Petroleum (Oil and Gas Processing) PDF

NOTES ON
Petroleum Processing
David A. Stark
Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering
University of Notre Dame
Notre Dame, IN 46556
Printed on April 30, 1998
Contents
1 Introduction to Petroleum Processing
2 Natural Gas and Liquid Separation
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Vertical Separators . . . . . . . . . .
Horizontal Separators . . . . . . . . .
Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators
Stage Separation . . . . . . . . . . .
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3
7
9
11
13
13
3 Dehydration
15
4 Cryogenic Processing of Natural Gas
23
5 Basic Processes of Liquid Petroleum Processing

6 Crude Oil Distillation
31
35
7 Vapor Recovery
8 Catalytic Cracking
41
45
3.0.1 Glycol Dehydration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.0.2 Dehydration and Gas Purication by Adsorption 19
4.1 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.1 Expander Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.2 Cascade Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.1 Design Tools for Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.1.1 True Boiling Point Curve and the Equilibrium
Flash Vaporization Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.1.2 Establishing Flash Zone Conditions . . . . . . . . 37
9 De-waxing Process
10 Petroleum Coking
49
51
A Internal Flow in Pipes

B Fluid Machinery
57
67
10.1 Delayed Coking Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

10.2 Flexicoking Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.3 Fluid Coking Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
B.1 Classication of Fluid Machinery . . . . .

B.2 Turbomachinery Analysis . . . . . . . . . .
B.2.1 The Angular Momentum Principle
B.2.2 Euler Turbomachine Equation . . .
B.3 Velocity Polygon Method . . . . . . . . . .
B.4 Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . .
B.5 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .
B.6 Similarity Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C Compressor Calculations
C.0.1
C.0.2
C.0.3
C.0.4
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Cylinder Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumetric Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discharge Temperature and Adiabatic Head
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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90
Chapter 1
Introduction to Petroleum
Processing
The purpose of this document is to discuss the various components
of petroleum processing and to look into the thermodynamic and uid
mechanic properties found within these processes. The basic purpose
for petroleum rening is to create usable fuels and lubricants for combustion engines, and the eect it has had on the modern world is spectacular.
Crude oil is composed of literally hundreds of hydrocarbon compounds ranging in size form the smallest, methane, which has only
one carbon atom, to large compounds containing 200 or more carbon
atoms. A major portion of these compounds are parans. Parans
are straight-chain hydrocarbon compounds such as methane, ethane,
and propane. The remaining hydrocarbon compounds are either cyclic
parans called napthenes or aromatics.
These families of hydrocarbons are called homologues, and because
of the large quantity of these compounds which are found in crude oil,
only the simplest of the compounds can be isolated on a commercial
scale. Generally, isolation of these compounds are restricted to those
compounds lighter than C8s. This isolation occurs in the products
primarily through the use of their dierent boiling points.
In general, the products that are normally obtained from crude oil
can be grouped as follows.
3
H
H
H
Methane
H
H
Ethane
H
H
Propane
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
N-Butane
Isobutane
Figure 1.1: Examples of Parans in crude oil.

1. Volatile products
Propane LPG (Liqueed Petroleum Gas)
Butane LPG
Light naphtha (C5s and C6)
2. Light distillates
Gasolines
Heavy naphtha
Kerosene and jet fuel
3. Middle distillates
Diesel fuel
4
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H
H2 C
CH
H2 C
H
H2 C
C H3
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C H3
C
H2
H
C H3
Cyclopentane
Methylcyclopentane
Dimethylcyclopentane
Figure 1.2: Examples of Naphthenes found in crude oil.

H
C
HC
CH
HC
CH
C
H
Benzene
Figure 1.3: Example of an Aromatic hydrocarbon in crude oil
Heating oils
Gas oils
4. Fuel oils
Marine diesel
Bunker fuels (for ships)
5. Lubricating oils
Motor
Spindle
Machine oils
5
6. Waxes
Food and paper coating grade
Pharmaceutical grade
7. Bitumen
Asphalt
Coke
Products in these groups are produced from distillation processes
and treated to meet certain specications. These specications are
the result of a compromise between performance capabilities of the
product and the treating that must occur to reach these performance
characteristics.
Chapter 2
Natural Gas and Liquid
Separation
Product from a gas well is composed of a complex mixture of many
dierent compounds of hydrogen and carbon. This product shall be
termed a natural gas well stream or simply a well stream, once it has
been introduced to the pipeline for transport. All of the dierent hydrogen and carbon compounds found within the well stream have various
thermodynamic properties such as density, vapor pressure, boiling and
freezing points, and other physical characteristics. \Typically, a well
stream is a high velocity, turbulent, constantly expanding mixture of
gases and liquids mixed with free water, water vapor, solids, and other
contaminants." [6, p. 37] As this well stream travels from the hot, high
pressure reservoir, it constantly undergoes reduction in its pressure and
temperature. Thus gases separate from and mix with the uids, water vapor condenses, and various other phases of matter are observed
such as mist, bubbles, and free gas. Thus one of the most important
and primary steps of processing natural gas is separation of the gases
from the solids and liquids in the well stream. This step is conveniently
called separation.
There are four basic functions a well designed separator must accomplish. First, it must cause a primary-phase separation between liquid
hydrocarbons from gaseous hydrocarbons by creating a momentum reduction. The second step is a second separation of liquid mist from
the gases. Then, further renement occurs by removing gas suspended
7
in the previously separated liquid. The nal step is the discharge of

the separated gas and liquid from the vessel without mixing the newly
separated products.
Ideally, gases and liquids should reach a state of equilibrium in a
separator, however, the degree of separation usually is dependent on the
cost of installation for the separator verses the degree of separation.
Thus the processing equipment downstream and the conditions they
require dictate the necessary degree of separation.
There are several factors which in uence the design of a separator.
The rst is the ow rate. Flow rates must be accounted for both liquids
and gases entering and exiting the separator. These ow rates are usually measured in barrels per day for liquids and million standard cubic
feet (MMscf) per day for gases. The second factor is the specic gravities of the compounds in the well stream. The dierence in the specic
gravities will allow for some separation by merely allowing gravity to
act on the oil, water, and gases. Thirdly, the required retention time
of the product within the separator for separation. The fourth factor
is the operating temperature and pressure of the separator. The next
factor to consider is the number of phases the separator will handle.
In other words, if the separator is designed to be a two-phase design,
it handle only oil and gas. On the other hand, a three-phase design
will be capable of separating oil, gas, and water. It should be noted
that the term phase is not used in the standard thermodynamics sense.
Rather, it is a term used in the petroleum industry to refer to the type
of product being used. Therefore, the deciding factor for the number of
phases in a separator depends on the content of the well stream. Also
related to the content of the well stream is the amount of solid impurities the separator must be able to handle. Therefore, for ows with
high impurity content, the separator must be both easily maintained
and large in size to keep from being clogged. Finally, the amount of
space allowed for the placement of the separator in uences both the size
and style of the separator. Thus, this brings us to the three most basic
types of separators: vertical, horizontal, and horizontal double-barrel.
8
2.1 Vertical Separators

Vertical separators are often used for low to intermediate ratios of
gas to oil in a well stream, and they are often employed for well streams
which produce large slugs of liquid. However, the primary advantage
of the vertical separator is the relatively small amount of oor space it
requires. This can become a very important design factor for oshore
processing rigs.
A vertical separator operates by passing the inlet well stream through
an inlet diverter, which is simply a piece of material inhibiting the forward velocity of the well stream. By blocking the well stream, the
diverter imparts a centrifugal motion to the uid spreading the uids
against the separator shell in a thin lm. This centrifugal motion provides a reduction of momentum in the uid which allows the gases to
escape the thin uid lm. This gas rises to the top of the vessel and
the newly separated liquids settle to the bottom. Any remaining small
uid particles, such as mist, which rise with the gas are then caught by
a centrifugal bae arrangement below the gas outlet. These small uid
particles eventually collect and settle back to the bottom of the vessel.
The centrifugal motion imparted by the baes ensure the contact of
the liquid with the baes, thus preventing any liquid from escaping.
As mentioned above, the vertical separator has a gas outlet above the
baes from which the gas is removed from the vessel to be further processed. Similarly, there is a liquid discharge at the base of the separator
maintained by a liquid-level control which keeps a set volume of liquid
in the base of the vessel. This liquid acts as a seal to force the pressure
within the vessel to push the gas out of the top of the vessel. Figure
2.1 illustrates the basic setup of a vertical separator.
Figure 2.1: Standard Vertical Separator
10
Figure 2.2: Standard Horizontal Separator
2.2 Horizontal Separators

In comparison to the vertical separator, the horizontal separator
provides a much greater gas-liquid interface area allowing the horizontal
separator to handle well streams with much higher ow rates. It also
has a few economic advantages in that it is less expensive to construct,
easier to clean and service, and it is easier to hook up. The basic process
within the horizontal separator is composed of a few major steps. First
of all, upon entry into the vessel, the well stream impacts a series of
staggered bae plates which provide an initial momentum reduction.
As with the vertical separator, this provides the main component of
the liquid/gas separation. Gas is then passed along the top of the
vessel through horizontal bae plates which run the entire length of
the vessel. Within these horizontal bae plates the direction of the
gas is altered by a second set of baing plates which create a herringbone design. The constant change of direction ensures that the liquid
particles, which are suspended in the gas, contact the baes and settle
to the base of the vessel. To allow the settling process to occur, the
horizontal plates are staggered for drainage. This process of constantly
redirecting the gas is termed scrubbing. The scrubbed gas is then
11
passed to a storage compartment which is connected to the gas outlet

where it can be discharged from the vessel.
The liquid stored in the base of the vessel may either be drained or
separated into oil and water if the separator is three-phase. Located at
the top of this section in Figure 2.2, is an illustration of a horizontal
three-phases separator. The separation of these liquids is based on
the dierence in the densities of the liquids. Since oil has a lower
density than water, it is easily separated by allowing it to oat on top
of the water. By maintaining the water level, the oil is allowed to runover a containment wall into an oil drainage compartment. Similarly,
to prevent water from running over the containment wall, there is a
drainage site for the water at the base of the vessel.
Figure 2.3: Standard Double-Barrel Horizontal Separator
12
2.3 Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators

Double-barrel horizontal separators possess all of the advantages of
a normal horizontal separator, it uses the same components for the
scrubbing process, however, it is capable of handling a much higher liquid capacity than the normal horizontal separator. Instead of retaining
liquid in the base of the vessel, it is drained directly into the second
barrel. Thus, the gas velocities may be much higher since over ow of
the liquids is not as great of a concern.
2.4 Stage Separation

Stage separation is the separation of vapor and liquid phases of
gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons by two or more equilibrium ashes at
consecutively lower pressures. In this context, a ash is the vaporization
of hydrocarbons. A two-stage separation requires one separator and
one storage tank. Similarly, a three-stage separation is composed of
two separators and one storage tank, and a four-stage separator follows
this same pattern. In each case, the tank is considered the nal stage
for vapor-liquid separation since the nal equilibrium ash occurs in
the storage tank.
The process occurs by feeding the well stream into the rst separator, after, the initial separation process has occurred, the gas is
removed from the vessel. By removing the separated gas, the pressure
in the vessel is reduced, and the separated liquid is fed into the second
separator where more gases are released, and so on until the liquid is
fed into the storage tank. The purpose of using a stage separation such
as this is that at high pressures, petroleum liquids usually contain high
quantities of liqueed propanes, butanes, and pentanes. Thus by using
a stage separation to lower the pressure on the liquids, a more complete
separation of the products is produced for the storage tank, due to the
vaporization of the liqueed propanes, butanes, and pentanes.
13
14
Chapter 3
Dehydration
One of the most undesirable impurities found within a gas stream
is water vapor. Water vapor itself is not a problem, however, the liquid
or solid phases which precipitates from the gas during compression or
cooling is. In its liquid phase, water accelerates corrosion inside the
system and acts as an anti-catalyst for later catalytic processes; in
its solid state, ice, water can plug valves, ttings, and even gas lines.
Therefore, in order to prevent major diculties, all fuel gas transported
in pipelines must be at least partially dehydrated.
The quantity of water in saturated natural gas at various pressures
and temperatures can be estimated from Figure 3.1, which is based on
data computed by Kohl and Reisenfeld. [4] This chart also shows a
hydrate formation line gas with a specic gravity of 0.6. To the left of
this line, solid hydrates form when the saturated gas is cooled. It can
be noted that hydrates form more readily in gases with a high density
than gases with a very low density.
For example, when examining the chart, at a pressure of 1000 psia,
hydrates form at approximately 62F in a natural gas with a specic
gravity of 0.6. However, for a specic gravity of 0.75 and 1.00 hydrates
form at temperatures of 67F and 71F respectively. [4, p. 583]
One of the contributing factors which increases the equilibrium concentration of water in the gas stream is the presence of substantial concentrations of acidic gases. Two such acidic gases are carbon dioxide
CO2 and dihydrogen sulde H2 S. The eect of these gases is most notable at pressures above 1000 psia. Typical data for this correlation is
15
Figure 3.1: Water-vapor content of saturated natural gas

presented in Table 3.1. It is noted that the increase of the concentration of water caused by acidic gases is greatest at high temperatures
and low pressures. The eect of CO2 verses the eect of H2 S is not
equivalent, though for equal concentrations, CO2 contains only 75 % of
the water concentration of H2 S.
16
Pressure (psig)
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
6000
6000
6000
6000
6000
10000
10000
10000
10000
10000
Temperature ( C) H2 S (%) CO2 (%) H2 O Conc. (ppMM)

100
0
0
58.9
100
10
10
63.9
100
20
20
71.9
200
0
0
630
200
20
20
733
100
0
0
23.1
100
10
10
38.5
100
20
20
73.6
200
0
0
197
200
20
20
397
100
0
0
19.9
100
10
10
36.1
100
20
20
71.8
200
0
0
159
200
20
20
378
Table 3.1: Eect of H2S and CO2 on Water Vapor Content of Saturated
Natural Gas
The water content of saturated air at pressures from 1 to 1000 atm
is given in Figure 3.2, which can be found in the Chemical Engineers
Handbook.
Another useful method of indicating the water content of a gas is in
terms of its dew point. The dew point is a more direct indication of the
dehydration eectiveness than the absolute water content. Therefore,
if the dew point temperature is known, given either the variable for
pressure or content of the water, the other variable may be read from
Figure 3.1.[?].
There are three primary processes for water vapor removal from gas
streams, and they can be classied as follows:
Absorption by Liquids
Adsorption by Solid Desiccants
17
10
10
150
10
LBS Water/LBS AIR
100
3
10
50
10
10
-50
6
10
10
10
10
10
PRESSURE, ATMOSPHERES
10
Figure 3.2: Water-vapor content of saturated air
Condensation by Compression and/or Cooling

Only absorption and adsorption will be considered in this document
since condensation is rarely an economical means of water vapor removal. There are three primary liquids used for drying gas: triethylene glycol (TEG), diethylene glycol (DEG) and tetraethylene glycol
(T4 EG).
3.0.1 Glycol Dehydration Process
Figure 3.3 represents a ow diagram of a plant designed to use

either of the glycols for the dehydration process. The basic steps that
occur are as follows. First, the glycol stream containing from about
one to ve percent water contacts the gas in a short, counter-current
column. The water which is absorbed dilutes the glycol. This diluted
solution must be re-concentrated before it can be forwarded to the
18
Dried
Gas
H2O
Absorber
Reconcentrator
Phase
Separator
Inlet
Scrubber
Figure 3.3: Flow Diagram of a Glycol Dehydration Plant

absorber. Re-concentration of this glycol is achieved by distilling water
out of the solution in a regenerator. This method of re-concentration
by heating the solutions is very eective due to the large dierence in
boiling points of water and glycol. This is a cyclic operation, where
the glycol is repetitively diluted and re-concentrated. Eventually, the
glycol is broken down, and it must be replaced.
3.0.2 Dehydration and Gas Purication by Adsorption
Anytime a molecule bonds to the outside of a compound, the process

is termed adsorption. This is dierent from absorption in that during
absorption, the molecule penetrates the compound. In the process of
19
adsorption, materials are concentrated on the surface of a solid as a

result of forces existing at this surface, whether the forces be pressure,
weight, or other intermolecular forces. The greater the surface area of
the adsorption material or dessicant, the greater amount of particles
or impurities adsorbed. Therefore, most solid dessicant adsorbers use
dessicants that are irregular granules or preformed spheres or tablets
in order to increase the surface are of the dessicant.
The cause of the inter-particle force, is not thoroughly understood,
however, the most familiar theory proposed in Kohl and Reisenfeld [4]
is that the forces are similar to those responsible for chemical reactions.
Adsorption resembles sites of residual valency found with many crystals.
When an adsorbable molecule, in this case a water molecule, comes
in contact with an unoccupied space on the desiccant, the molecule
becomes trapped due to the bonding forces and cannot rebound into
the gas. However, molecules which are trapped may also become free
of the desiccant when suitably activated by raising its energy level.
However, after the molecule becomes activated, another molecule may
take its place in the now unoccupied site.
Although adsorption can be practiced with many solid compositions, the majority of gas purication and dehydration uses forms of
silica, alumina, carbon, and silicates. The silica and alumina-base adsobents are primarily used for the removal of water molecules. However,
whether the process involves the removal of water vapor or of some other
impurity, the basic concepts involved in adsorption are the same.
In its simplest form, an adsorption plant for removing water vapor
from gases consists of two vessels lled with granular desiccant. These
two beds are connected in such a way that gas may be passed through
one vessel while the other vessel's desiccant is regenerated. Regeneration of the desiccant occurs by passing hot gas through the desiccant
material which activates the water molecules, freeing them from the
material. This separated water vapor may be removed from the vessel
and it is ready to accept gas again.
Many gas-dehydration problems can be solved using either liquid
removal systems or by using solid desiccant. However, the principal
design factor depends on whether complete or nearly complete dehydration is necessary. For this case, solid desiccant designs are more
appropriate. On the other hand, for the dehydration of relatively large
20
volumes of high-pressure natural gas, a liquid dehydrating system is

more applicable since it can be run continuously.
21
22
Chapter 4
Cryogenic Processing of
Natural Gas
Cryogenics is a branch of thermodynamics dealing with the eects
and creation of very low temperatures. The temperatures that are
associated with cryogenics are generally below ,150 F. However, in
the petroleum industry, cryogenic temperatures are considered to be
below ,50 F. The reason for this is that -50 F is approximately the
minimum temperature that can be reached with a propane refrigeration
system.
The key to cryogenic gas processing is using the proper combination of pressure with low temperature. When the proper combination
is achieved, a very complete product recovery can be made. Figure 4.1
represents an example of the relationship between pressure and temperature with the recovery of 60 percent ethane from natural gas.
23
120
130
Temperature (F)
140
150
160
170
180
190
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Pressure (psia)
450
500
550
600
Figure 4.1: Pressure and Temperature to Recover 60 percent Ethane

(Data taken from Gas Processors Association [5])
4.1 Processes
4.1.1 Expander Process
Figure 4.2 represents the ow for an expander process. The rst
process applied to the inlet gas is the removal of water. This is done
by cooling the gas through a two branch process. The inlet gas is
divided such that approximately half ows through a gas/gas exchanger
where cooling is accomplished by using cold residue gas, and the second
half ows through a cold demethanizer internal liquid found on the
24
Recompressor
Exp.- Compressor
Expander
3
Gas
Inlet
Initial
Treating
Expander
Inlet
Separator
First
Gas/Gas
Exchanger
Final
Product
Second
Gas/Gas
Exchanger
Demehtanizer
Side
Exchange
Demethanized Plant
Products
Figure 4.2: Cryogenic Expander Process

side exchange of the demethanizer unit. The gas from these rst two
processes are then joined to ow through a second gas/gas exchanger.
Liquid from the gas is condensed and separated from the vapor in an
expander inlet separator. The vapor ows through the expander, where
the pressure is reduced. This liquid is then fed to the demethanizer.
Once the pressure has been reduced, the vapor continues to ow to the
top of the demethanizer. The demethanizer has a large top which serves
as an expander outlet separator. Cold residue gas from the top of the
demethanizer then acts as a coolant for inlet gas. It is then compressed
25
to sales gas pressure in the expander-compressor and recompressor.

