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I Introduction
The course is based on Analytical Mechanics with an introduction to dynamical systems by
J.S.Torok, which can be used for background material and exercises.
Laws of Newton
In the second law of Newton momentum is referred to as motion and equals
p = mv
, such that
d
F = p = dt mv
F = F ji
. The third law yields ij
. All motion is defined with respect to an inertial
Vxyz =
xyz = 0
reference system, so
constant and
Relative motion
r rel = xi + y j + zk
+ y j + zk
v rel = xi
arel =
xi +
y j +
zk
True motion
The position in the xyz-frame with respect to the inertial reference frame can be found using:
r p = r xyz + r rel
dj
dr xyz dr rel
d
di
dk
+ y j + zk
+x +y +z
rp =
+
= v xyz + xi
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
= v xyz + v rel + xxyz i + yxyz j + zxyz k
vp =
d
vp =
dt
= v xyz + r rel + r rel
+ u , such that:
u = ue
ap =
+ v rel
Fictious forces
F = ma
or
marel = F F fict
)
.
Work is defined as
such that
r2
t2
r1
t1
F = V =
V
V
V
i
j
k and = T + V = constant.
x
y
z
Example:
Fx =
dV
dV
=0
= mx mx +
dx
dx
or
dV
dV
d 1
x mx +
x = mx 2 + V ( x) 1 mx 2 + V ( x)
= mxx +
dx
dx
dt 2
or 2
=constant.
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is defined as
With v = v0
+r:
1
1
dT = v vdm or T = v vdm .
2
2
1
(v0 + r ) (v0 + r )dm = 1 mv02 + v0 rdm + 1 ( r )( r )dm
2
2
2
1
1
= mv02 + T I
2
2
T=
Inertia Tensor
I xx
I xy
I yy
I yz
I xz
and IG wrt the mass center of a body. Now fixed point rotation yields
motion
T=
1
T = T I 0 and general
2
1 2 1 T
mvG + I G .
2
2
I zz = I xx + I yy and I xz = I yz = 0 .
Virtual work
-
I xx = I yy and I xy = 0 .
l,m
g
m + m sin = 0
l
g
+ sin = 0
l
which is conservative!
g
d 1 2 g
cos = 0
l
dt 2
l
1 2 g
cos =constant.
2
l
+ sin =
This is however not expressed in the right coordinates and units and therefore can not be energy.
The generalised coordinates
{q , q ,, q } are defined as q
1
= qi ( x1 , x2 ,, xn , t ) or
Generalized velocities
When
xi = xi q1 , q 2 , q n , t , xi =
xi
t
xi
q
j =1
Now
or
, such that
, with
.
((
) (
))
Generalized momenta
Furthermore the generalized momentum is defined as
pi =
T
.
qi
Example:
1 2
T
mx ; p =
= mx (linear momentum)
x
2
1 2 2
T
Pendulum: T = ml ; p =
= ml 2 2 (angular momentum)
T=
Generalized work
with
Defining
generalized and
Example: Pendulum
r = l cos i + l sin j ; F = mg i
r = l sin i + l cos j
W = mgl sin , such that Q = mgl sin .
The generalized force can also be determined directly
conservative system
Qj =
V
.
q j
Fi =
d pi
dt
Because xi
only if
p i = mi ri
xi n xi
x
x
= xi (q, q ) f (t ) it can be derived that i = i , such that:
t j =1 qi
qk qk
or for a
d T T
differential equations that describe the behaviour of the system, the equations of motion. This method
is faster than Newtonian mechanics.
Qj =
V
for a conservative system and else via virtual work.
q j
In practical cases of conservative systems the potential V is only a function of position, such that
V
q
= 0
j
d T T
V
=
dt q j q j
q j
d T V T V
=0
dt q j q j q j q j
d
(
T V )
(T V ) = 0
q
dt q j
j
d L L
L
=0
dt q j q j
And for a non-conservative system
d L L
= Q nc
j
dt q j q j
V.
