continuity
This principle of conservation of mass says matter
cannot be created or destroyed
A2
Mass flow in
1
Control
volume
u1
A1
U1GA1u1
U2GA2u2
U2GA2 u2
Constant
m
dm
dt
U1 A1um1
U2 A2 um2
Constant
m
Section 1
Section 2
A1u1U1
A1u1
A2 u2
A2 u2 U2
Q1
A1u1
Q2
A2u2
An example:
If the area A1=10u10-3 m2 and A2=3u10-3 m2
And the upstream mean velocity u1=2.1 m/s.
The downstream mean velocity is
u2
A1
u1
A2
7.0 m / s
1
Section 1
Section 2
u1
A2
u2
A1
S d 22
S d12
/4
/4
u2
d 22
u
2 2
d1
U 1 Q1 = U 2 Q 2 + U 3 Q3
When incompressible
d2
u2
d1
Q1 = Q 2 + Q3
40
3.0 5.3 m / s
30
$ 1 u1 = $ 2 u2 + $ 3 u3
Q1
Sd12
u1
4
A1u1
It can be written:
p1 u12
z
Ug 2 g 1
0.00392 m3 / s
Discharges out:
0.001178m3 / s
Q2
0.3Q1
Q1
Q2 Q3
Q1 0.3Q1
Q3
Velocities out:
A2 u2
u2
0.936 m / s
Q3
A3u3
u3
0.972 m / s
Kinetic
Potential
Total
0.00275 m3 / s
Q2
Pressure
0.7Q1
H = Constant
energy per
unit weight
p
pressure head =
Ug
potential head = z
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 105
u2
velocity head =
2g
total head = H
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 106
Restrictions in application
of Bernoullis equation:
B
B
A
xFlow is steady
A
mg
1 2
mu
2
u2
2g
mg
Ug
therefore
distance AA =
m
Ua
m
pa u
Ua
pm
p
Ug
or
p1 u12
z
Ug 2 g 1
Total
energy per
unit weight
or
Total
p u2
z
Ug 2 g
p2 u22
z
Ug 2 g 2
p u
z
Ug 2 g
H Constant
Total
Loss
Work done
Energy
energy per
energy per unit per unit per unit
supplied
unit weight at 1
weight at 2
weight
weight
per unit weight
p1 u12
z
Ug 2 g 1
p2 u22
z h wq
Ug 2 g 2
u1
u2
p1
p2
Ug 2 g
p2
Ug 2 g
p1
U
2
(u12 u22 )
A1u1
A2u2
u2
A1u1
A2
d1
u1
d2
7.8125 m / s
So pressure at section 2
section 1
section 2
p2
200000 17296.87
182703 N / m2
182.7 kN / m2
Note how
the velocity has increased
the pressure has decreased
Pitot Tube
The Pitot tube is a simple velocity measuring device.
Uniform velocity flow hitting a solid blunt body, has
streamlines similar to this:
p1 u12
U 2
p2
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
p2
U
1
p1 Uu12
2
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 114
h2
1
2
1
X
h
A
p2
Ugh2
u
1
p1 Uu12
2
1
Ugh1 Uu12
2
2 g (h2 h1 )
[Note: the diagram of the Pitot tube is not to scale. In reality its
diameter is very small and can be ignored i.e. points 1 and 2 are
considered to be at the same level]
pA
p1 Ug X h Uman gh
pB
p2 UgX
pA
pB
p2 UgX
We know that
Venturi Meter
p2
p1 Ug X h Uman gh
1
p1 Uu12 , giving
2
p1 hg Uman U
u1
p1
Uu12
2
2 gh( Um U )
about 6
about 20
z2
z1
datum
p1 u12
z
Ug 2 g 1
p2 u22
z
Ug 2 g 2
By continuity
Q
u2
u1 A1
u1 A1
Qactual
u1 A1
A2
Qactual
u12 A1
1
2 g A2
Cd Qideal
Cd u1 A1
p p2
z1 z2
2g 1
Ug
Cd A1 A2
2
2
A1 A2
p1 Ugz1
2 g A22
u1
Qideal
u2 A2
p1 p2
z1 z2
Ug
p1 p2
z1 z2
Ug
p2 Uman gh Ug ( z2 h)
U
h man 1
U
Giving
p p2
z1 z2
2g 1
Ug
A2
2
2
A1 A2
Qactual
Cd A1 A2
2 gh man 1
U
A12 A22
Aactual
Vena contractor
h
u2
Aactual
u22
2g
Cc Aorifice
2 gh
Q
Qactual
Au
Aactual uactual
Cc Cv Aorifice utheoretical
uactual
Cv utheoretical
Cd Aorifice 2 gh
Cd Aorifice utheoretical
Cd Ao 2 gh
A
Cd Ao 2 gh
Gh
Gt
A
Gh
Cd Ao 2 g h
Gt
As the tank empties the level of water falls.