Figure 4.3 represents the pressure-temperature diagram for the expander process. In this process, the solid line refers to the plant inlet
gas. To the right of the critical temperature and pressure point is the
dew point line. To the right of the dew point line, and outside of this
line, the gas is 100 percent vapor. However, as the gas is cooled, at a
reasonable pressure below approximately 1200 psia the gas begins to
condense. As the gas is cooled further, it reaches the dew point line
which is located to the left of the bubble point line, and outside of
this line, the gas condenses completely. The dashed line represents the
process represented in gure 4.2
Downstream of the initial treating facilities, the inlet gas is represented by point 1 on both gures 4.2 and 4.3. As the gas is cooled in the
gas/gas exchangers and the demethanizer side exchanger, the temperature is lowered to point 2. At point 2, the gas enters the expander inlet
separator where the condensed liquid is separated from the vapor. This
vapor has its own pressure-temperature diagram, and it is represented
by the dashed curve. At the expander inlet, the gas is on its dew point
line.
As the gas ows through the expander, its pressure-temperature
path is shown by the dashed line from point 2 to point 3. Where point
3 represents the gas at the outlet of the expander. The importance of
doing driver work for the compressor can be seen by comparing path 2
to 3 with path 2 to 4. Path 2 to 4 is called a Joule-Thompson expansion,
where the gas is simply expanded without doing any work. It can be
seen by comparing these two paths that both the outlet pressure and
temperature are higher for the Joule-Thompson expansion. This results
in a reduction of product recovery.
26
Critical Temperature
and Pressure
Bubble
Point Line
1000
2
800
500
4
3
300
200
Dew Point
Line
100
-200
-100
100
Figure 4.3: Pressure-Temperature Diagram for Expander Process (Data

taken from Gas Processors Association [5])
4.1.2 Cascade Refrigeration
Figure 4.4 represents a ow diagram for a the principle components

of a cascade refrigeration process. The use of a cascade refrigeration
process is normally limited to processing inlet gas steams around 500
psig or lower. Higher pressures in the gas result in a large quantity of
methane gas to condense.
After initial treating, the inlet gas is cooled by cold residue gas
and then sent into the refrigeration system. The cascade refrigeration
system is composed of two primary systems, the propane chiller and
the ethane chiller. Propane is used as the rst chiller, this is due to
the fact that propane can be condensed at fairly low pressure by air or
water coolers. The condensed propane is then used to cool the inlet gas
27
Propane
Compressor
Ethane
Compressor
Propane
Condenser
Ethane
Condenser
Ethane
Surge
Tank
Propane
Surge
Tank
Residue Gas
For Sales
Inlet
Gas
Second
Gas/Gas
Exchanger
Separator
Propane
Chiller
Ethane
Chiller
Liquid to
Demethanizer
Figure 4.4: Cascade Refrigeration

to approximately ,40 F, causing separation of most of the undesired
components of the gas.
Stage two of the cascade refrigeration process is the ethane chiller.
Ethane is used in the second stage to cool the inlet gas to a temperature
around ,120 F. Cooling the inlet gas to this temperature range knocks
out the remaining undesired components of the gas, leaving the end
product to be fairly pure. The ethane used in the second stage of the
refrigeration process is compressed and then chilled by the propane
stream at the ethane condenser.
Thus, the propane refrigeration system is used to cool both the
inlet gas in stage one and to condense the ethane used in stage two. By
optimizing the cooling done on the inlet gas by the propane, the amount
of ethane used in stage two is minimized. Finally, by minimizing the
28
quantity of ethane used in stage two, the amount of propane is also

minimized for condensing the ethane.
Stream 1
90 F
500 psia
Propane
Compressor
85 F
-40
Ethylene
Compressor
-80 F
490 psia
-155 F
85 F
Stream 2
Methane
Compressor
85 F
-265 F
Stream 3
Figure 4.5: LNG Cascade Cycle

A more specic type of cascade cycle is the Liqueed Natural Gas
(LNG) cascade cycle represented in gure 4.5. The system is composed
of a heat exchanger, and three refrigerants. The primary refrigeration
system used in this system is propane. Following the rst stage is an
ethylene chiller, and the nal refrigeration system used is methane.
The heat exchanger uses an aluminum plate n, aluminum core or an
aluminum tubing which is wound on an aluminum spool. These two
designs require many dierent ow streams. The diculty arises in that
it is very dicult to maintain these dierent ow streams with shelland-tube exchangers. Thus there is the need for this design. The rst
29
stream, Stream 1 is the gas entering the system to be liqueed. The gas
is dehydrated before entering the system and coming in contact with
the plate n exchangers. As it is cooled within the system, most of the
heavy ends are condensed, knocking them out of the gas. These heavy
ends are then removed through a separator at a temperature around
,80 F. This is represented by Stream 2 in gure 4.5. As the ow stream
continues through the heat exchanger, nitrogen, methane, ethane, and
some propane are liqueed around the temperature of ,250 F and 20
psia. These are then removed as Stream 3, completing the separation.
Through the use of cryogenic processes, many more hydrocarbon
compounds can be separated in comparison to the use of separators
alone. Thus, a much more pure product which results in a higher
heating value is produced.
30
Chapter 5
Basic Processes of Liquid
Petroleum Processing
Oil enters a renery from two main sources, crude oil directly from
the well and from liquid product separated from natural gas. In rening
this crude oil, it is rst broken up into various raw stocks, which are
then rened into a nished product. This break-up of the crude oil
is achieved by separating the crude through a series of boiling points.
This is accomplished within the atmospheric and vacuum distillation
units.
Crude oil rst enters the atmospheric distillation unit where dissolved brine is removed in a process referred to as De-salting and it
is heated to a predetermined temperature to begin the fractionation
process. This is done through heat exchange with hot products as well
as direct-red heaters. The now hot and partially vaporized crude oil
is \ ashed" in a distillation unit, commonly known as a fractionation
tower.
The fractionation tower separates the crude into four basic products: kerosenes, light gas oil, fuel oil, and heavy gas oil. Once these
product have been separated they can be passed along to the next level
of processing. For example, kerosenes and light gas oils are passed along
to vapor recovery units and catalytic cracking units. From here they
are processed further to create gasoline, jet fuel, heating and diesel fuels, and industrial fuel oil. Heavy gas oils are passed along from the
fractionating tower to extraction and dewaxing units, after which it is
31
processed into lubricating oils and greases. Finally, crude residue is

processed into petroleum coking and asphalts.
Further break-up of crude oil is often required to produce low-cost
feed for cracking units or it may be necessary for the basic stocks for
lubricant production. In either case, a vacuum distillation unit is inserted into the rening system. During this process, products from the
atmospheric distillation unit is fed into the vacuum distillation unit
where it is distilled under sub-atmospheric conditions. This unit operates similarly to the atmospheric unit in that the crude that is fed into
the unit is heated by heat exchange between heaters and hot products.
However, the vacuum unit operates at overhead pressures as low as .02
psig, where the atmospheric unit operates at a positive pressure of 5 to
10 psig. Under these conditions the hot vapors rise to the top of the
fractionating tower, where they are condensed. The condensed products are then taken from the tower in side-streams. After the vacuum
distillation process, there are three resulting products: light vacuum
gas oil, heavy vacuum gas oil, and bitumen.
32
Gasoline
Vapor
Recovery
Jet Fuel
Alkylation
Diesel Fuels
Additional
Processing
Industrial
Fuel Oil
Fractionation Tower
Catalytic
Cracking
Waxes
Lube Oils
Dewaxing
Extraction
Grease Manufacturing
Coking
Petroleum
Coking
Asphalts
Figure 5.1: Overview of Renery Flow