-
or
L
d L
= 0 , which yields
=0
q
dt q j
L
=constant= Cq . The generalised momentum of q is the integral of motion, because
q j
L T V
T
=
=
= p.
q
q
q
Example: Satellite
R=
c q
i i
i = n m +1
R
L
R
L
R
R
=
and
=
, for ignorables:
= 0 and
= 0 . Now
q
q
q
q
q
q
d R R
the Lagrangian equation for non-ignorables becomes:
=0.
dt qk qk
4.
Now R
i = n m +1
5.
L
= Cqign qign
qign
Ci qi L .
d R R
=0
dt qk qk
Example: Satellite
1+2:
The same way as in the previous example the Lagrangian
L=
1
km
m r 2 r 2 2 +
, such that is the
2
r
ignorable coordinate.
3:
C
L
= mr 2 = C = 2
mr
4:
C
1
km C 2 1 2 2 C 2 km
R = C L = C 2 m r 2 + r 2 2
=
m r + r 2 4
mr
r
mr 2 2
mr r
2
C2 1
km
= 2 mr 2
2mr
2
r
5:
R
= mr
r
d R
= mr
dt r
2C 2 km
R
= 3 + 2
r
2mr
r
C 2 km
C 2
d R R
k
= mr + 3 2 = 0 or r + 2 3 2 = 0 .
dt r r
mr
r
mr r
h = R qk
k =1
R
, where the second term represents the
qk
non-ignorable coordinates.
Example: Satellite
With the Rothian as defined in the previous example, the Jacobi energy integral
h = R
C2 1
C2 3
R
km
km
mr 2 = 2 mr 2
r = 2 mr 2
.
r
2mr
2
r
2mr
2
r
Steady motion
A motion is steady (constant in time) when all
qk = 0 and p k =
d L
dt qk
R
= 0.
= 0 , such that
qk
Example: Satellite
r = 0
pr =
R
=0
r
C
r = 0 means that r is constant and thus that = 2 =constant, more specific:
mr
2
mr 2
2C 2 km km C 2
k
R
=
+ 2 or 2 = 3 =
= mr 2 or = 3 .
3
3
r
2mr
r
r
mr
mr
r
a role. Those can be taken into account via the Raleigh dissipation function:
D=
1
D
cx x 2 + c y y 2 + cz z 2 ) . Now Q =
, such that via virtual work the Lagrangian equation for
(
2
q
d L L D
+
= Qk* .
dt qk qk qk
Lagrange multipliers
For a system with n variables ( {q1 qn } ), m constraints (
f
R = f ( =
x
f
y
f
for the 3D-case) perpendicular to f . The Lagrangian multiplier is
z
an extra unknown and can be used to model contact between two flexible bodies.
Via virtual work the Lagrangian equation now becomes:
d L
dt qk
m
f
L
=
j j .
qk j =1 qk
1
m r 2 r 2 2 + mgr cos (no ignorables!)
2
The constraint in this case r = l or f ( r ) = r l = 0 .
From earlier problems it is known that
L=
d L L
f
=
dt r r
r
d L L
f
2.
=
dt
3. f ( r ) = 0
1.
mr mr 2 mg cos =
2
2. 2mrr + mr + mgr sin = 0
3. r l = 0
1.
2
1. ml mg cos =
2.
g
ml 2 + mgl sin = 0 or + sin = 0 .
l
x = F ( x, t ) with x ( 0 ) = x0 .
solution x(t) is always inside the area of the initial condition x0 around an equilibrium point
This represents the effect of a small deviation in initial condition.
x* .
g
sin = 0 is a second order differential equation, which can be converted to a first order d.e. via = .
l
g
T
Then = sin , such that x = [ ] . The system is in equilibrium when x = 0 or when = 0 and
l
= 0 , which is the fact for = k or when the pendulum is vertical.
i R and i < 0 ,
i C and Re ( i ) 0 ,
or combinations of those.
k
k
x = 0 , which can be converted to a 1st order d.e. with x = y and y = x .
m
m
0 1
x
x
y = k 0 y .
m
x
In an equilibrium point =0, which yields x*=0.???
y
x+
i
x
k
k
k
and = c1e
= + = 0 or = = i
m
m
m
y
2
k
m
+ c2 e
k
m
because both Eigen values are complex with a zero real part.