The discharge will also drop.
h2
A
h2 Gh
Cd Ao 2 g h1 h
h 1/2
A
>2 h @hh12
Cd Ao 2 g
2A
Cd Ao 2 g
Au
Gh
Q A
Gt
2 h
2h1/ 2
>
h2 h1
Submerged Orifice
What if the tank is feeding into another?
Area A1
Area A2
h1
h2
Gh1
Gh
A2 2
Gt
Gt
A1Gh1 A2Gh2
A1
Q
QGt
Orifice area Ao
Ug
Ug
2g
0 0 h1
u2
2g
Ugh2 u22
0
Ug 2 g
Gh Gh1 Gh2 so
A1Gh1 A2Gh1 A2Gh
A2Gh
Gh1
A1 A2
and
QGt
2 g (h1 h2 )
writing
Cd Ao u
Cd Ao 2 g (h1 h2 ) Gt
Cd Ao 2 g (h1 h2 )
but
Gt
A1Gh1
A1 A2
Gh
A1 A2
h1 h2
A1 A2
Gh
A1 A2 Cd Ao 2 g h
A1 A2
h final Gh
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g hinitial h
h final
2 A1 A2
> h @hinitial
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g
2 A1 A2
( A1 A2 )Cd Ao 2 g
>
h final hinitial
Rectangular Weir
b
b
constant
2 gh
Au bGh 2 gh
2
B 2 gH 3/ 2
3
To get the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient
of discharge, Cd, to account for
losses at the edges of the weir
and contractions in the area of flow,
Qactual
Cd
2
B 2 gH 3 / 2
3
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 132
V Notch Weir
T
2 H h tan
2
H
T
So the discharge is
Qtheoretical
2 2 g tan H hh1/ 2 dh
2
0
H
T 2 3/ 2 2 5/ 2
2 2 g tan Hh h
2 3
5
0
8
T
2 g tan H 5/ 2
2
15
The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a
coefficient of discharge
Qactual
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
Cd
8
T
2 g tan H 5 / 2
2
15
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 133
A2
u2
A1
u1
And momentum
1
u1 t
An alternative derivation
From conservation of mass
F=
( U2 A2u2Gt u2 U1 A1u1Gt u1 )
Gt
dm
dt
U1 A1u1 U2 A2u2
m
U1 A1u1u1 mu
1
Q A1u1 A2 u2
And if we have a fluid of constant density,
i.e. U1 U2 U , then
U2 A2 u2 u2 mu
2
F QU (u2 u1 )
U2 A2 u2 u2 U1 A1u1u1 mu
2 mu
1
So
F m ( u2 u1 )
u2
2
QU ( u2 u1 )
1
u1
Fx
m u2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
m u2 x u1 x
or
Fx
UQu2 cosT2 u1 cosT1
UQu2 x u1 x
Fy
m u2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
m u2 y u1 y
or
Fy
UQu2 sin T2 u1 sin T1
UQ u2 y u1 y
F
rate of change of
momentum through
the control volume
m uout uin
or
UQuout uin
FResultant
Fx
Fresultant
Fx2 Fy2
Fy
tan 1
Fx
u2
A2
F T = FR + FB + F P
1
u1
A1
Control Volume
Step in Analysis:
1.Draw a control volume
2.Decide on co-ordinate axis system
3.Calculate the total force
4.Calculate the pressure force
5.Calculate the body force
6.Calculate the resultant force
FT x
UQu2 x u1 x
u1 x
u1
u2 x
u2 cosT
FT x
UQu2 cosT u1
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 146
In the y-direction:
UQ u2 y u1 y
FT y
u1 y
u1 sin 0
u2 y
u2 sin T
FT y
UQu2 sin T
FP
p1 u12
z1
Ug 2 g
p2 u22
z2 h f
FP x
p1 A1 cos 0 p2 A2 cosT
FP y
p1 A1 sin 0 p2 A2 sin T
FT x
p2
p2 A2 sin T
Ug 2 g
p1
p1 A1 p2 A2 cosT
UQ 2 1
2 A22 A12
FT y
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 147
FR x FP x FB x
FR y FP y FB y
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 148
FR x
FT x FP x 0
UQu2 cosT u1 p1 A1 p2 A2 cosT
FR y
FT y FP y 0
FResultant
FRx
FR2 x FR2 y
FR
u2
x
u1
tan
F
1 R y
FR x
u2
R
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
FR
Section 3: Fluid dynamics 149
FT x
FT x
FR x
UQu2 x u1 x
FR x FP x FB x
FT x 0 0
UQu1 x
UQu1 x
FR x
R
FT y
FP x
FP y
0
u1
FB x
FB y
u2
u3
UQu2 u1 cosT
FT x
u2
Q
, so
A
Q2
U
1 cosT
A
FT x
u2
FT y
UQu2 sin T 0
Q2
U
A
u1
FP x
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
FP y
FT x
FR x
UgV
FB x
FR2 x FR2 y
FR
FR y
tan 1
F
Rx
FR x FP x FB x
FT x
Q2
U
1 cosT
A
FT y
FR y FP y FB y
FR y
Q2
U
A
FT y
FR
LECTURE CONTENTS
Real fluids
Section 0: Introduction
Section 1: Fluid Properties
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity
Newtonian Fluids
Properties of Fluids
Section 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces
Section 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.