33
Greases
34
Chapter 6
Crude Oil Distillation
The concepts for crude oil distillation are primarily the same for
both atmospheric and vacuum distillation units. However, this section
will only deal with the fractionation tower of the atmospheric distillation unit. The degree of fractionation in a crude oil distillation unit
is measured by the temperature dierence between 95% vol. ASTM
(American Standard Temperature and Measurement) of the lighter
product and 5% vol. ASTM of the adjacent heavier product. These
lighter products are composed kerosene and light gas oil. The heavier
products are composed of heavy gas oil and fuel oil. When the temperature dierence gives the 95% point of the lighter products to be less
than the 5% point of the heavier products, the dierence in temperatures is referred to as an ASTM gap. For the reverse case, the situation
is referred to as an ASTM overlap.
Fractionation performance is at its best when there is an ASTM gap
between the products. As fractionation decreases, the gap becomes an
overlap, a greater number of the components of the two products are
not separated. Fairly complete fractionation may be expected in the
upper regions of the fractionation tower between lighter products such
as kerosene and light gas oils. However, lower in the fractionation
column such separation is not possible. It may be pointed out, that in
the lower levels of the fractionation column, there is an ASTM overlap.
During crude oil distillation steam stripping is used to further remove the entrained light end products from the draw-o products.
When side stream products are drawn o of the main fractionation
35
Figure 6.1: Fractionation Curves

column it contains various light end components from vapors passing
through the draw-o trays. This draw-o product is then routed to
a side-stream stripper where steam is introduced through the bottom
of the tower, owing counter-currently to the liquid. By imposing a
counter current ow of the steam on the liquid, greater heat transfer is
achieved due to a mixing of the products.
Steam strippers such as the one described are usually composed of
four trays to increase surface area contact between the products and
the steam. The entrained light ends are removed by the steam through
vaporization and both they and the steam reenter the fractionation
column. This process is also done for the residue collected from the base
of the fractionation column as well. A representation of the quantity
36
of steam and the percent of light end products removed by stripping is

represented in the Figure 6.1.
6.1 Design Tools for Distillation
6.1.1 True Boiling Point Curve and the Equilibrium Flash Vaporization Curve
Two important tools for designing and maintaining the distillation

process are the True Boiling Point (TBP) and the Equilibrium Flash
Vaporization (EFV) curves. The rst of these is the TBP curve which
is created from the product ASTM distillation curves.
The ASTM distillation data is tabulated as the temperature's Initial
Boiling Point (IBP), 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 90%, and Final Boiling Point
(FBP). The temperatures between the IBP and the EBP are read o
at the respective volume percentages distilled. This is represented in
Figure 6.2. From such a gure, data for the TBP may be read.
Once TBP has been calculated, the EFV curve may be created. The
purpose for creating an EFV curve is that it provides the temperature
where a required volume of product will be vaporized. This information
is very important in the design stage, in that improper design will either
provide insucient separation or unneeded costs.
Using Figure 6.3 the Flash Reference Line (FRL) may be drawn
onto the TBP curve. The EFV is then drawn as a straight line between
the intersection of the 10% volume point on the FRL and the 70% vol
point on the TBP curve.
6.1.2 Establishing Flash Zone Conditions
A ash zone is the area in the crude distillation tower where separation
of distillate vapors from unvaporized liquid product occurs. Upon entry
of the ash zone, vapors from the distillate rise through the tower where
it is condensed by a cold re ux stream. This re ux stream ows down
from the top of the tower. At the same time, steam enters the ash
zone from the bottom product stripper which is located below the ash
zone.
37
Flash zone conditions, particularly the temperature, are dicult to

measure accurately. This is primarily due to the turbulent conditions
created by the entrance of the liquid products and the disengagement
of the vapors from the liquid products. However, these conditions are
necessary for evaluating a distilling units performance. Therefore, there
are seven primary steps for determining ash zone conditions given by
Jones.[3]
Establish the total ash zone pressure.

Set the quantity of stripping steam used. (This value is usually

1.2 pounds of steam per gallon of product)

Using a material balance, calculate the moles per hour of vapor
leaving the ash zone.
Set the amount of over- ash
Construct the EFV curve.
From a knowledge of the amount of hydrocarbon vapor moles, the
moles of steam in the ash zone, and the total pressure within the
ash zone, determine the partial pressure of hydrocarbons. This
is
molesHCvapor
(6.1)
molessteam + molesHCvapor totalpressure
Adjust the EFV curve to calculate partial pressures.
By following this seven step process, the ash zone temperature

may be obtained.
38
Figure 6.2: True Boiling Point Correlation
39
Figure 6.3: Slope for TBP
40
Chapter 7
Vapor Recovery
After light-end vapors are removed from the crude feed in the fractionation tower, they are removed through an outlet in the top of the
tower. These vapors are then condensed into a liquid phase for further
processing.
Steam and
Light end Vapor
Containment for
Water Drainage
water in
water out
lightends
Condenser
Liquid water
and Light ends
water
Figure 7.1: Water Cooler Condenser

To begin the condensing process these vapors are passed through
a cold water condenser which speeds the phase change of the lightends. The rst phase of this process is a heat transfer, whereby the
41
gas is passed over coils containing counter current owing water. Heat
from the vapor passes to the coils and is removed by the owing water. The heat transfered to the water is then removed by convection
and radiation to the atmosphere. As the temperature of the vapor
decreases it begins to condense, eventually reaching a nearly complete
liquid phase. Once this occurs, the water that has condensed from the
extracted steam may be drained o from the light-end liquid. After this
separation of liquids, the light-end liquids may be further processed to
produce jet fuels, gasoline and diesel fuels.
The driving principle behind this condenser is that of a heat exchanger. Where in this case, heat from the vapor is transfered through
convection, due to the velocity of the vapor, to the coil. There is then
a heat transfer across the thickness of the coil due to conduction, and
then there is a transfer to the liquid water inside the coils due to convection. Finally, there is a very small amount of heat that is removed
by radiation eects within the system.
The heat transfer within the system follows the equations:
(7.1)
Q_ = ,kA dT
dx
Q_ = hA(Tb , Tf )
(7.2)
Q_ = ATb 4
(7.3)
where k is the conduction constant based on the properties of the
medium, h which is a convection constant based on the velocity and
properties of the medium, which is the emissivity of the surface of the
radiating medium, and which is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
The heat loss by the vapor results in an enthalpy loss in the vapor:
dH = Q_ , W_
(7.4)
dt
where enthalpy, H , is the sum of the internal energy U and the
product of the pressure p and volume V , giving an equation for enthalpy
as:
H = U + pV:
42
(7.5)
Pressure
Liquid
Solid
Vapor
Temperature
Figure 7.2: Pressure vs. Temperature Phase Relationship

Since U, p, and V are all properties of the vapors, this combination
H is also a property of the vapor. It should also be noted that in the
enthalpy balance, W_ for the system is zero. Thus, the vapor performs
a phase change to a liquid state, and removed energy is then released
to the atmosphere by the owing water.
43
44
Chapter 8
Catalytic Cracking
Catalytic processing is designed to improve the octane quality of
medium to light end products. By increasing the octane level, the tendency to ignite prematurely is decreased. This is both advantageous to
the environment and the machinery. The principle reaction is dehydrogenation of aromatics or naphthenes, which can then add paran side
chains in place of some of the hydrogen attached to the ring of carbons.
Examples of such parans, aromatics and naphthenes may be found in
gures 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3.
The combination of the parans to the naphthenes or aromatics
result in octane chains which take the basic form found in gure 7.4.
Feeds for this process are passed through three basic stages. Each
stage contains two operations, a pre-heat and then a reactor. The
reactions in this rst stage are highly endothermic, in that heat is added
in order for the reaction to occur. The mixture is then passed from the
reactor to a re-heat before passing to the second reactor, and nally to
a third re-heat and reactor. The second and third reactions are also
endothermic, however, it is to a slightly lesser degree since there are
fewer reactants to react. The product is separated into hydrogen-rich
gas and reformate in a high-pressure separator which operates around
a temperature of 100oF .
Typically, the dehydrogenation process occurring inside the reactors
is due to chloride or platinum catalyst, and by pre-heating the liquid
products, a higher internal energy is created to spur the reaction. Typi45
H
H
H
Methane
H
H
Ethane
H
H
Propane
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
N-Butane
Isobutane
Figure 8.1: Examples of Parans in crude oil.

cally these catalysts have approximately a one year lifespan, after which
they must be replaced. After passing through these three reactors, the
product is passed to a separator to remove more light ends, which are
passed on to the vapor recovery unit. The remainder of the product
is further processed to create industrial fuels which are used to power
heavy machinery for the generation of electricity.
46
H
C
HC
CH
HC
CH
C
H
Benzene
Figure 8.2: Example of an Aromatic hydrocarbon in crude oil

H2
C
H2
C
H2
C
H
H2 C
CH
H2 C
H2 C
C H3
C
H2
C
H2
C
H2
C H3
C
H2
C
H2
H
C H3
Cyclopentane
Methylcyclopentane
Dimethylcyclopentane
Figure 8.3: Examples of Naphthenes found in crude oil.

H
H
C
H
H
Figure 8.4: Octane Carbon Chain

47
Reactor 1
Reactor 2
Reactor 3
Light
end
Feed
Separator
Pre-heater
Re-heater
Re-heater
Figure 8.5: Catalytic Reactor Process
48
Chapter 9
De-waxing Process
"Warm Solution Drum"
Feed
Oil
Batch Cooler
(High Pressure)
Propane
Injection
Refrigeration
System
Dewaxed
Oil
Filtered Oil
Solvent
Recovery
Waxy Mixture
Wax
Figure 9.1: De-waxing Process Flow Diagram

49
Rotary Filter
Most lubricating oil feed stock must run through a De-waxing process in order to ow properly at ambient temperatures. Therefore,
De-waxing is one of the most important processes in the manufacturing of lubricating oils and grease. The simplest and most common
De-waxing process uses refrigeration to crystallize wax which permits
a rapid ltration of the wax from the oil.
In a propane De-waxing process, propane is used as both a dilutant
and a refrigerant for the waxy oil mixture. By injecting propane into
the oil stream the waxy oil mixture is thinned, and the propane acts as
a transport medium for the wax as it begins to crystallize.
Once waxy oil is mixed with the liquid propane it is allowed to cool
to a temperature of approximately 80oF (27oC ). It is then pumped into
a \warm solution drum" where it is pressurized to prohibit propane
vaporization. From the solution drum, it is charged into a batch cooler
where the mixture is cooled at a controlled rate by evaporation of the
propane. As a refrigerant, propane cools the oil through evaporation
from the now propane-waxy oil solution. The cooling process usually
occurs at a rate of approximately 3oF (1:5oC ) per minute, and the ratio
of the volume of propane to feed oil ranges between 1:5 : 1 and 3 : 1.
This rate is carefully controlled to promote good wax crystal growth.
Wax is then removed form the oil using rotary lters which collect
the wax into large clusters. These clusters are then removed by passing
cold propane vapors over the wax, causing the wax cluster to contract
and release from the lter.
Propane is then recovered from the De-waxed-oil stream by heating
the stream to temperatures around 320oF (160oC ) causing the propane
to vaporize. These propane vapors are then ashed at high pressure
so that the propane can be condensed with cooling water. Once recondensed, it is recirculated into the the waxy oil streams to repeat
the process. The De-waxed lubricating oil is then sent to a nal reformulation process to stabilize the color and odor of the lubricant.
Afterwards, the processed oil may then be used in industrial processes
as lubricating oils or industrial grease.
50
Chapter 10
Petroleum Coking
Heavy residual products which accumulate at the base of the fractionation tower have become more of a problem for petroleum reneries.
This is primarily due to the decrease in demand for heavy residual fuels. Historically these residual fuels were burned to produce electrical
power for industrial operations. However, heavy environmental restrictions have led industries to switch to natural gas. As a result, more of
this residual product must be processed in order to have a marketable
product. To combat this problem, coking units are introduced to convert these heavy products into a solid coke and to lower the boiling
points of other hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons can then be processed in other rening units for conversion into fuels of higher value.
The other product of this process is solid coke which is primarily solid
carbon mixed with various metallic impurities.
The coking process is very similar to an extreme case of cracking
where one of the end products is coke. This coke actually contains
some volatile matter which is remaining hydrocarbons with high boiling
points. These hydrocarbons must then be removed by running the solid
coke through a calcination process at approximately 2000F to 2300F
(1095 to 1260 C).
The need for a coking process is to create a more suitable feed fuel for
the catalytic cracking process. By reducing coke formation inside the
catalytic cracker, reneries have an increase in the output of catalytic
cracking processes, and thus produce fuels at a much lower cost.
There are three primary coking processes in use today. The rst of
51
these is delayed coking, which is the most widely used process. Fluid
coking and Flexicoking process are two other methods developed by
Exxon and are now being commercially operated in a handful of reneries.
There are several types of coke produced in these processes. Coke
produced in the delayed process is primarily sponge coke. Sponge coke
is hard, porous and irregularly-shaped, and it receives its name because
it resembles a sponge. Sponge coke ranges in size from 20 inches to a
ne dust. A second form of coke produced in the delayed process is
needle coke. Needle coke takes its name from its needle-like crystalline
structure. Both of these cokes have uses in the production of electrodes
due to their low electrical resistivity and a minimal change in thermal
expansion. A third and less desirable form of coke is shot coke. this
form of coke takes its name from its spherical shape giving it a similar
appearance to shotgun pellets. Shot coke is an undesirable product
due to its lack of marketability and the danger it creates by posing the
threat of plugging the coking unit.
The main uses of petroleum coke are:
Fuel
Chemical carbon source for manufacturing of carbide
Manufacturing of electrodes
Manufacturing of graphite.
52
10.1 Delayed Coking Process Description

In the delayed coking process residual heavy products are heated
to temperatures around 925F. The heated residual product is
then fed to one of several coking drums represented in Figure
10.1. Upon entry into the drum, vapors released from the heated
coke are extracted through the top of these drums and returned
to the fractionation tower. Once the coke drum in service is lled
to a safe margin from the top, the heater euent is switched to
the empty coking drum. This safe ll height for the drum is set
by the designer of the particular drum. Once the drum is isolated
from the heater, the coke drum is steamed to remove remaining
hydrocarbon vapors in the coke through a calcination process.
These hydrocarbon vapors are then removed through the top of
the coke drum as was done before, leaving only the solid coke in
the drum. After the calcination process is completed, the solid
coke is quenched with water. This water is then drained from the
drum, and the coke is ready for removal. Removal of the coke
is accomplished through the use of either a mechanical drill or
reamer. After which the coke may be shipped for manufacturing
of various products.
10.2 Flexicoking Process Description

In the exicoking process, feed from the fractionation tower is
preheated and sprayed into the reactor where it contacts a hot
uidized coke. this uidized coke is cycled between the reactor and the heater at a rate which maintains a reactor temperature around 1000F (540C). The cracked vapor products are
then passed through baes in a scrubber located in the top of
the reactor to separate the coke particles from the vapors. This
scrubber is fed a cool oil wash which washes the collected particles back to the liqueed coke in the reactor. The extracted
53
vapors are then removed from the reactor scrubber and returned
to the fractionation tower where they are sent to various renery
processes.
As the coke cools inside the reactor it settles to the base of the
reactor, this settling coke is then stripped with steam in a baed
section of the base of the reactor to prevent products other than
coke from leaving the reactor. Coke then ows from the reactor to
the heater where it is reheated to approximately 1000F (540C).
The reheated coke then ows from the heater to a third uidized
bed referred to as a gasier. In the gasier, the coke is reacts
with air and steam to produce various fuel gases which consist
of CO2, CO, H2, and N2. This gas is then removed from the
gasier and passed through a scrubber before being sent to be
reprocessed in the fractionation tower. The remaining purge coke
is then treated and removed from the process for manufacturing
of coke products.
10.3 Fluid Coking Process Description

Fluid coking is a simplied version of exicoking. In the uid
coking process, there are only two main components, a reactor
and a heater. This diers from the exicoking process in that
there is no gasier. Thus the uid coking process has a disadvantage compared to the exicoker in that less hydrocarbon gas
is removed and saved, however, this comes at an advantage in
lower cost. Therefore, a uid coking system would be used in
products containing low amounts of hydrocarbons found within
the residual heavy products.
54
Gasoline
Vapor
Recovery
Jet Fuel
Alkylation
Diesel Fuels
Additional
Processing
Industrial
Fuel Oil
Waxes
Lube Oils
Dewaxing
Extraction
Grease Manufacturing
Asphalts
Coke Drum
Extracted Gas
Coke Drum
Fractionation Tower
Catalytic
Cracking
Heater
Coke
Figure 10.1: Delayed coking unit.

55
Greases
Gas
Products to
Fractionation Tower
Gasifier
(Scrubber)
Coke
Coke
Heater
Feed
Reactor
Steam
(Scrubber)
Purged Coke
Figure 10.2: Flexicoking coking unit.
56
Appendix A
Internal Flow in Pipes
Flows completely bounded by a solid surface are called internal
ows. This ow can be either laminar or turbulent, compressible
or incompressible depending on the velocity and the nature of the
uid. For most petroleum uids, ows will be considered incompressible. Therefore, in the case of incompressible ow through
a pipe, laminar or turbulent ow is determined by the Reynolds
number. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that
relates the ratio of internal forces to viscous forces, and it can be
expressed as the following equation:
where:
{
{
{
{

Re = VD
(A.1)
Re=Reynolds number
= density of the uid
V = the average ow velocity
=the viscosity of the uid
Laminar ow is characterized by little or no mixing of the owing

uid, and the velocity prole as seen in gure A.1 is parabolic.
57
Turbulent ow involves complete mixing of the uid and a more

uniform velocity prole. An ideal representation of the velocity
prole is also represented in gure A.1. Laminar ow has been
shown in experiments to exist at Reynolds numbers below 2300
and turbulent ow above Reynolds numbers of 4000. Reynolds
numbers between these limits are considered to be in a transitional zone and can be either laminar or turbulent.
Once the ow regimes have been calculated, pressures within the
pipes may be determined using Bernoulli's theorem. Bernoulli's
equation expresses the properties of the owing uid in terms of
the energy contained within a uid. Using this basis, Bernoulli's
equation breaks down the energy in the uid in terms of:
{ The height of uid above an arbitrary datum

{ The potential energy from the pressure of the uid at a point
along the pipe
{ Kinetic Energy from the velocity of the uid
Assuming no work is done by the uid and no energy is added to

it, the law of conservation of energy may be applied. Thus, the
energy at a point along a pipe must equal the energy at a second
point in the pipe. Bernoulli's equation can therefore be written
as
where:
{
{
{
{
{
P1 + V1 2 + gz = P2 + V22 + gz
1
2
2
2
z=elevation
P=pressure
= density of the uid
V = velocity
g =the gravitational constant
58
(A.2)
However, in pipe ow, there is energy loss due to friction, and

thus, Bernoulli's equation may be rewritten as
P1 + V12 + gz = P2 + V2 2 + gz + h
(A.3)
1
2
lT
2
2
where hlT is the total head-loss. This total head loss is the sum
of all major losses, hl , due to friction and the sum of all minor
losses, hlm , due to entrances, ttings and area changes. Thus:
hlT = hl + hlm
(A.4)
2
hl = f LDV2
(A.5)
where:
where:
{
{
{
{
f =the friction factor

L= Pipe length
D= Inner pipe diameter
V = Average uid velocity
and
or
2
hlm = f LDeV2
(A.6)
2
hlm = K V2
(A.7)
where
{ Le =Equivalent length
{ K= Loss coecient
59
The friction factor for laminar ow is

flaminar = R64e
(A.8)
This friction factor does not take into account pipe roughness,
and is inversely proportional to the Reynolds number. However,
the friction factor for turbulent ow may be found by combining
gure A.4 and gure A.3. This is due to the protrusion of rough
surfaces inside the pipe which penetrate through a thin viscous
sub-layer of the uid on the inner wall of the pipe. This results
in an increase in drag on the uid causing a pressure loss. This
sub-layer is represented in gure A.2. Thus, this friction factor
caused by turbulent ow depends on the ratio De where e is the
roughness of the pipe, and D is once again the inner diameter of
the pipe.
The loss coecient k for minor losses may also be used to nd the
head loss created in inlets, enlargements and contractions. These
values for k may be determined using Tables A.1 and A.2 in gure
A.5
Equivalent length as used in the above equations may be used
to represent bends, valves and ttings, to a more simple representation as a length of straight pipe. The head loss in these
bends, valves and ttings is much larger than the headloss in
fully developed straight ow. This headloss is primarily caused
by secondary ow. In short, secondary ow is any ow that does
not follow the primary downstream owlines. This can be easily seen in the spiraling motion observed in ow through a bend
or through the separation eects ovserved in valves and ttings.
This secondary ow uses up energy that would otherwise be used
to move the uid downstream. Examples of these secondary ow
types are represented in gure A.6.
60
Velocity profile for Laminar Flow
Ideal velocity profile for turbulent flow
Figure A.1: Velocity proles
61
Vinfinity
Sublayer
V0
Figure A.2: Example of the sublayer of uid located on the inner wall
of a pipe
62
Friction factor
Reynolds number
Figure A.3: Friction factor for fully developed ow in pipes (Data from
Fox and McDonald)
63
Relative roughness, e/D
Pipe diameter (inches)
64
Figure A.4: Relative roughness for pipes (Data from Fox and McDonald)
Relative Roughness, e/D
Table A1
Minor loss coefficients for pipe entrances

Entrance Type
Reentrant
0.78
Sharp-edge
0.5
Rounded-edge
r/D 0.02 0.06 >0.15

K 0.28 0.15 0.04
Table A2
Minor loss coefficients for gradual contractions
A2/A1
10
15-40
50-60
90
120
150
180
0.50
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.12
0.18
0.24
0.26
0.25
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.17
0.27
0.35
0.41
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.08
0.19
0.29
0.37
0.43
A1
A2
Figure A.5: Minor loss coecients (Data from Fox and McDonald)
65
Cross-sectional View A
Flow through a Bend
Secondary Flow
Flow through a Valve or Fitting
Figure A.6: Secondary ow caused by bends, valves and ttings.
66
Appendix B
Fluid Machinery
Among various processing plants, dierent processes and machinery are used depending on what liquid products the facility wishes
to produce. However, one necessary piece of machinery for all of
these plants are pumps. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce and analyze uid machines used in industry. The ows being
used with these pumps will all be incompressible liquid ows, and
this type of machinery is all work absorbing, in that work is put
into the system to move the uid. Later in the chapter, work
producing uid machinery will be looked at as well.
B.1 Classication of Fluid Machinery

Work absorbing uid machinery may be classied into two major
categories, positive displacement or dynamic. The rst category,
positive displacement machinery, uses an energy transfer which is
done by volume changes within the inside of a closed chamber or
passage. The second classication deals with devices that direct
uid ow with vanes or blades which rotate on a shaft. These are
more specically termed turbomachines, and they have a dynamic
displacement of uid.
67
The dierence between these types of machinery is that all of the

work interaction in turbomachinery results from the dynamic effects of the rotor on the uid stream. An example of a positive
displacement machine commonly used in the petroleum industry
is the reciprocating compressor. Compressors such as this are
used for uids in gaseous phases, and these compressors are discussed in the following chapter. The emphasis of this chapter will
deal with dynamic machines.
Inside the branch of turbomachinery, a further distinction can be
made into radial and axial ow machines. In radial or centrifugal
ow machines, the ow path is essentially radial. This ow path
also has a dramatic change in the radius from the inlet to the
outlet. On the other hand, axial ow machines have a ow path
which is more or less parallel to the centerline of the machine.
The terminology given to these machines when dealing with incompressible uids are pumps. Similar machines which are used
to move gases and vapor are called fans, blowers, and compressors.
The rotating element in a pump which drives the uid is called
the impeller. This impeller is then contained inside a housing
which allows the impeller to direct the ow through the pump.
Three types of these centrifugal machines are shown in gure B.1.
Flow enters each machine in an axial direction. The entrance
point of the ow has a radius r1 . Flow then exits the impeller
through an opening of width, b, at a radius of r2 .
Similar to pumps and compressors are turbines. However, the
primary dierence between turbines and pumps is that turbines
extract energy from the uid.
A turbine assembly is composed of vanes or blades which are
attached to a turbine shaft. This entire assembly is called a
rotor. Two types of turbines are primarily used in uid ows,
these are gas or steam turbines and hydraulic turbines, where the
uid mediums are gas and liquid respectively. Within this category, two typical types of turbines are used, the Francis type also
known as a reaction turbine and the Kaplan type also known as
a propeller turbine. In the Francis type turbine shown in gure
68
b
r2
r1
(a) Centrifugal pump
(b) Centrifugal blower

Volute
Impeller vane
Eye
(c) Centrifugal compressor
Figure B.1: Schematic diagrams of typical centrifugal- ow turbomachines.

B.2 Liquid enters the casing of the turbine where it ows cir69
cumferentially. This ow is then directed into the rotor by the

stationary guide vanes. After driving the rotor, the liquid then
ows through a diuser and nally leaves the turbine.
Also represented in gure B.2 is the Kaplan type propeller turbine. In this assembly, liquid enters the turbine in the same fashion as it did for the Francis type turbine. However, this liquid is
directed to ow nearly axial to the rotor shaft. This liquid then
drives the rotor as it passes through the turbine.
B.2 Turbomachinery Analysis

Depending on the information desired about the system, various
methods of analysis can be used to analyze turbomachinery. In
cases such as those used in petroleum processes, the desired information is usually ow rate, pressure change, torque and power.
This information can be found by applying a nite control volume.
B.2.1 The Angular Momentum Principle

The principle of angular momentum, when applied to a control
volume, results in the equation:
@ Z ~r V~ dV +Z ~r V~ V~ dA

~r ~gdV +T~Shaft = @t
CV
CS
CV
(B.1)
~rF~s+
B.2.2 Euler Turbomachine Equation

When analyzing turbomachinery, it is convenient to choose a xed
control volume which encloses the rotor so that the torque may
be evaluated. To simplify the analysis, torques due to surface
70
Stationary Guide
Vanes
Rotor Vanes
Casing
Draft Tube
Reaction turbine
(Francis type)
Guide Vanes
Casing
Rotor
Vanes
Propeller turbine
(Kaplan type)
Figure B.2: Schematic diagrams of typical hydraulic turbines.
71
X
U2
V1
Vn1
U1
Vt1
Y
r1
r2
Vt2
V2
Vn2
Figure B.3: Finite control volume and absolute velocity components

for angular momentum analysis.
force are ignored. Contributions due to body forces may be neglected due to symmetry. Therefore, for steady ow , equation
B.1 changes to:
T~Shaft =
CV
~r V~ V~ dA
(B.2)
by selecting a xed control volume as seen in gure B.3 which

encloses the rotor of a turbomachine. Fluid enters the rotor at a
radial location r1 , with a velocity V~1 . This uid then leaves the
system at a radial location 2, with velocity V~2. Thus equation
B.2 becomes:
TShaft = (r2 Vt2 , r1 Vt1)m_

(B.3)
By noting that V dA = m_ . Equation B.3 is often called the
72
Euler Turbomachine equation, and it provides a basic relationship between torque and angular momentum for turbomachines.
Giving TShaft > 0 for pumps and compressors and TShaft < 0 for
turbines.
The mechanical power, W_ m or the rate of work done on a turbomachine rotor is given by the dot product of the angular velocity
of the rotor, ~!, and the applied torque, TShaft .
or
W_ m = ~! T~Shaft
(B.4)
W_ m = !(r2Vt2 , r1 Vt1)m_
(B.5)
From this equation, it can be noticed that the angular momentum
of the uid increases with the addition of shaft work. Therefore,
for a pump, W_ m > 0 the angular momentum of the uid must
increase. On the other hand, for a turbine, W_ m < 0 and therefore
there is a decrease in the angular momentum.
By introducing U = r!, where U is the tangential speed of the
rotor at radius r, then
W_ m = (U2 Vt2 , U1 Vt1 )m_
(B.6)
or by dividing this equation by mg
_ , a quantity with the dimensions of length is obtained, which is termed the head added to
the ow.
_m 1
H=W
mg
_ = g (U2Vt2 , U1 Vt1 )m_
(B.7)
From these equations, one may notice that the dierence in the
product rVt or UVt , between the inlet and the outlet sections is
important in determining the torque applied to the rotor or the
energy transfer to the uid.
Applying the rst law of thermodynamics for incompressible ow
across a pump or turbine, the rate of energy added to or extracted
_
=
from the uid stream, for an ideal case, W_ h = m_ p = mgH
73
QgH . In this case W_ h is the hydraulic power. Neglecting friction

and ow losses, the hydraulic power is equal to the mechanical
power. However, when friction and ow losses are included, hydraulic and mechanical power are related using eciency.
For pumps, the eciency is dened as p = WW__ mh . Thus,
_
p = W_ h = QgH
!T
Wm
(B.8)
For hydraulic turbines, the eciency is dened as t = WW__ mh . Thus,

_
!T
t = W_ m = QgH
Wh
74
(B.9)
B.3 Velocity Polygon Method

The importance of having clearly dened components for uid
velocity is seen in the equations used in this chapter. Thus, it is
often useful to create velocity polygons for both the inlet and the
outlet ow. These velocity polygons are illustrated in gure B.4.
In an idealized situation, ow relative to the rotor is assumed to
enter and leave tangent to the prole of the rotor blade. This
ideal situation is often referred to as shockless entry. The blade
angles, , are measured relative to the tangential velocity of the
blade. The inlet blade angle, 1 , xes the direction of the inlet
velocity relative to the design conditions of the rotor assembly.
The absolute uid velocity is the vector sum of the uid ow velocity relative to the blade and the tangential uid velocity at that
point. The angle of the absolute uid velocity, 1, is measured
from the normal direction, as shown in gure B.4. The tangential
component of this absolute velocity, Vt1 , and the component normal to the ow area, Vn1, can also be seen in gure B.4. It should
be noted that the normal component of the absolute velocity, Vn,
and the normal component of the velocity relative to the blade,
Vrbn, have equal magnitudes.
In swirl-free conditions for the inlet ow, the absolute velocity
will be completely radial in direction. The inlet blade angle may
be specied for the design ow rate and pump speed to provide
shockless entry ow. Pre-swirl, which may be present in the inlet
ow, or created by stator vanes, will cause the absolute inlet ow
direction to stray from the radial direction.
Velocity polygons are constructed in a similar fashion at the outlet
section of the rotor. The tangential velocity is U2 , which is found
from the dimensions of the rotor and the angular velocity at which
the rotor is running. The relative ow is then assumed to leave
the impeller tangent to the blade, as shown in gure B.4. By using
this idealized assumption, the direction of the relative outlet ow
at the design conditions can be found.
75
In the case of a centrifugal pump or a reaction turbine, illustrated

in gures B.1 and B.2 respectively, the velocity relative to the
blade changes in magnitude from the inlet to the outlet. Thus, the
continuity equation must be applied, using the impeller geometry,
to determine the normal component of velocity at each section.
This equation in cylindrical coordinates is:
1 @ (rVr ) + 1 @ (V ) + 1 @ (Vz ) + @ = 0
(B.10)
r @r
r @
r @z
@t
The normal component combined with the blade angle is then
sucient enough information to establish the velocity relative to
the blade at the impeller outlet for a radial- ow machine. The
velocity polygon for this position can then be completed.
Once the inlet and outlet conditions are established, all of the
information needed to calculate the ideal torque or power which
is absorbed or delivered by the rotor using equations B.2 and B.4.
The results of these calculations provide the performance of a
turbomachine under idealized conditions. These idealized results
represent the upper limits of performance for a turbomachine.
The actual performance may be estimated using the same basic
approach, however variations in ow properties across the blade
span at the inlet and outlet sections must be accounted for. Secondly, deviations between the blade angles and the ow directions
must also be taken into account. However, the calculations for
the actual performance are beyond the scope of this document.
The alternative is to measure the overall performance of a turbomachine on a suitable test stand. This data can often times be
found in the specications provided by the manufacturer.
Figure B.4 represent the ow through an impeller. Assuming that
the uid enters the impeller with a purely radial absolute velocity,
swirl free conditions, then the uid entering the impeller has no
angular momentum and Vt1 is zero. Thus the increase in head is
given by:
H = U2gVt2
76
(B.11)
Then, using the exit velocity polygon of gure B.4
Vn2 cos
Vt2 = U2 , Vrb2 cos 2 = U2 , sin
2

2
which reduces to:
U2 , Vn2 cot 2
Thus equation B.11 can be whiten as:
2 , U2 Vn2 cot 2
U
2
H=
g
For an impeller of width w, the volume ow rate is:
(B.12)
(B.13)
(B.14)
Q = D2wVn2
(B.15)
Therefore, to express the head in terms of volume ow rate, Vn2
is substituted in terms of Q. Thus
2
2 cot 2 Q
H = Ug2 , UD
2 wg
Equation B.16 may be represented in the form
(B.16)
H = C1 , C2Q
(B.17)
where constants C1 and C2 are functions of the rotors geometry
and speed,
and
C1 = Ug2
2 cot 2
C2 = UD
wg
2
(B.18)
(B.19)
Equation B.17 predicts a linear variation of the head, H, with the

volume ow rate, Q. This may be represented in gure B.5.
77
Constant C1 represents the ideal head developed by the pump

for zero ow rate. The slope of the curve of head verses ow
rate depends on the sign and magnitude of C2 . For example, as
illustrated in gure B.5, for radial outlet vanes, 2 = 90 and C2 =
0, the tangential component of the absolute velocity at the outlet
is equal to the wheel speed and is independent of ow rate. If the
vanes are forward curved, 2 > 90 and C2 < 90. The absolute
uid velocity at the outlet in this case is greater than the wheel
speed and it increases as the ow rate increases. As represented
in gure B.5, the head increases linearly with increasing ow rate.
In the case of a backward curved impeller, 2 < 90 and C2 > 90.
Thus the characteristics of a radial- ow machine can be altered
by changing the angle of the rotor vanes.
B.4 Performance Characteristics

An example of the characteristic curve for a centrifugal pump are
shown in gure B.6. This curve is combined with the ideal ow
curve to display the signicant dierence between the ideal and
actual pump performance. The reasons for the dierence in the
performance are:
{ Recirculation of uid in the impeller occurs at very low ow
rates
{ As ow rate increases, friction loss and leakage loss increase.
{ \Shock loss" resulting from a mismatch between in relative
speed of the uid and impeller speed.
For this typical machine, head is a maximum at shuto and decreases continuously as ow rate increases. Input power is minimum at shuto and increases as delivery is increased. Pump
eciency increases with capacity until the best eciency point is
reached. Eciency the decreases as ow rate is increased. Thus
for minimum energy consumption, pumps must be run at the best
eciency point.
78
Another interesting characteristic is that centrifugal pumps may

be combined in series or parallel. When combined in series, pumps
deliver greater head to the system. Parallel pumps on the other
hand, deliver more ow.
Like pumps, turbines must also be tested in order to gain accurate
knowledge of their characteristics. The procedure for testing turbines requires a dynamometer to absorb the turbine power output
while the speed and torque are measured. These test are usually
done at constant speeds with varying loads to simulate real world
conditions.
B.5 Dimensional Analysis

The purpose of this section is to provide forms of dimensionless
coecients commonly used with turbomachinery. The ow coefcient, , is dened as the ow rate divided by the exit area and
tangential speed of the rotor. Giving
(B.20)
= AQU = VUn2 :
2 2
2
Vn2 in this equation is the velocity component perpendicular to
the exit area. Next a dimensionless head coecient, , may be
obtained by dividing the head, H, by Ug . Giving
2
= gH2 :
(B.21)
U2
A dimensionless torque coecient, , is then obtained by dividing
the torque, T, by A2 U22 R2. Thus
T
(B.22)
A2 U2 2R2
where is the density of the uid, A2 is the exit area, U2 is the
tangential velocity of the rotor at the exit and R2 is the radius at
the exit.
=
79
Finally, the dimensionless coecient for power is determined, .

This is obtained by normalizing the power, W_ with the angular
momentum at the exit, mU
_ 2 2. Thus
_
_
= W 2 = 2 W2
QU2 ! QR2 (B.23)
When dealing with pumps, the mechanical input power is greater
than the hydraulic power, and the eciency is dened as p = WW__ mh .
This may then be written as
W_ m = T! = 1 W_ h = QgH
(B.24)
p
Substituting the dimensionless coecients , , and into these

equations, and analogous relation is obtained.
=

p
(B.25)
Similarly, for turbines, the mechanical output power is less than

the hydraulic power, and the eciency is dened as t = W_ m=W_ h:Thus;
W_ m = T! = t W_ h = t QgH
(B.26)
Once again the dimensionless coecients, , , and are introduced
into the previous equation giving
= t
(B.27)
The dimensionless coecients and the equations above using them,

are the basis for scaling turbomachinery. These equations allow the
use of small scale models to be used to aid in the design of full scale
machinery. In using these equations, the ow coecient, , is the
independent parameter. The coecients for torque, power, and head
are then treated as multiple dependent parameters, and viscous eects
of the uid are neglected. Using these assumptions, dynamic similarity
80
is achieved when the ow coecients are matched for models and the
actual machinery.
When scaling these machines, a useful tool is the specic speed. This
is obtained by combing in the ow and head coecients to eliminate
the machine size. This results in
Ns = !Q
(B.28)
H
Incorporating dimensionless parameters such that the head is expressed
as energy per unit mass, and ! is expressed in radians per second.
1
2
3
4
Ns = !P (B.29)
H
The specic speed may also be represented in terms of the turbomachine's power. Since this power is proportional to the product of the
volume ow rate and the head, the specic speed can be represented as
1
2
5
4
Ns = !P (B.30)
H
Specic speed then can be viewed as the operating speed at which
the turbomachine produces unit volume ow rate at unit head. Thus
by holding the specic speed constant, the operating conditions of all
geometrically similar machines under similar ow conditions can be
described. Thus it is possible to characterize machines by their specic
speed at the design point. For example, low specic speeds are produced
eciently by radial- ow machines. High specic speeds are produced
eciently by axial- ow machines. Thus for a specied head, one can
choose a low specic speed machine or a high specic speed machine.
1
2
5
4
B.6 Similarity Rules

Pump manufacturers oer a limited number of casing sizes and designs.
Usually, these casings are developed from a common design and altering
81
all of the dimensions by a scale ratio. Additional characteristics may

occur by altering the impeller size or the pump speed. In such cases,
the dimensionless parameters provide a solid tool for determining the
pump specications which resulted in altering the pump size or speed.
Dynamic similarity between two pumps of similar design is found by
holding the dimensionless ow coecient constant and comparing the
ow rate, rotational speed and the pump diameter. It should also be
noted that the ow elds must be similar and the viscous eects must
be neglected. Assuming all of this gives
Q1 = Q2
(B.31)
!1 D13 !2D23
Since the dimensionless head and power coecients are only dependent
on the ow coecient.
and
H =f ( Q )
!2D2 1 !D3
(B.32)
P =f ( Q )
!3D5 2 !D3
(B.33)
H1 = H2
!12 D12 !22D2 2
(B.34)
Using this relationship, pump characteristics at a new condition can be

compared to characteristics at an old or previous position by
and
P1
2
=
5
3
3
1 !1 D1 2!2 D25
(B.35)
These scaling relationships allow a prediction of the eects the changes

in pump operating speed, size, or impeller diameter within a given
housing have.
82
V2
U2
V rb2
V rb1
V1
r1
r2
U1
(a)
Absolute velocity as a sum

of the velocity relative to the blade
and the rotor velocity.
V rb1
V t1
V n1 1 V 1
1
(b)
U1
Velocity polygon at inlet
V t2
V rb2
V n2
2
(c)
V2
U2
Velocity polygon at outlet
Figure B.4: Geometry and notation used to develop velocity polygons

for a typical radial- ow machine.
83
Forward Curve
2>90
2=90, radial
2<90
Head, H
Backward Curve
2
R2
H=
g
Volume flow rate, Q
Figure B.5: Idealized relationship between head and volume ow rate

for a centrifugal pump with forward-curved, radial, and backwardcurved impeller blades.
84
Loss due to recirculation
Head, H
Ideal head-flow curve
Loss due to
internal flow
friction
Actual
head-flow
curve Approximate
best efficiency
point.
"Shock" loss
Volume flow rate, Q
Figure B.6: Comparison of ideal and actual head- ow curves.
85
86
Appendix C
Compressor Calculations
There are ve factors which must be looked at when selecting a compressor. These are:
{ Cylinder Displacement
{ Volumetric Eciency
{ Discharge Temperature
{ Adiabatic Head
{ Power
C.0.1 Cylinder Displacement

Cylinder displacement can be calculated through the use of geometric
relations of the compressor components. For a single acting cylinder:
Displacement = St ! D
4
where:
{
{
{
{
X = Cylinder displacement
St =Piston stroke
! = Strokes per minute
D = Piston face diameter
87
(C.1)
C.0.2 Volumetric Eciency

To determine the actual inlet capacity of a cylinder, the calculated
displacement must be modied. One reason behind this modication
is due to the clearance between the piston and the end of the cylinder
which is denoted in gure C.1 by .
Outlet valve
Fully Extended
Fully Extracted
Inlet valve
Figure C.1: Representation of the clearance between the cylinder wall

and the piston.
During the expansion portion of the cycle represented in process 3 to
4 in the P-V diagram below, the gas trapped in the clearance expands
to partially ll the cylinder. this can be represented by the following
equation which calculates theoretical volumetric eciency, Evt .
where:
Evt = 1:00 , ( f1 rp1=k , 1)c
{ Evt = Theoretical Volumetric Eciency

88
(C.2)
Pressure
Volume
Figure C.2: P-V diagram for cylinder.
{ f = ZZ1 = ratio of discharged compressibility to inlet com2
pressibility
{ rp = pressure ration
{ k= ccvp = isentropic exponent
{ c= compressor coecient
89
The inlet capacity of the cylinder is then calculated by:
Q1 = Evt X
(C.3)
C.0.3 Discharge Temperature and Adiabatic Head

The discharge temperature may be represented as:
T2 = r k,k
T1 p
and the adiabatic head may be calculated by:
(
k,
h = h2 , h1 = RT1 k (rp k , 1)
k,1
(
where:
(C.4)
1)
1)
(C.5)
{ h = adiabatic head
{ rp = pressure ratio
{ k = isentropic exponent
C.0.4 Power
The work-per-stage can be calculated by multiplying the adiabatic head
by the mass ow per stage.
,W_ = h m_
(C.6)
k,
,W_ = mRT
_ 1 k ,k 1 (rp k , 1)
(C.7)
,W_ = P1Q1 k ,k 1 (rp k,k , 1)
(C.8)
1)
replacing mRT
_ 1 with P1Q1 produces:
where:
90
1)
{ P1 = initial pressure
{ Q1 = inlet capacity of the cylinder
The gure C.3 gives values of eciency plotted against pressure ratios
which may be used for compressor selection. Valve velocity in this gure
is taken to be 3000 fpm and the mechanical eciency of the system is
95%.
86
84
Efficiency (%)
82
80
78
76
74
72
1.5
2.5
3.5
4
4.5
Pressure ratio
5.5
6.5
Figure C.3: Eciency versus pressure ratios (data taken from Brown
[?].
91
92
Bibliography
[1] Robert Fox, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, [New York,
John Wiley and Sons, INC 1992].
[2] James H. Gary, Petroleum Rening Technology and Economics, [New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994].
[3] D. S. J. Jones, Elements of Petroleum Processing, [New York,
John Wiley and Sons, 1995].
[4] Arthur L. Kohl, Gas Purication, Fourth Edition [Houston,
Gulf Publishing Company, 1985].
[5] C. F. Kruse, Plant Processing of Natural Gas, [Austin,
Petroleum Extension Service, 1974].
[6] Jodie Leecraft, Field handling of Natural Gas, Fourth Edition,
[Austin, Petroleum Extension Service Division of Continuing
Education, 1987].
[7] Robert A. Meyers, Handbook of Petroleum Rening Processes,
[New York, McGraw-Hill 1996].
[8] Pierre Pichot, Compressor Application Engineering, [Houston,
Gulf Publishing Company, 1986].
93

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Printed on April 30, 1998

4 Cryogenic Processing of Natural Gas

5 Basic Processes of Liquid Petroleum Processing

3.0.1 Glycol Dehydration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

6.1 Design Tools for Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

A Internal Flow in Pipes

10.1 Delayed Coking Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

B.1 Classi cation of Fluid Machinery . . . . .

Figure 1.1: Examples of Parans in crude oil.

Figure 1.2: Examples of Naphthenes found in crude oil.

Figure 1.3: Example of an Aromatic hydrocarbon in crude oil

in the previously separated liquid. The nal step is the discharge of

2.1 Vertical Separators

Figure 2.1: Standard Vertical Separator

Figure 2.2: Standard Horizontal Separator

2.2 Horizontal Separators

passed to a storage compartment which is connected to the gas outlet

Figure 2.3: Standard Double-Barrel Horizontal Separator

2.3 Double-Barrel Horizontal Separators

2.4 Stage Separation

Figure 3.1: Water-vapor content of saturated natural gas

Temperature ( C) H2 S (%) CO2 (%) H2 O Conc. (ppMM)

Figure 3.2: Water-vapor content of saturated air

 Condensation by Compression and/or Cooling

3.0.1 Glycol Dehydration Process

Figure 3.3 represents a ow diagram of a plant designed to use

Figure 3.3: Flow Diagram of a Glycol Dehydration Plant

3.0.2 Dehydration and Gas Puri cation by Adsorption

Anytime a molecule bonds to the outside of a compound, the process

adsorption, materials are concentrated on the surface of a solid as a

volumes of high-pressure natural gas, a liquid dehydrating system is

Figure 4.1: Pressure and Temperature to Recover 60 percent Ethane

Figure 4.2: Cryogenic Expander Process

to sales gas pressure in the expander-compressor and recompressor.

Figure 4.3: Pressure-Temperature Diagram for Expander Process (Data

4.1.2 Cascade Refrigeration

Figure 4.4 represents a ow diagram for a the principle components

Figure 4.4: Cascade Refrigeration

quantity of ethane used in stage two, the amount of propane is also

Figure 4.5: LNG Cascade Cycle

processed into lubricating oils and greases. Finally, crude residue is

Figure 5.1: Overview of Re nery Flow

Figure 6.1: Fractionation Curves

of steam and the percent of light end products removed by stripping is

6.1 Design Tools for Distillation

Two important tools for designing and maintaining the distillation

6.1.2 Establishing Flash Zone Conditions

Flash zone conditions, particularly the temperature, are dicult to

 Establish the total ash zone pressure.

1.2 pounds of steam per gallon of product)

By following this seven step process, the ash zone temperature

Figure 6.2: True Boiling Point Correlation

Figure 6.3: Slope for TBP

Figure 7.1: Water Cooler Condenser

Figure 7.2: Pressure vs. Temperature Phase Relationship

Figure 8.1: Examples of Parans in crude oil.

Figure 8.2: Example of an Aromatic hydrocarbon in crude oil

Figure 8.3: Examples of Naphthenes found in crude oil.

Figure 8.4: Octane Carbon Chain

Figure 8.5: Catalytic Reactor Process

Figure 9.1: De-waxing Process Flow Diagram

10.1 Delayed Coking Process Description

B.1 Classication of Fluid Machinery . . . . .

Figure 1.1: Examples of Parans in crude oil.

Temperature ( C) H2 S (%) CO2 (%) H2 O Conc. (ppMM)

Condensation by Compression and/or Cooling

3.0.2 Dehydration and Gas Purication by Adsorption

Figure 5.1: Overview of Renery Flow

Flash zone conditions, particularly the temperature, are dicult to

Establish the total ash zone pressure.

Figure 8.1: Examples of Parans in crude oil.

Figure A.1: Velocity proles

B.1 Classication of Fluid Machinery

The dierence between these types of machinery is that all of the

@ Z ~r V~ dV +Z ~r V~ V~ dA

QgH . In this case W_ h is the hydraulic power. Neglecting friction

For hydraulic turbines, the eciency is dened as t = WW__ mh . Thus,

Finally, the dimensionless coecient for power is determined, .

Substituting the dimensionless coecients , , and into these

The dimensionless coecients and the equations above using them,

These scaling relationships allow a prediction of the eects the changes

C.0.2 Volumetric Eciency