Chapter 13

The Special
Senses

Cochlea
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Special Senses
Have highly localized receptors that provide
specific information about the environment
Five special senses
Smell
Interaction of chemicals with sensory receptors

Taste
Interaction of chemicals with sensory receptors

Sight
Interaction of light with sensory receptors

Hearing
Interaction of mechanical stimulation with sensory receptors

Balance
Interaction of mechanical stimulation with sensory receptors

Olfaction
Sense of Smell
Response to airborne molecules, called
odorants, entering the nasal cavity
At least 7 (perhaps 50) primary odors exist

Camphoraceous (e.g., moth balls)

Musky
Floral
Pepperminty
Ethereal (e.g., fresh pears)
Pungent
Putrid

Olfactory neurons have very low thresholds and

accommodate rapidly

Olfactory Epithelium and Bulb

Olfactory neurons in the
olfactory epithelium are
bipolar neurons
Distal ends have olfactory hairs

Olfactory hairs have

receptors that respond to
dissolved substances
Approximately 1000 different
odorant receptors

Receptors activate G
proteins, which results in ion
channels opening and
depolarization
Fig.
13.1

Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction

Axons from the olfactory neurons extend
as olfactory nerves to the olfactory bulb,
where they synapse with interneurons
Axons from interneurons form the olfactory
tracts, which connect to the olfactory
cortex
Olfactory bulbs and cortex accommodate
to odors

Taste
Sensory structures that detect taste stimuli are
taste buds
Most taste buds are located in the epithelium of
papillae
Taste buds are found on the

Tongue
Palate
Lips
Throat

There are four types of papillae

Three contain taste buds
The fourth and most numerous
has no taste buds, but gives the
tongue its roughness
Fig. 13.2

Histology of Taste Buds

Taste buds consist of
Taste cells (~50)
Have taste hairs that
extend into taste pores

Basilar cells
Supporting cells

Fig. 13.2

Function of Taste
Receptors on the hairs detect dissolved
substances
Five basic types of taste exist:
Salty
Sodium ions

Sour
Acids

Sweet
Sugars, some other carbohydrates, and some proteins

Bitter
Alkaloids (bases)

Umami
Elicited by the amino acid glutamate and related compounds

Function of Taste
All taste buds can sense the five primary tastes,
but tend to be most sensitive to one
Sensitivity to bitter substances is the highest
(Poisons)

Taste is strongly influenced by olfactory

sensations
Nasal congestion can dampen the taste sensation

Tongue can detect other stimuli besides taste

Temperature
Texture

Neuronal Pathways for Taste

The facial nerve carries taste sensations
from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue
The glossopharyngeal nerve carries taste
sensations from the posterior one-third of
the tongue
The vagus nerve carries taste sensations
from the epiglottis
The neural pathways for taste extend from
the medulla oblongata to the thalamus and
to the cerebral cortex

Visual System
Consists of
Eye
eyeball
optic nerve

Accessory Structures
eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus,
and extrinsic eye muscles

Sensory Neurons

Accessory Structures
Eyebrows
Prevent perspiration from entering the eyes and help shade the
eyes

Eyelids
Consist of five tissue layers
Protect the eyes from foreign objects
Help lubricate the eyes by spreading tears over their surface
Lubricating glands associated with the eyelids
Meibomian glands and sebaceous glands
Ciliary glands lie between the hair follicles

Eyelashes
Project from the free margin of each eyelid
Initiate reflex blinking

Conjunctiva
Covers the inner eyelid and the anterior part of the eye

Fig. 13.3

Fig. 13.4

Accessory Structures
Lacrimal Apparatus
Consists of the lacrimal gland, lacrimal
canaliculi, and a nasolacrimal duct
Lacrimal glands secrete tears
Tears
Contain mostly water, with some salts, mucus, and
lysozyme
Enter the eye via superolateral excretory ducts
Exit the eye medially via the lacrimal canaliculi
Drain into the nasolacrimal duct

Fig. 13.5

Accessory Structures
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Six strap-like muscles
Enable the eye to follow moving objects
Maintain the shape of the eyeball

Four rectus muscles originate from the

annular ring
Two oblique muscles move the eye in the
vertical plane

Fig. 13.6

Tab.
13.1

Anatomy of the Eye

A slightly irregular hollow sphere with anterior and
posterior poles
The eyeball is composed of three layers
Fibrous layer
Sclera
Cornea

Vascular layer
Choroid
Ciliary body
Iris

Nervous layer
Retina

The internal cavity is filled with fluids called humors

Fig. 13.7

Fibrous Layer
Sclera
Posterior 4/5ths of the eye
White connective tissue that maintains the
shape of the eyeball
Provides a site for muscle attachment

Cornea
Anterior 1/5th of the eye
Transparent and refracts light that enters the
eye

Vascular Layer
Choroid

A vascular network
Many melanin-containing pigment cells
Appears black in color
Prevents the reflection of light inside the eye

Ciliary body
Ciliary ring

A thickened ring of tissue surrounding the lens

Composed of smooth muscle bundles (ciliary muscles)
Anchors the suspensory ligament that holds the lens in place
Changes the shape of the lens

Ciliary process
produces aqueous humor

Vascular Layer
Iris
Smooth muscle regulated by the autonomic nervous
system
Sphincter pupillae
Close vision and bright light: pupils constrict

Dilator pupillae
Distant vision and dim light: pupils dilate

Changes in emotional state: pupils dilate when the subject

matter is appealing or requires problem-solving skills

Controls the amount of light entering the pupil

Color is determined by the amount of melanin present
Large amounts of melanin: brown or black
Less melanin: light brown, green, or grey
Even less melanin: blue

Fig. 13.8

Nervous Layer
Retina
The inner layer of the eyeball
Has over 126 million photoreceptor cells, which
respond to light

Macula (fovea centralis)

Area of greatest sensitivity to light
Highest concentration of photoreceptor cells

Optic disc
Location through which nerves exit and blood vessels
enter the eye
No photoreceptor cells
The blind spot of the eye

Fig. 13.9

Chambers of the Eye

Composed of three chambers
Anterior chamber
Between the cornea and the iris

Posterior chamber
Between the iris and the lens

Viterous chamber
Much larger then the other two chambers
Posterior to the lens

Chambers of the Eye

Aqueous Humor
Fills the anterior and posterior chambers
Supports, nourishes, and removes wastes for the
cornea, which has no blood vessels
Produced by the ciliary processes as a blood filtrate
Returned to the circulation through the scleral venous
sinus

Vitreous Humor

Fills the vitreous chamber

Contributes to intraocular pressure
Helps maintain the shape of the eyeball
Holds the lens and retina in place
Functions in the refraction of light in the eye

Lens
A biconvex, transparent, flexible,
avascular structure that:
Allows precise focusing of light onto the retina
Is composed of epithelium and lens fibers
Lens epithelium: anterior cells that differentiate
into lens fibers
Lens fibers: cells filled with the transparent protein
crystallin

With age, the lens becomes more compact

and dense and loses its elasticity

Functions of the Complete Eye

Properties of Light
Electromagnetic spectrum
All energy waves from short gamma rays to long radio waves

Visible spectrum
Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected
by the human eye

Refraction
Bending of light
Light striking a concave surface refracts outward
(divergence)
Light striking a convex surface refracts inward (convergence)
Converging light rays meet at the focal point and are said to
be focused

Page
384

Fig.
13.10

Functions of the Complete Eye

Focusing system of the Eye (light
refracting)
Cornea
Responsible for most of the convergence

Aqueous humor
Lens
Adjusts the convergence by changing shape

Vitreous humor

Functions of the Complete Eye

Distant and Near Vision
Distant vision: looking at objects 20 feet or more from
the eye
Near vision: looking at objects less than 20 feet from
the eye
Relaxation of the ciliary muscles causes the lens to
flatten, producing the emmetropic eye
Normal resting condition of the lens

Far point of vision

Point at which the lens does not have to thicken for focusing
to occur
Normally 20 feet or more from the eye

Near point of vision

Closest point an object can come to the eye and still be
focused

Fig.
13.11

Functions of the Complete Eye

When an object is less than 20 feet from the
eye, the image falling on the retina is no longer
in focus
Three events must occur to bring the image into
focus
1. Accommodation by the lens
Contraction of the ciliary muscles causes the lens to become
more spherical
Change in the lens shape enables the eye to focus on
objects that are less than 20 feet away

2. Constriction of the Pupil

Increases the depth of focus

3. Convergence of the eyes

Medial rotation of the eyes

Structure and Function of the Retina

Pigmented layer of the
retina provides a black
backdrop for increasing
visual acuity
Rods and cones synapse
with bipolar cells
Bipolar cells synapse with
ganglion cells, which form
the optic nerve

Fig. 13.12

Fig.
13.12

Structure and Function of the Retina

Rods
Responsible for non-color vision and vision in
low illumination (night vision)
Rod-shaped photoreceptive part of the rods
contains about 700 double-layered
membranous discs
Discs contain rhodopsin
A purple pigment consisting of the protein opsin
covalently bound to a yellow photosensitive
pigment called retinal (derived from Vit. A)

Fig.
13.13

Structure and Function of the Retina

Exposure to light activates rhodopsin
Rhodopsin is split by light into retinal and
opsin, eventually resulting in an action
potential
Light adaptation is caused by a reduction of
rhodopsin
Dark adaptation is caused by rhodopsin
production

Fig.
13.14

Structure and Function of the Retina

Cones
Responsible for color vision and visual acuity
Three types, each with a different type of
iodopsin photopigment
Pigments are most sensitive to blue, red, and
green light

Perception of many colors results from mixing

the ratio of the different types of cones that
are active at a given moment

Fig.
13.15

Structure and Function of the Retina

Most visual images are focused on the fovea
centralis and macula
Fovea centralis has a very high concentration of
cones
In the remaining macula there are more cones than
rods
Most rods are in the periphery of the retina

Bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina can

modify information sent to the brain
Interneurons in the inner layers of the retina
enhance contrast between the edges of objects

Neuronal Pathways for Vision

Ganglion cell axons form the optic nerve,
optic chiasm, and optic tracts
Extend to the thalamus and synapse
Then the neurons form the optic radiations
that project to the visual cortex

Depth perception is the ability to judge

relative distances of an object from the
eyes and is a property of binocular vision
Binocular vision results because a slightly
different image is seen by each eye

Fig.
13.16a

Fig.
13.16bc

Fig.
13.17

Fig.
13.18

Hearing and Balance

Three parts of the ear are
External ear
Extends from the outside of the head to the tympanic
membrane

Middle ear
Air-filled chamber medial to the tympanic membrane

Inner ear
Set of fluid-filled chambers medial to the middle ear

The external and middle ear are involved with

hearing
The inner ear functions in both hearing and
equilibrium

Fig.
13.19

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

External Ear
Auricle
Fleshy part of the external ear

External acoustic meatus

Passageway that leads to the tympanic membrane
Lined with hairs and ceruminous glands
Ceruminous glands produce cerumen (earwax)

Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Thin connective tissue membrane that vibrates in response
to sound
Transfers sound energy to the middle ear ossicles
Boundary between outer and middle ears

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

Middle Ear
A small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity
Flanked laterally by the eardrum
Flanked medially by the oval and round windows

Contains three small bones: the malleus, incus, and

stapes
Transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval window
Dampened by the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles

Auditory tube (pharyngotympanic or eustachian tube)

Connects the middle ear to the pharynx
Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the external
air pressure

Fig.
13.20

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

Inner Ear
Bony labyrinth
Interconnecting, fluid-filled tunnels and chambers within the
temporal bone

Contains
Vestibule and semicircular canals: primarily involved in
balance
Cochlea: involved in hearing

Membranous labyrinth
Series of membranous sacs within the bony labyrinth
Filled with a potassium-rich fluid called endolymph

Space between the bony labyrinth and membranous

labyrinth is filled with perilymph

Fig.
13.21

Auditory Structures and Their Functions

Cochlea
Spiral-shaped canal within the temporal bone
Divided into three compartments by the
vestibular and basilar membranes
Scala vestibuli and scala tympani contain
perilymph
Cochlear duct contains endolymph and the spiral
organ
Spiral organ consists of inner hair cells and outer hair
cells, which attach to the tectorial membrane
Hair cells have hairlike projections at their apical ends,
which are very long microvilli called stereocilia

Fig.
13.22

Fig.
13.23

Fig.
13.24

Auditory Function
Pitch is determined by the frequency of
sound waves
Volume is determined by the amplitude of
sound waves
Timbre is the resonant quality (overtones)
of sound

Fig.
13.25

Auditory Function
Hearing involves
Sound waves funneled by the auricle down the
external acoustic meatus cause the tympanic
membrane to vibrate
Tympanic membrane vibrations pass along the
auditory ossicles to the oval window of the inner ear
Movement of the stapes in the oval window causes
the perilymph, vestibular membrane, and endolymph
to vibrate and produces movement of the basilar
membrane
Movement of the basilar membrane causes bending
of the stereocilia of inner hair cells in the spiral organ

Auditory Function
Hearing involves (cont.)
Bending of the stereocilia pulls on gating
springs and opens K+ channels
K+ ions enter the hair cell and result in
depolarization of the cell
Depolarization causes the release of
glutamate, generating action potentials in the
sensory neurons associated with hair cells
The round window dissipates sound waves
and protects the inner ear from pressure
buildup

Fig.
13.26

Fig.
13.27

Neuronal Pathways for Hearing

Axons from the vestibulocochlear nerve synapse
in the medulla
Neurons from the medulla project axons to the
inferior colliculi, where they synapse
Neurons from this point project to the thalamus
and synapse
Thalamic neurons extend to the auditory cortex
Efferent neurons project to cranial nerve nuclei
responsible for controlling muscles that dampen
sound in the middle ear

Static Balance
Evaluates the position of the head relative
to gravity and detects linear acceleration
and deceleration
Vestibule contains
The utricle and saccule in the inner ear
Contain maculae made of hair cells
Hairs are embedded in an otolithic membrane
Consists of a gelatinous mass and crystals called otoliths
Moves in response to gravity

Fig.
13.28

Fig.
13.29

Dynamic Balance
Evaluates movements of the head
Semicircular Canals
Three semicircular canals at right angles to
one another are present in the inner ear
The ampulla of each semicircular canal
contains the crista ampullaris
Has hair cells with hairs embedded in a gelatinous
mass, the cupula

When the head moves, endolymph within the

semicircular canals moves the cupula

Fig.
13.30

Fig.
13.31

Neuronal Pathways for Balance

Axons from the maculae and the cristae
ampullares extend to the vestibular
nucleus of the medulla
Fibers from the medulla run to the spinal
cord, cerebellum, cortex, and nuclei that
control the extrinsic eye muscles
Balance also depends on proprioception
and visual input