Section 4: Real Fluids
Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layer theory
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
W v
du
dy
this
du
dy
or this
Laminar flow
Transitional flow
Turbulent flow
Laminar flow:
Motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.
Turbulent flow:
Motion is, locally, completely random but the
overall direction of flow is one way.
But what is fast or slow?
At what speed does the flow pattern change?
And why might we want to know this?
Uud
P
U = density,
d = diameter
U kg / m3 , u m / s,
P Ns / m2 kg / m s
u = mean velocity,
P = viscosity
Re
kg m m m s
1
m3 s 1 kg
Laminar flow:
Transitional flow:
Turbulent flow:
It has no units!
Re
Uud
P
Uud
P
Re < 2000
2000 < Re < 4000
Re > 4000
Re
A pipe and the fluid flowing
have the following properties:
water density
pipe diameter
(dynamic) viscosity,
U = 1000 kg/m3
d = 0.5m
P = 0.55x103 Ns/m2
Uud
P
4000
0.0044 m / s
Re
u
u
Uud
P
2000
Laminar flow
xlow velocity
xDye does not mix with water
Re
Uud
P
inertial forces
viscous forces
Turbulent flow
xRe > 4000
xhigh velocity
xDye mixes rapidly and completely
'p
area A
Sd 2
4
'p
Upstream pressure is p,
Downstream pressure falls by 'p to (p-'p)
W wSdL
Ww 4 L
d
pA p 'p A
'p A
'p
Sd 2
4
w
Many experiments have been done
with various fluids measuring
the pressure loss at various Reynolds numbers.
R
r
At the wall
Ww
R 'p
2 L
At a radius r
W
W
r 'p
2 L
r
Ww
R
laminar
'p v u
2 .0 )
W 2Sr L
'p A
'p r
L 2
du
,
dy
P
du
dr
Giving:
'p r
du
P
L 2
dr
'p r
du
dr
L 2P
In an integral form this gives an
expression for velocity,
r
r
'pSr 2
'p 1
r dr
L 2P
Section 4: Real Fluids 176
'p r 2
C
L 4P
ur
GQ ur Aannulus
Aannulus
'p R
L 4P
ur
GQ
'p 1
R 2 r 2 2SrGr
L 4P
'p S R 2
R r r 3 dr
L 2P 0
'p Sd 4
L128P
'p Sd 4
L 128P
'p SR 4
L 8P
'p 1
R2 r 2
L 4P
S (r Gr )2 Sr 2 | 2SrGr
Boundary Layers
Recommended reading: Fluid Mechanics
by Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A.
Longman publishers. Pages 327-332.
Mean velocity:
Q/ A
Ugh f d 2
32 PL
zero velocity
hf
32 PLu
Ugd
Wall
G = distance from wall to where u = 0.99 umainstream
Laminar flow:
Re < 2000
Re < 4000
Re > 4000
u1
u2
p1
p2
p1 < p2
u1 > u2
|120 u diameter
Convergent flows:
xNegative pressure gradients
xPressure decreases in the direction of flow.
xFluid accelerates and the boundary layer is thinner.
u1
u2
p2
p1
Venturi meter
p1 > p 2
u1 < u 2
xlength of meter
xdanger of boundary layer separation.
xTurbulence reduces.
xBoundary layer separation does not occur.
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
Tee-Junctions
Localised effect
Downstream the boundary layer reattaches and
normal flow occurs.
Boundary layer separation is only local.
Nevertheless downstream of a
junction / bend /valve etc.
fluid will have lost energy.
Bends
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
Aerofoil
Normal flow over a aerofoil or a wing cross-section.
Solution:
Prevent separation.
1 Engine intakes draws slow air from the boundary
layer at the rear of the wing though small holes
2 Move fast air from below to top via a slot.
Examples:
LECTURE CONTENTS
198
Dimensional Analysis
Application of fluid mechanics in design makes use
of experiments results.
Specific uses:
199
200
length
=L
mass
=M
velocity
time
=T
force
=F
temperature
=4
Quantity
SI Unit
Dimension
m/s
ms
-1
LT-1
acceleration
m/s2
ms-2
LT-2
force
N
kg ms-2
M LT-2
kg m2s-2
ML2T-2
kg m/s2
energy (or work)
Joule J
N m,
2
kg m /s
power
pressure ( or stress)
Watt W
N m/s
Nms-1
kg m2/s3
kg m2s-3
Pascal P,
N/m2,
kg/m/s
L, T
density
kg/m3
specific weight
N/m3
and one of M or F
Nm-2
2
kg/m2/s2
relative density
kg m-1s-2
ML-1T-2
kg m-3
ML-3
kg m-2s-2
ML-2T-2
a ratio
no units
viscosity
F = MLT-2
surface tension
N s/m
no dimension
-2
N sm
kg/m s
kg m-1s-1
N/m
Nm-1
kg /s
M = FT2L-1
ML2T-3
kg s-2
M L-1T-1
MT-2
201
202
Dimensional Homogeneity
A single equation,
2
B 2 gH 3/ 2
3
An example:
L (LT-2)1/2 L3/2 = X
1/2 -1
3/2
L (L T ) L
3
=X
-1
L T =X
diameter,
fluid density,
fluid viscosity,
P
203
204
Common S groups
From this list we can write this equation:
F = I ( d, u, U, N, P )
0 = I ( F, d, u, U, N, P )
or
Other common non-dimensional numbers
or ( S groups):
Reynolds number:
Uud
Re
inertial, viscous force ratio
F
Nd P
I 2 2 ,
,
Uu d u Uud
Euler number:
p
En
Uu 2
Froude number:
u2
Fn
gd
Weber number:
Uud
We
Mach number:
u
Mn
c
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
205
216
Kinematic similarity
Similarity
Geometric similarity:
The ratio of all corresponding dimensions
in the model and prototype are equal.
Acceleration
For lengths
Lmodel
Lm
OL
Lprototype
Lp
Discharge
am
ap
Qm
Qp
Lm / Tm2
L p / Tp2
L3m / Tm
L3p / Tp
Ou
OL
O2T
O3L
OT
Oa
OQ
217
218
Dynamic similarity
Fm
Fp
M mam
M pa p
Force ratio
2
Um L3m O L
2 OL
OU O L
u
U p L3p O2T
OT
An example:
O U O2L O2u
U
P:
ML-1T-1
R
Uu 2 l 2
U p upd p
Pp
l:(length) L
I (R, U, u, l, P ) = 0
LT-1
u:
So
Um um dm
Pm
ML-3
Uul
Uul
Uu 2 l 2 I
219
220
Example 1
Rm
Um um2 lm2
U u l
I m m m
Pm
Rp
U p u p2 l p2
U u l
I p p p
Pp
Pm
2
m
2
p
Rm / Um u l
Rp / U p u l
I Um um lm / P m
IU puplp / P p
Um um dm
Pm
Pp
U p upd p
Pp
um
up
dp
dm
10
1
1 / 20
200 m / s
so
Rm
Rp
Um um2 lm2
U p u 2p l p2
OR
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
OU O2u O2L
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
221
222
Example 2
Uul
Uu l I
Rm
Rp
Uu l I Re
2 2
Rm
Rp
0.5u p
Uu l
Uu l
2 2
2 2
20 0.5
1 1
p
2
2
.
01
0.05
U d P
up p p m
Um d m P p
um
um
1 1
20 1 / 10
250 km / h
up
um
Rp
1
Rm
0.05
20 u 337.5 6750 N
pm
pp
20 p p
pp
Um
CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics
Um RT
U p RT
Um
Up
Um
Up
20U p
Section 5: Dimensional Analysis
223
224
225