Linearization
Non-linear dynamic systems can be linearized about equilibrium points by a Taylor expansion:
F ( x ) = F ( x 0 ) + F ( x 0 )( x x 0 )
=
g
l
= sin
This systems equilibrium points are 0,0 (I) and
,0 (II).
F ( x0 ) = 0
F1
x
1
F ( x0 ) =
F2
x
1
0
= g
l
F1
0
x2
= g
cos
F2
l
x2 x = x
1
0
0 0
1
0
= g
0
x = x0 l
= 2 +
g
g
, such that is complex with Re ( ) = 0 , thus equilibrium point
= 0 = i
l
l
I is stable.
Linearization about equilibrium point II gives:
= g
cos
l
g
l
= 2
0
x = x0
0
0 = g
1
0
g
g
, such that is real with one of >0, thus the equilibrium point II is
=0 =
l
l
unstable.
In general the stability of any system can be checked by:
1. Setting up the 2nd order differential equation (equation of motion) by one of the methods from
previous chapters (in general via the Lagrangian equation)
2. Deriving the 1st order system of differential equations
3. Finding the equilibrium points
4. Linearizing about those points
5. Analysing the Eigen values.
Example: vertical rod with springand force acting on it
Example: satellite
Elaborations of this example can be found in handwritten notes.
V
q
Q=
V
= 0 ,
and in an equilibrium position q = 0 and q
q
=0.
q = q*
Around a maximum of V(q), Q is opposite to the disturbance in q and around a minimum Q is in the
same direction. This means that:
2V
When
q 2
q = q*
2V
When
q 2
q = q*
V
2V
= mgl sin = 0 = k ; 2 = mgl cos , which is
q
q
> 0 and thus stable for = , 3 , 5 ,
< 0 and thus unstable for = 0, 2 , 4 ,
V = mgl cos ;
T2 =0) T0 + V = h =constant.
The effective potential is defined as Veff = V T0 and the equilibrium condition becomes:
(such that
Veff
q
= 0 . Again for a minimum of Veff the system is stable and for a minimum of Veff it is unstable.
Examples
The transformation from X,Y,Z to x,y,z can be performed via the Euler angles
= ex '
and
= + + .
The actual transformation can be done via matrices or by projection. The latter case yields:
Ix
z ) 0
0
0
Iy
0
0 x
0 y
I z z
T=
((
1
2
I 2 sin 2 + 2 + I S ( cos + ) , such
2
d T T
T
symmetric body.
When
I S < I , I I S > 0 , then: > 0 > 0 evv. Rotation about the Z-axis (spin) causes motion of
the Z-axis itself (precession) in the same direction, this effect is called direct precession.
When I S > I , I I S < 0 , then: > 0 < 0 evv. Rotation about the Z-axis (spin) causes motion of
the Z-axis itself (precession) in the opposite direction, this effect is called retrograde precession.
M x = I x x ( I y I z ) y z
In general for an arbitrary rotating body:
M y = I y y ( I z I x ) z x .
M z = I y y ( I x I y ) x y
x =
Without applying any forces ( M x
= M y = M z = 0 ), this yields
I y Iz
Ix
y z
I I
y = z x z x
Iy
I y Iz
0
z
Ix
x
x , with its
This can be rewritten as the linear dynamic system: =
y
y I z I x
0
z
I y
Iy Iz
z
Ix
( I y I z ) ( I z I x ) 2 . For stability should be
eigenvalues via
= 2
z
Iz Ix
IxI y
z
Iy
purely imaginary, such that
(I
XI. Functionals
A functional makes a real value from a function, in contrary to a function that makes a real value of a
real value. Finding the function (extremal) that maximizes or minimizes a functional is called calculus
of variations.
sab =
xb
1 + y '( x) 2 dx , which is a
xa
xb
xa
ds
,
v
1 + y '( x)2
dx .
2 gy ( x)
d
I ( ) = 0 .
d
Euler-Lagrange equation
Because x is integrated, y is the anwer and
*
( x)
xb
is fixed.
xb
dI
d
chain rule
b
F y F y '
F
F
x y + y ' dx = x y + y ' ' dx
a
a
xb
xb
b
F
F
d F
dx
+
dx
y
x y
dx
y
'
x
x
a
a
a
partial integration xb
b
F d F
F
F
=
( xb ) ( xa )
dx +
y dx y '
y xb
y xa
xa
b
F d F
=
dx = 0 for all .
y
dx
y
'
xa
F d F
The fundamental lemma now yields
I is the difference in shape of function y and thus the variation of a function, comparable to the
differential dx, which is the variation of a x-value.
xb
chain rule
I = F ( x, y, y ')dx =
xa
xb
y y + y ' y ' dx
xa
xb
b
F
F
d F
ydx
+
ydx
y
x y
y
dx
y
'
x
x
a
a
a
partial integration xb
b
=0
=0
F d F
F
F
=
y ( xa ) = 0
y ( xb )
ydx +
y ' xa
y dx y '
y ' xb
xa
F d F
for every y , such that
=0.
y dx y '
y ( xa ) = 0 means that y ( xa ) has a fixed value ya , which is called an essential boundary condition.
y ( xa ) = ya
y ( xb ) = ?
y ( xa ) = 0
y ( xb ) 0
=0
F d F
F
F
y ( xb )
y ( xa ) = 0 for every y ( xb ) yields the
ydx +
y dx y '
y ' xb
y ' xa
xa
xb
I = ... =
F
= 0.
y ' xb
sab =
xb
1 + y '2 dx
xa
F
y'
=
y '
1 + y '2
y '( xb )
F
=
y '( xb ) = 0
y ' xb
1 + y '( xb ) 2
In part XI it is shown that Euler-Lagrange equation yields a straight line and the natural boundary condition
now yields the slope being 0.
Generalisation
It can be shown that in general for
i
F n
F
i d
becomes
+ ( 1) i (i ) = 0 .
y i =1
dx y
tb xb
F ( x, t , y, y , y )dxdt , with y
x
ta xa
= y ( x, t ) , such
y
y
and yt =
.
x
t
Now
F
F
y+
yx +
y x dxdt
y
yx
y x
ta xa
tb xb
I =
xb
b
b b
F
F
F
+
ydxdt
y
dt
t x y
t yx
t x x yx ydxdt
x
a a
a
a a
partial integration tb xb
t x
tb
F
F
y dx
ydxdt
yt
t yt
xa
ta xa
t
xb
tb xb
xb
tb
b
b
F F F
F
F
=
y dt +
y dx = 0
ydxdt +
y x yx t yt
y x
yt
ta xa
ta
xa
xa
ta
F F F
tb xb
Example:
or mr r t =
tb
tb
W + T .
ta
(r ) = 0
a
(rb ) = 0
r (tb ) = rb
r (ta ) = ra
tb
yields
W + T = 0 .
ta
V
V
and W = Q q =
q = V , such that
q
q
tb
tb
ta
ta
( T V ) dt = (T V ) dt = Ldt = 0
ta
Now for I ( r ) =
tb
Ldt , which is defined as action, I = 0 gives the minimum for the motion of a
ta
tb
Example: Aero-elasticity/wing
functions:
y ( x) = ai hi ( x) . The coefficients ai are the degrees of freedom and the functions hi ( x) the
i =1
a h (x ) = y
i =1
i i
and
a h (x ) = y
i =1
i i
Example:
1
h1 ( x) = 1; h2 ( x) = x; h3 ( x) = x
y = a1h1 + a2 h2 + a3 h3 = + x + x 2
1
I ( y ) = y 2 + y '2 dx = ( + x + x 2 ) + ( + 2 x ) dx = ( , , )
0
The functional now became a function and has a minimum when all partial derivatives are zero:
= 0;
= 0;
= 0.
Now
2
1
11
2
I ( y ) = (1 + x x 2 ) + ( 2 x ) dx = 1 + + 2 = ( )
3
30
0
1 22
5
= + =0 =
, such that the approximate solution becomes
3 30
11
5
5
y = + x + x2 = 1 x + x2
11
11
sinh( x) + sinh(1 x)
This is only 0.05% of w.r.t. the real solution y ( x) =
.
sinh(1)
Ritz method is commonly used in computerized computational mechanics like finite element method,
using non-continuous shape functions are chosen.
The choice of shape functions is rather arbitrarily, as long as they are linear independent: