Professional Documents
Culture Documents
http://www.uneptie.org/energy
II
http://www.unep.fr/energy
III
Contents
About the Technical Report ..........................................................................................................ii
Contents..............................................................................................................................................iii
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................................................v
List of Figures...............................................................................................................................................................................vi
Abbreviations and Acronyms Used....................................................................................................................................vii
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 8
1.1 Cleaner Production & Energy Efficiency......................................................................................................................8
1.2 Biomass as a Fuel..................................................................................................................................................................9
1.3 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies..............................................................................................................13
2.0 FBC Boiler & Cogeneration Systems................................................................................18
2.1 FBC Boilers .........................................................................................................................................................................18
2.2 Cogeneration (Combined Heat & Power)..............................................................................................................26
3.0 Biomass-based FBC and Co-generation Technology ..................................................30
3.1 Overview of the Technology........................................................................................................................................30
3.2 Areas of Application ........................................................................................................................................................31
3.3 Issues in Implementation of Biomass-based Cogeneration Systems ..............................................................32
3.4 Environmental Benefits of Biomass based cogeneration Systems...................................................................39
3.5 Social Benefits of Biomass based cogeneration Systems.....................................................................................39
4.0 Implementing Biomass Cogeneration Technology.......................................................41
4.1 Raw material, Energy Resource requirement.........................................................................................................41
4.2 Infrastructure Requirement ..........................................................................................................................................43
4.3 Supporting Technologies................................................................................................................................................44
4.2 Waste Disposal..................................................................................................................................................................46
4.5 Human Resources Demand..........................................................................................................................................46
4.6 Equipment Suppliers.........................................................................................................................................................47
5.0 Case Study.................................................................................................................................49
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................49
http://www.unep.fr/energy
IV
http://www.unep.fr/energy
List of Tables
Table 1 Global Biomass-fuel based Electricity Generation Capacity, 2004
44
54
54
http://www.unep.fr/energy
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1: Electricity Generation by Source .....................................10
Figure 2 Regional Distribution of various Sources of Biomass & its use in EJ /
annum.............................................................................................................11
Figure 3 Global Agricultural Residues, 1987...................................11
Figure 4 : Principles of Fluidization .......................................................19
Figure 5 A View of AFBC Boiler.............................................................20
Figure 6 : A Detailed View of Different Components of AFBC Boiler 21
Figure 7 : A CFBC Boiler.............................................................................23
Figure 8 : Energy Balance of a Typical Thermal Power Plant in India 26
Figure 9: Configurations of different types of turbine systems27
Figure 10: Different Configurations of Back Pressure Turbine28
Figure 11: Configuration of Extraction cum condensing turbine
28
42
51
52
http://www.unep.fr/energy
VII
BBCS
CHP
CP
Cleaner Production
CPEE
DG sets
EJ
ESP
FBC
GWh
H.T.
High Tension
KVA
KWth
KWe
MNRE
MW
Mega Watt
0C
Degree Centigrade
http://www.unep.fr/energy
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Cleaner Production & Energy Efficiency
For decades UNEP has been championing the concepts and practices of Cleaner
Production (CP) and Energy Efficiency (EE) in a systematic manner. Recognizing the
immense benefits that can be realized by the end-users, UNEP has recently developed
guidelines for integration of CP and EE.
The idea of this integrated approach is to incorporate the energy management principles
into the resource efficiency approach that lies at the heart of CP.
These guidelines have been presented in a form of a manual popularly known as the CP-EE
Manual. This guidance manual is primarily used by facility personnel for conducting in-house
assessments as well as by external consultants.
While managers gain insights into the role they can play in instigating and supporting an
ongoing, cost-effective process for continual improvement leading to both economic and
environmental advantages, CP professionals and consultants (who may not necessarily be
energy specialists) find such guidance on incorporating energy issues into their CP
assessments at industrial or other facilities immensely valuable.
The integrated methodology is derived from the
basic principles of the Demings Cycle of Plan
Do Check Act popularly acronymed as
PDCA Cycle. Moreover, it addresses eight
different categories for identifying the options for
resource conservation:
1. Good housekeeping
2. Process Optimization
3. Operation Practices/management
4. Raw Material Substitutions
5. New technology
6. New product design
7. Onsite recycle and reuse
8. Recovery of useful by products
As seen from the list above, New Technology is one of the most important categories
amongst the CP-EE options. For this, rapid technological advancements in the current times
require the professionals to remain updated about the new technologies that are
continuously evolving in response to the various environmental challenges.
Global warming and Climate change is one of the most pressing and burning issues that
needs urgent global action at all levels. The key to address this problem is by mitigation of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases produced by combustion of various fuels (both
fossil and non fossil). Various new technological solutions are being tried and tested around
the world to address this serious problem for the humankind.
This study report highlights the use of one such proven technology viz. Biomass based
Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers for Combined Heat and Power Applications which
could possibly help in addressing the issue of global warming and climate change.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
7000
ASEAN region
2000
Australia
300
Indonesia
300
Philippines
20
Thailand
1
2
1200
Biomass, Issue Brief Energy and Climate Change, World Business Council for Sustainable Development
1EJ = 1x1018 Joules
http://www.unep.fr/energy
10
In 2000, biomass was the largest renewable energy source for electricity generation - other
than hydro - generating around 1% of the worlds electricity or 167 TWh. However, its
share is and will remain small in comparison to fossil-based sources (see Figure 1).
There are a variety of biomass residues available around the world. The most important of
these are crop residues but there are significant quantities of forestry residues and livestock
residues as well, which can also be used for energy production.
Most of the world's crops generate biomass residues that can be used for energy production.
Wheat, barley and oats all produce copious amounts of straw, which have traditionally
been burned (approx. 1 - 2 Billion T of crop residues may be burned annually).
Rice produces both straw in the fields and rice husks at the processing plant which can
be conveniently and easily converted into energy. (Recent legislation has made straw
burning illegal in some parts of the world. Since the straw must still be removed from fields,
such legislation could make it cost effective to convert these residues into energy. )
When Maize is harvested significant quantities of biomass remain in the field. Much of
this needs to be returned to the soil but when the harvested maize is stripped from its
cob the latter remains, more biomass which can easily be converted into energy on-site.
Business Insights, The Future of Global Biomass Power Generation: The technology, economics and impact of
biomass power generation By Paul Breeze, 2004
http://www.unep.fr/energy
11
Sugar cane harvesting leaves harvest 'trash' in the fields while processing produces
fibrous bagasse. The latter is a valuable source of energy.
Harvesting and processing of coconuts produces quantities of shell and fibre that can be
utilized.
Peanuts leave shells, which is a great source of biomass energy.
Figure 2 Regional Distribution of various Sources of Biomass & its use in EJ / annum
Putting figures on the quantities of each of these crops is rather difficult. One estimate is
shown in Table 2 where the total residue from the four major crops listed is equivalent to
32EJ. Another estimate puts the total of crop residues at 65EJ7 while yet another, from 1993,
suggested that utilizing only 25% of the waste from the world's main agricultural crops could
generate 38EJ.
Table 2 Crop Residue from 4 Major Crops in EJ (1987)
REGION
Africa
US & Canada
Latin America
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Total
MAIZE STRAW
0.48
2.95
0.71
1.74
0.61
0.23
6.72
WHEAT STRAW
0.25
1.93
0.38
3.65
2.39
2.26
10.86
RICE STRAW
0.20
0.13
0.29
8.96
0.04
0.06
9.68
BAGASSE
0.54
0.19
3.58
3.19
0.00
0.22
7.72
TOTAL
1.47
5.20
4.94
17.54
3.04
2.77
31.98
http://www.unep.fr/energy
12
Varying Estimates
A major problem when estimating the quantity of residues that might be used for energy
production is to determine how much of each is required for other purposes. At least, part
of many crop residues must be returned to the soil to maintain soil quality. Similarly,
livestock residues need to be returned to pastures as manure.
Taking this into account, a recent exercise carried out by US Department of Agriculture
concluded that crop residues alone could provide electricity equivalent to 5% of US
consumption in 2003. Though local factors make direct comparisons with other regions
difficult, a similar contribution might be expected in other parts of the developed world.
Given the high per capita electricity use in the US, developing countries might expect to be
able to find a greater proportion of their electricity in this way.
The figures in Table 2 also suggest that Asia produces the largest quantities of agricultural
residues and there is potential across all the continents. However, mere availability of the
residue does not guarantee its use.
From the perspective of electricity generation, the cost of collection of the residue becomes
the key factor in determining its viability. Wheat straw can be baled, making collection more
efficient. Several European projects have demonstrated that power plants based on straw
can become cost effective when the straw cannot be burned in the fields where it is cut.
Another aspect to consider is the seasonal nature of the harvest, which necessitates the
plants to either have a large storage facility or alternative sources of fuel. Fuels such as rice
husks and maize cobs are produced during processing of these crops. This takes place after
harvesting of the crop, so the waste is already concentrated at a point and is an easily
exploitable source of energy - particularly if it can be utilized on site to provide heat and
power.
Sugar cane bagasse is another valuable source of fuel and one that can be exploited easily
because it, too, is generated during the processing of the cane. Table 3 provides a
breakdown of global bagasse potential from the World Energy Council.
Table 3 : Global Bagasse Residues
REGION
Africa
North America
South America
Asia
Europe
Middle east
Oceania
Total
The bagasse figures in Table 3 represent only part of the biomass generated during sugar
cane farming. The 'trash' which is left in the fields represents about 55% of the total, and this
is often burned. With efficient collection methods, this could provide a further rich source
of energy, provided minimum required amount is returned to the soil to maintain fertility.
Sugar processing plants have traditionally burned this fuel, generally inefficiently, to generate
process heat which is all used on-site. Modern combined heat and power plants can produce
more energy than is required by the plant itself. According to one estimate, the amount of
surplus electricity that sugar processing plants could generate and export to their local grids
could, by 2025, account for 15%- 20% of the total demand in the developing countries.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
13
Agro-Industrial Biomass
Babul Stems
Coffee Husk
Fire Wood
Chilly stalks
Bagasse
Forest residues
Coconut husk
De oiled bran
Julie Flora
Coconut Pith
Corn cobs
Cotton Stalk
Rice Husk
Maize Stems
Saw dust
Mango residues
Mustard Stalk
Palm leaf
Prosopis
Rai Stems
Sugar Cane Trash
Tamarind husk
Til stems
Casurina branches & fruit
Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energys Annual Report for 2005-06 indicates
surplus agro & forest residues of 60 Million MT available for power generation. Further,
the report also projected an availability of 40 million MT of woody biomass annually,
from energy plantation, on 4 million hectares of wasteland. Considering plant load factor
of 70%, the estimated potential for power generation in India alone is 13,000 MW from
various biomass based sources.
1.3 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies
There are a number of ways for converting biomass into electricity.
The simplest approach is to burn the biomass in a furnace, exploiting the heat generated
to produce steam in a boiler, which is then used to drive a steam turbine. This approach,
often called direct firing, is the most widespread means of deriving heat and electricity
from biomass today. It is also generally rather inefficient, though new technologies will
be able to improve efficiency significantly.
A simple, direct-fired biomass power plant can either produce electricity alone or it can
operate as a combined heat and power unit, producing both electricity and heat. This
latter is common in the textile, food processing, chemical and paper industries where
the heat is used in the processing plant. The electricity generated is used by the plant
http://www.unep.fr/energy
14
too, with any surplus exported to the grid. Simplicity is the key feature of direct firing
type of application.
A more advanced approach is biomass gasification. This employs a partial combustion
process to convert biomass into a combustible gas. The gas has a lower energy content
than natural gas. Nevertheless, it can be used in the same way as natural gas. In
particular it can provide fuel for gas turbines and fuel cells. Biomass gasification is still in
the development stage but it promises high efficiency and may offer the best option for
future biomass-based generation.
An intermediate option for exploiting biomass is to mix it with coal and burn it in a
coal fired power station. In the short term this may offer the cheapest and most efficient
means of exploiting biomass. Finally there are number of specialized methods of turning
biomass wastes into energy. These include digesters, which can convert dairy farm waste
into a useful fuel gas, and power stations that utilize chicken farm litter, which they burn
to generate electricity.
In terms of conversion technologies, following technologies are commonly used:
1. Pile Combustion
2. Stoker Combustion
3. Suspension Combustion
4. Fluidized Bed Combustion
1.3.1 Pile Combustion
The simplest form of direct firing involves a pile burner. This type of burner has a furnace,
which contains a fixed grate inside a combustion chamber. Wood is fed (piled) onto the
grate where it is burned in air, which passes up through the grate (called under-fire air). The
grate of a pile burner is within what is known as the primary combustion chamber where
the bulk of the combustion process takes place.
Combustion at this stage is normally incomplete - there may be significant quantities of both
unburned carbon and combustible carbon monoxide remaining - so further air (called overfire air) is introduced into a secondary combustion chamber above the first - where
combustion is completed.
The boiler for raising steam is positioned above this second combustion chamber so that it
can absorb the heat generated during combustion. The heat warms, and eventually boils
water in the boiler tubes, providing steam to drive a steam turbine. From the steam turbine
the steam is condensed and then returned to the boiler so that it can be cycled through the
system again. (In a combined heat and power system, steam will be taken from the steam
turbine outlet to provide heat energy first.)
Wood fuel is normally introduced from above the grate, though sometimes there is a more
complicated arrangement, which feeds fuel from under the grate. The pile burner is capable
of handling wet and dirty fuels but it is extremely inefficient. Boiler efficiencies are typically
50%-60%.
There is no means to remove the ash from a pile burner except by shutting down the
furnace. Thus the power plant cannot be operated continuously. Pile burners are also
considered difficult to control and they are slow to respond to changes in energy input. This
means that electricity output cannot easily be changed in response to changes in demand.
Power generation in a pile-burner based power station will usually involve a single pass
steam turbine generator operating at a relatively low steam temperature and pressure. This
adds to the relatively low efficiency of the power plant, which can operate, with an overall
efficiency as low as 20%.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
15
The pile burner represents the traditional method of burning wood. However, its basic
operation can be improved by introducing a moving grate or stoker. This allows continuous
removal of ash so that the plant can be operated continuously. Fuel can also be spread more
thinly on the grate, encouraging more efficient combustion.
The first US stoker grate for wood combustion was introduced by the Detroit Stoker Co. in
the 1940s. In this type of furnace, combustion air still enters below the grate of a stoker
burner. This flow of air into the combustion chamber helps cool the grate. The air flow and
consequent grate temperature determines the maximum operating temperature of the
combustor. This, in turn, determines the maximum moisture content allowable in the wood
fuel if combustion is to proceed spontaneously.
There are refinements of the basic stoker grate such as inclined grates and water-cooled
grates, both of which can help improve overall performance and make the operation less
sensitive to fuel moisture. Nevertheless stoker combustors are still relatively inefficient, with
boiler efficiencies of 65%-75% and overall efficiencies of 20%-25%.
1.3.3 Suspension Combustion
Most modern coal-fired power stations burn pulverized coal, which is blown into the
combustion chamber of a power plant through a specially designed burner. The burner
mixes air with the powdered coal, which then burns in a flame in the body of the
combustion chamber. This is suspension combustion and in this type of plant there is no
grate. Finely ground wood, rice husk, bagasse, or sawdust can be burned in a similar way.
Suspension firing requires a special furnace. The size and moisture content of the biomass
(wood) must also be carefully controlled. Moisture content should be below 15% and the
biomass particle size has to be less than 15mm. Suspension firing results in boiler efficiency
of up to 80% and allows a smaller sized furnace for a given heat output.
However it also requires extensive biomass drying and processing facilities to ensure that
the fuel is of the right consistency. It also demands special furnace burners. A small number
of plants designed to burn biomass in this way have been built. The technology is also of
great interest as the basis for the co-firing of wood or other biomass with coal in pulverized
coal plants.
1.3.4 Fluidized Bed Combustion
Aside from suspension firing of wood, the most efficient method of directly burning biomass
is in a fluidized bed combustor (FBC). This is also the most versatile since the system can
cope with a wide range of fuels and a range of moisture contents.
The basis for a FBC system is a bed of an inert mineral such as sand or limestone through
which air is blown from below. The air is pumped through the bed in sufficient volume and
at a high enough pressure to entrain the small particles of the bed material so that they
behave much like a fluid.
The combustion chamber of a fluidized bed plant is shaped so that above a certain height the
air velocity drops below that necessary to entrain the particles. This helps retain the bulk of
the entrained bed material towards the bottom of the chamber. Once the bed becomes hot,
combustible material introduced into it will burn, generating heat as in a more conventional
furnace. The proportion of combustible material such as biomass within the bed is normally
only around 5%.
There are different designs of FBC system which involve variations around this principle. The
most common for biomass combustion is the circulating fluidized bed which incorporates a
http://www.unep.fr/energy
16
cyclone filter to separate solid material from the hot flue gases which leave the exhaust of
the furnace. The solids from the filter are re-circulated into the bed, hence the name.
The fluidized bed has two distinct advantages for biomass combustion: First, it is the ability
to burn a variety of different fuels without affecting performance. Second is the ability to
introduce chemical reactants into the fluidized bed to remove possible pollutants. In FBC
plants burning coal, for example, limestone can be added to capture sulphur and prevent its
release to the atmosphere as sulphur dioxide. Biomass tends to contain less sulphur than
coal so this strategy may not be necessary in a biomass plant.
A fluidized bed boiler can burn wood with up to 55% moisture. One specialized application
is in plants designed to burn chicken litter, the refuse from the intensive farming of poultry.
Power stations have been built that are devoted specifically to this fuel source and these
plants use FBCs.
Of the four different types of combustion technologies discussed above, the FBC technology
is best suited for a range of small and medium scale operation for combined heat and power.
With technological advancements the FBC boilers give efficiency of as high as 80-82% and
can be used for a wide variety of fuels.
1.3.4 Comparison of Different Types of Biomass Conversion Technologies
Pile Combustion
Stoker Combustion
Grate
Fuel Size
Combustion
Bed
temperature
Moisture
The combustion is
better & an improved
version of pile
combustion. Since
most of the fuel is
burnt in suspension the
heavier size mass falls
on the grate. If the
system has a moving
grate the ash is
removed on a
continuous basis &
therefore the chances
of clinker formation
are less.
1000- 1200 C
Combustion condition
not very much
disturbed with 4-5 %
increase in moisture
Suspension
Combustion
No grate or moving
grate
Preferable for high %
of fins in the fuel
Fluidized Bed
Combustion
No grate
It is similar to stoker
combustion, but since
the fuel sizes is small &
even the combustion
efficiency is improved
as maximum amount
of fuel is combusted
during suspension.
1250- 1350 C
800- 850 C
Same as Stoker
Combustion
http://www.unep.fr/energy
17
Pile Combustion
Stoker Combustion
Draft
Conditions
Maintenance
Suspension
Combustion
Balance draft
Fluidized Bed
Combustion
Balance draft
Variation in fines in
fuel leads to delayed
combustion thereby
affecting the boiler
tubes
http://www.unep.fr/energy
18
The traditional grate fuel firing systems have several limitations and hence are technoeconomically unviable to meet the challenges of the future. FBC has emerged as a viable
alternative as it has significant advantages over conventional firing system.
FBC offers multiple benefits, such as: compact boiler design, flexibility with fuel used, higher
combustion efficiency and reduced emissions of noxious pollutants such as SOx and NOx.
The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse and other
agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide capacity range- 0.5 T/hr to over
100 T/hr.
2.1.2 Mechanism of Fluidized Bed Combustion
When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid
particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles remain undisturbed at low
velocities. As the air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual
particles are suspended in the air stream and the bed is called fluidized.
With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid
mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the
properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid bubbling fluidized bed.
At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and particles are blown out of the bed. Therefore,
some amounts of particles have to be re-circulated to maintain a stable system and is called
as circulating fluidized bed". This principle of fluidization is illustrated in Figure 4.
Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and the air velocity. The mean solids velocity
increases at a slower rate than does the gas velocity. The difference between the mean solid
velocity and mean gas velocity is called as slip velocity. Maximum slip velocity between the
solids and the gas is desirable for good heat transfer and intimate contact. If sand particles in
fluidized state are heated to the ignition temperatures of fuel (rice husk, coal or bagasse),
and fuel is injected continuously into the bed, the fuel will burn rapidly and the bed attains a
uniform temperature.
The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840C to 950C. Since this
temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated
problems are avoided. The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high
coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of
heat from the bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity
is maintained between minimum fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This
ensures a stable operation of the bed and avoids particle entrainment in the gas stream.
Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities, A Guide Book for Energy Managers and Auditors, Bureau of Energy
Efficiency, Ministry of Power, Government of India, 2005
http://www.unep.fr/energy
19
Fixing, Bubbling & Fast Fluidized Beds: As the velocity of a gas flowing through a bed of particles
increases, a value is reaches when the bed fluidizes and bubbles form as in a boiling liquid. At higher
velocities the bubbles disappear; and the solids are rapidly blown out of the bed and must be recycled to
maintain a stable system.
Figure 4 : Principles of Fluidization
Any combustion process requires three Ts - that is Time, Temperature and Turbulence. In
FBC, turbulence is promoted by fluidization. Improved mixing generates evenly distributed
heat at lower temperature. Residence time is many times higher than conventional grate
firing. Thus an FBC system releases heat more efficiently at lower temperatures. Since
limestone can also be used as particle bed (in case the fuel with sulphur content is used),
control of SOx and NOx emissions in the combustion chamber is achieved without any
additional control equipment. This is one of the major advantages over conventional boilers.
2.1.3 Types of Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers
http://www.unep.fr/energy
20
AFBC is one of the most important types of FBC boilers as it can be used for variety of fuels
- such as agricultural residues like rice husk or bagasse and even low quality coal. This type
of boiler find use in industries where there is a possibility of having a combined heat and
power generation application.
In AFBC boilers the fuel is sized depending on the type of fuel (in case of coal, the coal is
crushed to a size of 1 10 mm depending on the grade of coal) and the type of fuel feeding
system and is fed into the combustion chamber.
The atmospheric air, which acts as both the fluidization air and combustion air, is delivered
at a pressure and flows through the bed after being preheated by the exhaust flue gases. The
velocity of fluidizing air is in the range of 1.2 to 3.7 m /sec. The rate at which air is blown
through the bed determines the amount of fuel that can be reacted.
Almost all AFBC/ bubbling bed boilers use in-bed evaporator tubes in the bed of limestone,
sand and fuel for extracting the heat from the bed to maintain the bed temperature. The bed
depth is usually 0.9 m to 1.5 m deep and the pressure drop averages about 1 inch of water
per inch of bed depth. Very little material leaves the bubbling bed only about 2 to 4 kg of
solids is recycled per ton of fuel burned. Typical fluidized bed combustors of this type are
shown in Figures 5 and 6.
The combustion gases pass over the super heater sections of the boiler, flow past the
economizer, the dust collectors and the air pre-heaters before being exhausted to
atmosphere. The main special feature of atmospheric fluidized bed combustion is the
constraint imposed by the relatively narrow temperature range within which the bed must
be operated. With coal, there is risk of clinker formation in the bed if the temperature
exceeds 950C and loss of combustion efficiency if the temperature falls below 800C. For
efficient sulphur retention, the temperature should be in the range of 800C to 850C.
General Arrangements of AFBC Boiler
http://www.unep.fr/energy
21
If the fuel is coal, it is crushed to 16 mm size and pneumatically transported from feed
hopper to the combustor through a feed pipe piercing the distributor. Based on the
capacity of the boiler, the number of feed points is increased, as it is necessary to
distribute the fuel into the bed uniformly.
Over-Bed Feeding
The crushed coal, 610 mm size is conveyed from coal bunker to a spreader by a screw
conveyor. The spreader distributes the coal over the surface of the bed uniformly. This
type of fuel feeding system accepts over size fuel also and eliminates transport lines,
when compared to under-bed feeding system. Now a days for rise husk and other
agricultural residues Over bed feeding system is quite prominent and economical. Some
of the boilers are so designed that they have both types of feeding systems.
b) Air Distributor
The purpose of the distributor is to introduce the fluidizing air evenly through the bed cross
section thereby keeping the solid particles in constant motion, and preventing the formation
of de-fluidization zones within the bed. The distributor, which forms the furnace floor, is
UNEP-DTIE Energy Branch
http://www.unep.fr/energy
22
normally constructed from metal plate with a number of perforations in a definite geometric
pattern. The perforations may be located in simple nozzles or nozzles with bubble caps,
which serve to prevent solid particles from flowing back into the space below the distributor.
The distributor plate is protected from high temperature of the furnace by:
Refractory Lining
A Static Layer of the Bed Material or
Water Cooled Tubes.
c) Bed & In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface:
Bed
The bed material can be sand, ash, crushed refractory or limestone, with an average size
of about 1 mm. Depending on the bed height these are of two types: shallow bed and
deep bed. At the same fluidizing velocity, the two ends fluidize differently, thus affecting
the heat transfer to an immersed heat transfer surfaces. A shallow bed offers a lower
bed resistance and hence a lower pressure drop and lower fan power consumption. In
the case of deep bed, the pressure drop is more and this increases the effective gas
velocity and also the fan power.
In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface
In a fluidized in-bed heat transfer process, it is necessary to transfer heat between the
bed material and an immersed surface, which could be that of a tube bundle, or a coil.
The heat exchanger orientation can be horizontal, vertical or inclined. From a pressure
drop point of view, a horizontal bundle in a shallow bed is more attractive than a vertical
bundle in a deep bed. Also, the heat transfer in the bed depends on number of
parameters like (i) bed pressure (ii) bed temperature (iii) superficial gas velocity (iv)
particle size (v) Heat exchanger design and (vi) gas distributor plate design.
d) Ash Handling System
i) Bottom Ash Removal
In the FBC boilers, the bottom ash constitutes roughly 30 40 % of the total ash, the
rest being the fly ash. The bed ash is removed by continuous over flow to maintain bed
height and also by intermittent flow from the bottom to remove over size particles,
avoid accumulation and consequent defluidization. While firing high ash coal such as
washery rejects, the bed ash overflow drain quantity is considerable so special care has
to be taken.
ii) Fly Ash Removal
The amount of fly ash to be handled in FBC boiler is relatively very high, compared to
conventional boilers. This is due to elutriation of particles at high velocities. Fly ash
carried away by the flue gas is removed in number of stages; firstly in convection section,
then from the bottom of air pre-heater/economizer and finally a major portion is
removed in dust collectors.
The types of dust collectors used are cyclone, bag filters, electrostatic precipitators
(ESPs) or some combination of all of these. To increase the combustion efficiency,
recycling of fly ash is practiced in some units.
2.1.3.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC)
Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC) technology has evolved from conventional
bubbling bed combustion as a means to overcome some of the drawbacks associated with
conventional bubbling bed combustion (see Figure 7).
http://www.unep.fr/energy
23
CFBC technology utilizes the fluidized bed principle in which crushed (6 12 mm size) fuel
and limestone are injected into the furnace or combustor. The particles are suspended in a
stream of upwardly flowing air (60-70% of the total air), which enters the bottom of the
furnace through air distribution nozzles. The fluidizing velocity in circulating beds ranges
from 3.7 to 9 m/sec. The balance of combustion air is admitted above the bottom of the
furnace as secondary air. The combustion takes place at 840-900 C, and the fine particles
(<450 microns) are elutriated out of the furnace with flue gas velocity of 46 m/s.
The particles are then collected by the solids separators and circulated back into the furnace.
Solid recycle is about 50 to 100 kg per kg of fuel burnt. There are no steam generation tubes
immersed in the bed. The circulating bed is designed to move a lot more solids out of the
furnace area and to achieve most of the heat transfer outside the combustion zone
convection section, water walls, and at the exit of the riser. Some circulating bed units even
have external heat exchanges. The particles circulation provides efficient heat transfer to the
furnace walls and longer residence time for carbon and limestone utilization.
The controlling parameters in the CFB combustion process are temperature, residence time
and turbulence. For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boiler offers
better space utilization, greater fuel particle and adsorbent residence time for efficient
combustion and SO2 capture, and easier application of staged combustion techniques for
NOx control than AFBC generators.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
24
CFBC boilers are said to achieve better calcium to sulphur utilization 1.5 to 1 vs. 3.2 to 1
for the AFBC boilers, although the furnace temperatures are almost the same.
CFBC requires huge mechanical cyclones to capture and recycle the large amount of bed
material, which requires a tall boiler. A CFBC could be good choice if the following
conditions are met.
Capacity of boiler is large to medium
Sulphur emission and NOx control is important
The boiler is required to fire low-grade fuel or fuel with highly fluctuating fuel quality.
Major performance features of the CFBC system are as follows:
It has a high processing capacity because of the high gas velocity through the system.
The temperature of about 870C is reasonably constant throughout the process
because of the high turbulence and circulation of solids. The low combustion
temperature also results in minimal NOx formation.
Sulphur present in the fuel is retained in the circulating solids in the form of calcium
sulphate and removed in solid form. The use of limestone or dolomite adsorbents
allows a higher sulfur retention rate, and limestone requirements have been
demonstrated to be substantially less than with bubbling bed combustor.
The combustion air is supplied at 1.5 to 2 psig (pounds per square inch gauge) rather
than 35 psig as required by bubbling bed combustors.
It has high combustion efficiency.
It has a better turndown ratio than bubbling bed systems.
Erosion of the heat transfer surface in the combustion chamber is reduced, since the
surface is parallel to the flow. In a bubbling bed system, the surface generally is
perpendicular to the flow.
CFBC boilers are generally claimed to be more economical than AFBC boilers
for industrial application requiring more than 75 - 100 T/hr of steam, therefore
this type of boilers is beyond the scope of the document.
2.1.3.3 Pressurized Fluid Bed Combustion Boiler
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) is a variation of FBC technology that is meant
for large-scale coal burning applications. In PFBC, the bed vessel is operated at pressure up
to 16 ata ( 16 kg/cm2). The off-gas from the FBC drives the gas turbine. The steam turbine is
driven by steam raised in tubes immersed in the fluidized bed. The condensate from the
steam turbine is pre-heated using waste heat from gas turbine exhaust and is then taken as
feed water for steam generation.
The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration or combined cycle power generation. By
combining the gas and steam turbines in this way, electricity is generated more efficiently
than in conventional system. The overall conversion efficiency is higher by 5% to 8%.
PFBC Boiler is beyond the scope of this document
2.1.4 Advantages of FBC Boilers
1. High Efficiency: FBC boilers can burn fuel with a combustion efficiency of over 95%
irrespective of ash content. FBC boilers can operate with overall efficiency of 84% (2%).
2. Reduction in Boiler Size: High heat transfer rate over a small heat transfer area
immersed in the bed results in overall size reduction for the boiler.
UNEP-DTIE Energy Branch
http://www.unep.fr/energy
25
3. Fuel Flexibility: FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with a variety of fuels. Even
fuels like flotation slimes, washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt efficiently. These can
be fed either independently or in combination with coal into the same furnace.
4. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel: FBC boilers would give the rated output even with
an inferior quality fuel. The boilers can fire coals with ash content as high as 62% and
having calorific value as low as 2,500 kCal/kg. Even carbon content of only 1% by weight
can sustain the fluidized bed combustion.
5. Ability to Burn Fines: Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in
FBC boiler, which is very difficult to achieve in conventional firing system.
6. Pollution Control: SO2 formation can be greatly minimized by addition of limestone
or dolomite for high sulphur coals (3% limestone is required for every 1% sulphur in the
coal feed). Low combustion temperature eliminates NOx formation.
7. Low Corrosion and Erosion: The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower
combustion temperature, softness of ash and low particle velocity (around 1 m/sec).
8. Easier Ash Removal No Clinker Formation: Since the temperature of the
furnace is in the range of 750 900 C in FBC boilers, even coal of low ash fusion
temperature can be burnt without clinker formation. Ash removal is easier as the ash
flows like liquid from the combustion chamber. Hence less manpower is required for ash
handling.
9. Less Excess Air Higher CO2 in Flue Gas: The CO2 in the flue gases will be of the
order of 14 15% at full load. Hence, the FBC boiler can operate at low excess air only 20 - 25%.
10. Simple Operation, Quick Start-Up: High turbulence of the bed facilitates quick
start up and shut down. Full automation of start up and operation using reliable
equipment is possible.
11. Fast Response to Load Fluctuations: Inherent high thermal storage characteristics
can easily absorb fluctuation in fuel feed rates. Response to changing load is comparable
to that of oil fired boilers.
12. No Slagging in the Furnace No Soot Blowing: In FBC boilers, volatilization of
alkali components in ash does not take place and the ash is non sticky. This means that
there is no slagging or soot blowing.
13. Provisions of Automatic Coal and Ash Handling System: Automatic systems for
coal and ash handling can be incorporated, making the plant easy to operate comparable
to oil or gas fired installations.
14. Provision of Automatic Ignition System: Control systems using micro-processors
and automatic ignition equipment give excellent control with minimum supervision.
15. High Reliability: The absence of moving parts in the combustion zone results in a high
degree of reliability and low maintenance costs.
16. Reduced Maintenance: Routine overhauls are infrequent and high efficiency is
maintained for long periods.
17. Quick Responses to Changing Demand: FBC can respond to changing heat
demands more easily than stoker fired systems. This makes it very suitable for
applications such as thermal fluid heaters, which require rapid responses.
18. High Efficiency of Power Generation: By operating the fluidized bed at elevated
pressures, it can be used to generate hot pressurized gases to power a gas turbine. This can
be combined with a conventional steam turbine to improve the efficiency of electricity
generation resulting in a potential fuel savings of at least 4%.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
26
Thermal power plants are a major source of electricity worldwide. The conventional
method of power generation and supply to the customer is wasteful in the sense that only
about a third of the primary energy fed into the power plant is actually made available to the
user in the form of electricity (Figure 8).
The major source of loss in the conversion process is the heat rejected to the surrounding water
or air due to the inherent constraints of the different thermodynamic cycles employed in power
generation. Also further losses of around 1015% are associated with the transmission and
http://www.unep.fr/energy
27
distribution of electricity in the electrical grid. In cogeneration, the production of electricity being
on-site, the burden on the utility network is reduced and the transmission line losses eliminated.
Cogeneration therefore makes sense from both macro and micro perspectives. At the
macro level, it allows a part of the financial burden of the national power utility to be shared
by the private sector; in addition, indigenous energy sources are conserved. At the micro
level, the overall energy bill of the users can be reduced, particularly when there is a
simultaneous need for both power and heat at the site, and a rational energy tariff can be
practiced in the country.
2.2.2 Steam Turbines
Steam turbines are the most commonly employed prime movers for cogeneration
applications. In the steam turbine, the incoming high pressure steam is expanded to a lower
pressure level, converting the thermal energy of high pressure steam to kinetic energy
through nozzles and then to mechanical power through rotating blades. The different types
of steam turbine include extraction cum condensing type and back pressure steam turbines.
Steam
Steam
Turbine
Fuel
Turbine
Fuel
Boiler
Boiler
Condenser
Process
Process
(i) Back-Pressure
BackTurbine
Cooling Water
In this type of turbines, steam enters the turbine chamber at high pressure and expands to
low or medium pressure. Enthalpy difference is used for generating power/work. Depending
on the pressure (or temperature) levels at which process steam is required, backpressure
steam turbines can have different configurations as shown in Figure 10.
In extraction and double extraction backpressure turbines, some amount of steam is
extracted from the turbine after being expanded to a certain pressure level. The extracted
steam meets the heat demands at pressure levels higher than the exhaust pressure of the
steam turbine.
The efficiency of a backpressure steam turbine cogeneration system is the highest. In cases
where 100 per cent backpressure exhaust steam is used, the only inefficiencies are gear
drive and electric generator losses, and the inefficiency of steam generation. Therefore, with
an efficient boiler, the overall thermal efficiency of the system could reach as much as 90 per
cent.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
28
Extracted Steam
Exhaust Steam
Steam
Generator
Steam
Turbine
QH
Feed Water
Pump
Condenser
The extraction condensing turbines have higher power to heat ratio in comparison with
back pressure turbines. Although condensing systems need more auxiliary equipment such
as the condenser and cooling towers, better matching of electrical power and heat demand
can be obtained where electricity demand is much higher than the steam demand and the
load patterns are highly fluctuating.
The overall thermal efficiency of an extraction condensing turbine cogeneration system is
lower than that of back pressure turbine system, basically because the exhaust heat cannot
be utilized (it is normally lost in the cooling water circuit). However, extraction condensing
cogeneration systems have higher electricity generation efficiencies.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
29
The selection and operating scheme of a cogeneration system is very much site-specific and
depends on several factors, as described below:
2.2.3.1 Base Electrical Load Matching
In this configuration, the cogeneration plant is sized to meet the minimum electricity demand
of the site based on the historical demand curve. The rest of the needed power is purchased
from the utility grid. The thermal energy requirement of the site could be met by the
cogeneration system alone or by additional boilers. If the thermal energy generated with the
base electrical load exceeds the plants demand and if the situation permits, excess thermal
energy can be exported to neighboring customers.
2.2.3.2 Base Thermal Load Matching
Here, the cogeneration system is sized to supply the minimum thermal energy requirement
of the site. Stand-by boilers or burners are operated during periods when the demand for
heat is higher. The prime mover installed operates at full load at all times. If the electricity
demand of the site exceeds that which can be provided by the prime mover, then the
remaining amount can be purchased from the grid. Likewise, if local laws permit, the excess
electricity can be sold to the power utility.
2.2.3.3 Electrical Load Matching
In this operating scheme, the facility is totally independent of the power utility grid. All the
power requirements of the site, including the reserves needed during scheduled and
unscheduled maintenance, are to be taken into account while sizing the system. This is also
referred to as a stand-alone system. If the thermal energy demand of the site is higher than
that generated by the cogeneration system, auxiliary boilers are used. On the other hand,
when the thermal energy demand is low, some thermal energy is wasted. If there is a
possibility, excess thermal energy can be exported to neighboring facilities.
2.2.3.4 Thermal Load Matching
The cogeneration system is designed to meet the thermal energy requirement of the site at
any time. The prime movers are operated following the thermal demand. During the period
when the electricity demand exceeds the generation capacity, the deficit can be
compensated by power purchased from the grid. Similarly, if the local legislation permits,
electricity produced in excess at any time may be sold to the utility.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
30
ii) Steam generation using FBC boiler and electricity generation using Backpressure type of
turbine
iii) Steam generation using FBC boiler and electricity generation using Extraction cum
condensing type of turbine
iv) Steam generation using FBC boiler and electricity generation using condensing type of
turbine with no steam used in process
The fourth case is rarely used by the industries and is more applicable to the thermal power
plants which use biomass as a fuel and FBC boilers for steam generation. The configurations
of system and the design of the boiler and the turbine are wholly dependent on the site
specific requirements and a detailed feasibility analysis needs to be conducted to determine
the correct configuration and the design parameters. Beside this, the choice is also governed
by other factors like, economic feasibility, fuel availability, electricity availability, etc. For
example if the cost and availability of the grid electricity supply is satisfactory, industries
rarely go for co-generation systems and just settle for steam generation by a FBC boiler
(Case i).
The most important parameters which helps us to determine the choice of technology
implementation between Case ii and iii are, the steam quantity and steam pressure
requirements in the process house. Beside this a choice has to be made as per section 2.2.3
3.1 Overview of the Technology
The overall working of the technology with major process steps and equipments with inputs
and outputs is depicted in Figure 12. The process steps may vary from site to site depending
on the nature and quality of Biomass, the type of system and the local environmental
regulations.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
31
Baling of
Biomass at
Site
Raw Water
Water
Treatment
Plant (DM)
Condenser
Medium
Pressure Steam
to Process
FBC
BOILER
Sizing of
Biomass if
required
Mixing of
Biomass if
required
Bottom Ash
Flue
Gases
TURBINE
High
Pressure
Steam
Fuel
Condensate to Boiler
Storage of
Biomass at
Site
Water
Biomass
from
Field
ESP
Fly Ash
Electricity
Clean Flue Gases to
Chimney
Heat-to-power ratio
Overall efficiency
(kWth / kWe)
(per cent)
Back-pressure steam
turbine
4.0-14.3
14 - 28
84 92
Extraction- Condensing
Turbine
2.0- 10.0
22 40
60 - 80
http://www.unep.fr/energy
32
A single plant or group of plants has sufficient demand for steam and power to
permit economies of scale to be achieved.
Peaks and troughs in demand can be managed or, in the case of electricity, adequate
backup supplies can be obtained from the utility company.
The ratio of heat to power required by a site may vary during different times of the day and
seasons of the year. Importing power from the grid can make up a shortfall in electrical
output from the cogeneration unit and firing standby boilers can satisfy additional heat
demand. Many large cogeneration units utilize supplementary or boost firing of the exhaust
gases in order to modify the Heat to Power Ratio of the system to match site loads.
The proportions of heat and power needed (heat: power ratio) vary from site to site, so the
type of plant must be selected carefully and appropriate operating schemes must be
established to match demands as closely as possible. The plant may therefore be set up to
supply part or all of the site heat and electricity loads, or an excess of either may be
exported if a suitable customer is available. The following Table 6 shows typical heat: power
ratios for certain energy intensive industries:
Table 6 : Typical heat to Power ratio for Certain Energy intensive Industries
Industry
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Breweries
1.1
4.5
3.1
Pharmaceuticals
1.5
2.5
2.0
Fertilizers
0.8
3.0
2.0
Food
0.8
2.5
1.2
Paper
1.5
2.5
1.9
Biomass based cogeneration is faced with some technical barriers, which not only have a
direct impact on day-to-day operations, but also on overall viability of the project. These
issues are sometimes stand-alone issues and some are more complex and interrelated. In the
following sections, these issues and problems have been discussed in detail.
It may be noted that, some of the issues/problems are interconnected and complement each
other and thus add to the complexities in the overall scenario. However, for reasons of
clarity, these problems have been presented as stand - alone issues.
3.3.1.1 Technology Sourcing for Bio- Mass Power Generation
In a typical thermal power station, the basic fuel is prepared to the specific size, according to
the technical requirements of the boiler furnace in order to ensure efficient combustion. In
such cases, the boiler furnaces are specifically designed to suit the characteristics and
parameters of the fuel (say, coal or gas) on which the system is proposed to run. The
availability of this specific fuel is ensured by the user well in advance through techno-legal
agreements with fuel suppliers, for guaranteed supply of the fuel in the specified quality and
quantity.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
33
Ironically, in case of biomass projects, no such agreements exist as biomass fuel market is
unorganized and rural based. The supply position of any particular type of fuel is never
assured, and the biomass based projects are forced to fend for themselves in the best way
they can against the whims, fancies and the vagaries of the biomass supply chain.
Making the right technology choice for biomass-based FBC boiler therefore is a key element
for the success of such projects.
3.3.1.2 Viable Availability of Biomass Fuel
There have been innumerable instances, where the supplier have taken undue advantage of
demand supply gap and wrested very high prices from reluctant but helpless biomass based
cogeneration projects.
Even assuming that the biomass based cogeneration project is lucky enough to strike a
cordial deal with the suppliers, more critical issue of the wide variation in the sizes of the
biomass as it is received, poses another bottleneck. This calls for an additional process of
appropriate sizing of the bio mass.
If it were the case of a particular biomass, the situation would perhaps have been
comparatively simple. But considering the wide variation and seasonality in the availability of
the bio mass, and their basic characteristics, (size, shape, texture, moisture content, volatile
matter, Calorific Values, etc.) make effective preparation of biomass to suit the boiler
technical requirements, a very complex exercise.
It is but natural that the efficiencies of the boilers would be low as compared to a boiler
operating with a single fuel, for which the basic operating parameters can be set once & for
all, needing only periodic adjustments. This is very difficult with multi-fuels scenario with
frequently changing mix.
Apparently, this seems to be one of the reasons, for several biomass based cogeneration
projects, to have opted for higher heating surface area, compared to the well established
fossil fuel based power plants (of equivalent rating).
Following is a summary of various factors related to the availability of biomass, which can
greatly affect the viability of the cogeneration projects;
A) Types of biomass used in biomass based cogeneration projects
In any country there could be several varieties of biomass which are in use, depending
upon the geographic regions, geo-climatic conditions, agricultural practices, growing
patterns, season and their commercial availability. Considering wide variety of biomass
being used, with different moisture content, volatiles, unknown chemical composition
and external impurities like mud, clay, sand etc. It is easy to appreciate the technical
difficulties of collecting, preparing and combusting them in an efficient manner.
B) Availability of Biomass:
It is a well known fact that, biomass availability is highly influenced by crop patterns of a
region, climate, weather and seasons, added to these factors is the diffused availability of
biomass, which makes the collection and transport logistics a difficult and costly task.
These factors impose constrains on the total quantity of biomass that can be made
economically available at the project site.
C) Fuel Collection & Logistics:
When biomass power generation was conceived in the mid 1990s in India and
entrepreneurs came up with project proposals with rice husk as biomass, the early
biomass plants did not face any problems in collecting their main biomass fuel (i.e., rice
husk), since rice husk was available in plenty at rice mills. In fact, the rice millers were
more than happy to give away the rice husk at very nominal rates (some times free of
cost) since that would solve their disposal problem. The plants only had to engage
transporters to bring in the rice husk from rice mills.
UNEP-DTIE Energy Branch
http://www.unep.fr/energy
34
However, with installation of more and more biomass based cogeneration plants, the
situation changed, to an extent that, today, biomass based cogeneration plants are
looking for any agro or forest residue (woody biomass) that could be burned in their
boilers.
Accordingly, the spectrum of biomass fuels broadened from one or two main fuels to 5
to 10 different types of biomass being used in a single cogeneration plant. This has led to
several technical and financial problems for these plants:
More number of biomass types necessitated different types of collection and
handling equipment. Since most of these biomass fuels, such as Cajurina branches,
cotton stalks, husks of different pulses, sugar cane trash, spent coffee waste, coconut
fronts & shells, jute waste, marind husk, red chilly waste etc., were new to these
plants, there were no readily available equipment/machines to suit the new
requirements. Hence, all biomass cogeneration plants were forced to spend a sizable
amount of money in sourcing such equipment from domestic / international vendors
or developing these machines indigenously. There are also cases of in-house design
& development to manufacture collection equipment resulting additional capital
investment and operating cost.
Many of the agro residues need to be collected manually, baled and transported to
cogeneration plants. Since this is a highly labor intensive activity and biomass is
available in distributed quantities, some small and some large, the fuel contractors
would only be interested to supply biomass that is available in large quantities at a
single location. Thus biomass available in smaller lots would be ignored.
The transport of biomass from rice mills / other places of availability is effected by
transport contractors. Sometimes, transport contractors also become fuel supply
contractors. Depending on type, biomass is transported in lorries/trucks, tractor
trolleys, bullock carts etc.,
The major problem is, the high bulk density of biomass fuels, which results in lower
tonnage per vehicle, spillage due to light weight when transported in open trucks,
and thus higher transportation cost. The transportation cost (including loading and
unloading cost) constitutes a significant portion of the landed cost of the biomass.
For example, rice husk in India costs around INR800 (US $ 20) to INR1,000 (US $
25) per ton at the rice mill, whereas transportation costs are an additional INR300
(US $8) to INR400 (US $10) per ton. For biomass fuels which have to be collected
directly from the fields (such as sugar cane trash, coconut fronds, forest residues
etc), and which do not have a centralized collection point, the cost of logistics
(collection, loading, transport and unloading) further increases.
3.3.1.3 Fuel Pricing
The biomass fuel, presently an unregulated commodity and available in the open market,
makes its price very dynamic and varies extensively from region to region. The price is
influenced by several factors; such as: supply-demand gap (fierce competition among
entrepreneurs), seasonality, distance to be transported, quantities available in single lots etc.
Depending on the price, the cost of fuel constitutes a major portion in total generation cost.
The cost of fuel ranges between 50 to 70% of electricity generation cost, in case only
electricity is produced.
3.3.1.4 Fuel Storage Handling and Preparation
http://www.unep.fr/energy
35
time, when exposed in open yards, puts a limit on the fuel inventory that a biomass
based cogeneration plant can have (to take care of availability).
This also means that these plants have to put a sustained effort to procure biomass for
their plant, on a regular basis, as they cannot store large amounts of biomass.
It would be beneficial to build sheltered storage yards, where loss of biomass due to
decay can be reduced. Storage sheds need to be built with bay arrangements and
necessary tools for stacking and reclaiming.
B) Need for Multiple Preparation & Handling Equipment
Biomass power projects, can no longer afford the luxury of depending on a single fuel,
for sustained operations. It has become quite normal that, multi biomass fuel is the way
to go. This has imposed, the necessity to introduce various types of fuel preparation
options, to suit the various fuels, in the way and sizes, they have to be fed to the boiler.
This makes it very difficult for any single unit to invest in many different kinds of fuel
preparation equipment.
More so, there is a dearth of such equipment, and most of those in use, have been
indigenously developed, by individual plants. In India, some of the plants have designed
and developed equipment for fuel preparation on their own (with a little help from
others and not necessarily very efficient), which range from basic cutters and chippers to
bailing, drying, and feeding systems. Some of the equipments are listed below:
Sizing equipment (Chopping) for woody biomass
Saw cutter and wood chipper for woody biomass like Juliflora etc,
Chippers for making palm bunches into fibrous material for ease in firing
Chippers for making coconut fronds, into smaller pieces & powder
Rotary shredding machinery for bushy biomass like Jute Stick, Cotton stalk, Casurina
branches etc.
De Oiled Bran Crusher
Shredders
Screening
Briquette making (yet to be tried out)
Sieving machines for coir pith
Dryers for moisture removal by air drying,
Drying - natural (solar) drying
Conveying equipment (Belt, drag chain, bucket, pneumatic)
Other problems associated with storage and handling of biomass include:
Many biomass are collected directly from fields, which adds complications of
external impurities like mud, sand and unknown chemical compositions. It has been
observed that typically the moisture content ranges between 25% to 38%.
While sun drying is a simpler option, it has its own constraints, e.g.
Large floor area requirement where the bio mass can be spread to provide
maximum exposed surface area.
There is unfortunate situation that when there is bright sun there is no bio mass
and the reverse.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
36
Enormous labor requirement for handling and transporting, stacking, etc., which
pushes up the cost of the fuel beyond the capacity of the unit. Most of the
biomasses have a typical and peculiar characteristic that only about the top 2
inches thick material dries up but the inner mass do not get dried.This calls for
periodic restacking/disturbing of the heaps of the bio mass, calling for extra
labor and other costs.
Figure 13: Chipping Machine for Cajurina branches & coconut fronds at Varam
Power, India
Figure 14 : Collection & Baling Machine for sugarcane trash at GMR technologies,
India
While some of the units use the waste gases for this preliminary drying, they had
faced the problem of huge capital investment for the appropriate equipment.
Since the cogeneration plants are using variety of biomass fuels, separate conveying
and handling systems are required for each (or group of similar) biomass fuels. For
example, separate conveyers have to be used for rice husk & woody biomass
(juliflora chips) as they have to be fed at different locations/ways. Another example is
UNEP-DTIE Energy Branch
http://www.unep.fr/energy
37
screw feeders used for conveying rice husk cannot be used for sugar cane trash as
the trash would roll around and jam the screw.
Further, to meet the demand several fuels (of similar nature) such as rice husk, pulse
husks are mixed and fed to the boiler. All these factors contribute additional capital
and operation and maintenance (labour, energy etc.) costs for industries.
3.3.1.5 Issues in Use of Supplementary Fuels
The poor quality of biomass in terms of high moisture content, low calorific value and low
bulk density, often results in low heat generation in the boiler, which can not sustain power
generation at the rated capacity. This problem gets further aggravated during the rainy
season. Also, unavailability of sufficient biomass, due to seasonal constraints, necessitates cofiring of fossil fuels such as coal, to maintain the required steam parameters and/or power
generation.
While use of coal as a supplementary fuel is allowed, care should be taken with regards to
the quality of the coal, and it should be of a low quality or it would result in high bed
temperature and subsequently choking of the bed due to ash fusion.
3.3.1.6 Other Technical Problems in BPP Operations
http://www.unep.fr/energy
38
The first and the foremost barrier in implementation of the biomass based cogeneration
plant is the capital investment. The capital investment cannot be ascertained off-hand as it
depends on various configurations of the boiler and the steam turbine system, and these two
equipments are strictly site specific.
It would be grave mistake to follow a same type of approach and design for two process
houses even though they are of similar nature. As a rule of thumb the capital cost for Indian
condition is approximately US 300,000 per MW. This includes the FBC boiler, turbine, and
all other accessories. This capital cost is somewhat high for the small and medium
enterprises to invest, more so in the absence of government subsidies or an encouraging
mechanisms.
The second biggest financial risk in implementation of the biomass based cogeneration plants
is the uncertainty in the prices of the biomass. The cost of the biomass is highly variable and
depends on the market demand. Therefore there is always a degree of uncertainty with
regards to the profitability of the project. This is more so in the absence of government
interference in the biomass pricing as compared to the regular fossil fuel pricing.
It sometimes so happen that in order to make the complete project viable the industry
chooses a configuration so as to export the surplus electricity or steam generated (most of
the times it is the export of electricity rather than steam) to another industry close by or to
the local electricity service company through the grid. In such a case there is always a power
tariff agreement between the supplier and the receiver with regards to the minimum
quantity of electricity supplied and the cost at which the electricity is supplied. In lieu of
increased biomass prices the supplier is not able to increase the tariff of the electricity
exported, whereas it has to necessarily keep on supplying the minimum quantity of
electricity as agreed upon during the time of contract. This makes the project financially
unviable.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
39
http://www.unep.fr/energy
40
It would reduce the equivalent fossil fuel import bill of the government & thereby
improve the balance of payment position.
Biomass based cogeneration projects have given impetus to technology
development, by encouraging use of different agro and woody biomass in plants. It
would also give impetus to technology development at the farm level, by introducing
farm level machinery, to facilitate collection and baling.
The success of biomass power plants using combustion route, has led to increased
efforts in power generation through other routes, like gasification.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
41
the pressure at which steam needs to be generated and the degree of superheated
steam required
The quantity of fuel required can be worked out by back calculation after having determined
the steam requirements in the process house and electricity to be generated and the steam
to the condenser. Thereafter an energy balance could be performed. Let us consider a case
as in Figure 15:
http://www.unep.fr/energy
42
TURBINE
Electricity Output
= y (known)
http://www.unep.fr/energy
43
and there is also a provision of co-firing using solid fossil fuel like coal (of a very low quality);
since even a low quality coal do have higher energy contents than the rice husk.
Therefore in order to meet the peak load demands either the rice husk is mixed with coal
or there is a separate coal feeding system from which coal is fed and combusted in the boiler
in parallel to the rice husk. Table 7 lists the various fuels and there calorific value which can
be used in a FBC boiler for steam generation.
Table 7 : Fuels and their typical calorific values
No.
Fuel
Moisture Content ( % )
Ash (%)
Rice Husk
3100
8.92
19.40
Bagasse
3550
10.53
7.03
Straw
3050
15
4100
10
Wood
4400
9.83
3.14
In addition to the fuel in the boiler, another very important input into the co-generation
system is the electricity required by the various equipments in the cogeneration system.
These include: boiler feed water pumps, air supply fans, (induced & force drafts) compressed
air, ESP, water treatment plant, ash handling system, cooling towers for condenser etc.
The total electricity consumed by these auxiliaries is named as auxiliary power consumption.
Primarily all the auxiliary power consumed is drawn from the electricity product by the
turbo generator there the turbine. As a rule of thumb, the auxiliary power consumption is in
the range of 12-15% of the total power generated. This however varies with the type of
turbine system configuration and the fuel mix used for the boiler. Therefore when estimating
the power requirements of the industry an addition sum amounting least 15% may be added
on to the average demand.
4.2 Infrastructure Requirement
Infrastructure requirement for a biomass based cogeneration plants can be
broadly divided into two categories (i) External Infrastructure i.e. outside the
industry premises (ii) Internal Infrastructure i.e. within the industry premises.
No
Parameters
Remarks
Road connecting
Wide metalled roads to cater to the need of fuel transports in large quantities by
truck all through the year
Water availability
Ash disposal
Electrical Grid
http://www.unep.fr/energy
44
No.
Equipment
Boiler house
Water treatment
plant
Turbine house
Electrical load
monitoring &
distribution panels
Water storage tank
6
7
Comments
Industrial type shed with a height of a plant 50
ft.
Depends on the climate of the region
Equipments/Technologies
Remarks
The input TDS should be less than 10 mg/l for high pressure boiler
Cooling Towers
http://www.unep.fr/energy
45
The capacity & design of these additional technologies will depend on the size of the boiler &
the co-generation system.
4.4.1 Water Treatment Plant: Typically the water treatment plant consists of a Reverse
Osmosis plant followed by an ion exchange plant. For a high pressure boiler, typically the
TDS of the water being fed into the boiler should be less than 10 mg/l. These two
technologies do have limited environmental impact. The rejects from the RO plant and the
waste water generated from the ion exchange plant is neutralized in a tank and can be used
for sundry purposes like floor washing, gardening etc.
4.4.2 Fuel Preparation & Handling: Generally the biomass like straw etc. is just picked up
from the agricultural field and brought to the industry. These types of fuels need to be sized
so as to be used in the boiler. Therefore there is a need for a shredding machine which
would size the fuel to be used. In many cases the fuel brought to the industry is in form of
bales. These bales are de-baled by a de-baling machine before it could be fed to the FBC
boiler. Further since the industry maintains an inventory of about 7 days the fuel is stored
over a large area. To collect this spread over fuel and bring it to the fuel feeding system
requires either manual work by workers or loaders and pushers operated by their drivers.
Although there is no direct and major environmental pressure associated with these
technologies but the use of the various equipment increase the auxiliary power consumption.
4.4.3 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Control: In any case of a solid fuel fired FBC
boiler the control of particulate matter is a necessity. The amount of fly ash depends on the
type of the fuel used. In case of bagasse the amount of fly ash is quite less where as for rice
husk it is more. Therefore the choice of SPM control technology is also dependent on the
nature of fuel being used. But since FBC boilers are designed to combust multiple fuels the
most prominent technology for particulate control is Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) or bag
filters. The capital cost of ESP is more than the bag filter, although its operation cost is less
than that of a bag filter. These technologies themselves do not have any negative
environmental impacts. The choice is also governed by the local laws and regulation with
respect to the limits of the SPM in the flue gases.
4.4.4 Ash Handling System: Ash is generated as bottom ash from the boiler furnace and
is also collected as fly ash from the ESP or any pollution control device. The ash handling
system depends on what is the end use of the ash generated. In case the ash is to be used
for cement manufacture or bricks making or as a subgrade material in road construction etc.
The ash is handled in dry form. It is pneumatically conveyed through pipes by help of
compressed air, but this is a very costly type of system and is used only in case of large
amount of ash to be handled. For a small cogeneration plant of 3-5 MW capacity this type of
system is not economically feasible. In such plants the ash is handled manually using loaders,
excavators and trucks or tractors/ trolley. The loaders load the ash to the trucks and
trolleys which are then transported to the desired site. Another method to handle ash is to
form slurry by mixing with water and this slurry is then pumped to the ash dyke (a huge pit).
In the ash dyke the water is drained and the wet ash is deposited. The drained water can be
recycled back for slurry preparation.
4.4.5 Fuel Drying System: Some of the biomass fuel like bagasse, have high inherent
moisture content. Therefore these types of fuel need to be dried before being fed into the
boiler. High moisture in the fuel could lead to problems in the fluidization of the fuel. The
high moisture will also increase the stickiness and would cause deposition on the boiler
tubes; it would also lead to formation of black smoke from the chimney and choking of the
bed. A very common method of fuel drying is by spreading it over a large area and sun
drying it. But in some cases where the quantity of fuel to be dried is large, special fuel drying
system is installed, where in the fuel is dried by the waste heat from the flue gases. In such
system addition environmental pollution control system to control the particulate matter
are generally installed.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
46
4.4.6 Cooling Towers: Cooling towers are part of the boiler-turbine system. The type and
the size of the cooling tower is dependent on the climatic condition of the region where it is
installed. The cooling tower by itself does not have any negative environmental impact. The
amount of water evaporated in the cooling tower is about 5-7 % of the total cooling water
used in the circuit.
4.2 Waste Disposal
Both solid and liquid wastes are generated from different areas of a cogeneration plant.
Although the wastes generated are not hazardous, but need good practices to mange them
so that they may not result in any additional environmental impacts. The major wastes
generated from the cogeneration system are listed in table 8.
Table 11 : Waste Generated in Cogeneration Plant
No.
Waste
Area
1
2
3
Frequency of
Generation
Once in 6 months
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
The most significant waste that is produced is the ash. The quantity of ash varies according
to the fuel mix used. In case only rice husk is used as a fuel, the total quantity of ash
generated from the process is about 28-30% of the rice husk used by weight considering that
the rice husk has a moisture content of about 10% only.
If we analyse the composition of fuels like rice husk and bagasses as in Table 7, we observe
that the quantity of ash content in the fuel is only 19.4% and 7.03% respectively. However,
when these fuels are burned in a boiler there is some unburnt carbon particles. This
unburned carbon comes out mixed with ash.
The quantity of unburnts in FBC boilers is dependent on many factors, the most prominent
one being the mode of firing & type of distribution system to spread the fuel inside the
boiler furnace.
The quantity of ash generated in case of use of bagasse as a fuel is in the range of 10-12% of
the total fuel used. Therefore in comparison to the rice husk it is a better fuel in terms of
quality of solid waste generated. The ash generated from the ESP and the boiler is collected
and is disposed off in landfills. However, there are certain more ways of effectively using the
fly ash generated namely
Use as sub-grade material in road construction.
Used for making fly ash bricks
Partial use in cement manufacturing
The other wastes like spent lube oil, cooling water, R.O. rejects water are not of much
environmental consequence as their quantities are quite low in comparison. The lube oil is
recycled back to the company which provides it. The cooling water is in a closed circuit and
the losses in the circuit are only evaporation losses through the cooling towers. The rejects
from the R.O. plant/DM Plant are neutralized and used in gardening and other purposes like
floor washing etc.
4.5 Human Resources Demand
A trouble free operation of implemented technology is very much dependent on the way it
is handled and operated. Therefore the role of both trained and untrained manpower at
UNEP-DTIE Energy Branch
http://www.unep.fr/energy
47
supervisory level and operations level are of utmost importance. In most of the cases and
especially in case of biomass fired cogeneration plant it is very difficult to assign the number
of people which would be optimum for the purpose of plant operation and maintenance,
since the manpower requirement is more or less a function of the size of the plant.
However, for a plant size of 3-5 MW about 30-35 personnels are required. This includes
managers, supervisors and operators.
4.6 Equipment Suppliers
The main equipments in case of a biomass based cogeneration plant are : Atmospheric
Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler and a Extraction cum condensing Steam Turbine.
The FBC technology for the use of rice husk as a fuel is quite matured in India. There are
more than 200 cogeneration plants using the FBC boilers in operation in the country. Table
12 lists the various suppliers of steam turbine and the biomass fired FBC boilers. All the
other auxiliary equipments like cooling tower, water treatment plants, ESP, ash handling
plant etc are supplied by the boiler manufacture as a part of the package.
Table 12 : Suppliers for Steam Turbine and FBC Boiler
Disclaimer : The addresses provided in the table above are only representative and in no way it is implied
that the product are being endorsed by DTIE, UNEP
Components
Supplied
Steam Turbine
Supplier
Country
Triveni
Engineering &
Industries Ltd
Turbo
Engineers
India
Steam Turbine
UES
India
Steam Turbine
Citation
Corporation
Skinner Power
Systems LLC
Canton Drop
Forge
eTurbines Inc.
USA
USA
Steam Turbine
National
Electric Coil
Solar Thermal
& Biomass
Power Plant
Turbosteam
Steam Turbine
HPG Limited
Canada
Steam Turbine
CITIC Heavy
Machinery
Company Ltd.
China
Steam Turbine
HI Efficiency
Turbomachinery PVT.
LTD
Mitsubishi
Heavy
industries, Ltd.
India
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine
India
USA
USA
USA
USA
USA
Japan
Address
Phone
Fax
+91-80-2839
1624
+1-413-8633500
+1-413863-3157
+1-905-8251218
+86-3794218067
+86-3794218711-5455
+91-80-41178394
+919945699051
+81-3-32123111
+1-905825-1220
+86-3794218509/
+86-3794218067
+91-8041179394
+ 91 80
2839
5945
+91-33- 2343
4948
+91-9810139601
+1-248-7611805
+1-887-8688577
+1-330-4774511
+1-281-4422700
+1-614-4881151
+1-414-3727097
+1-248522-4577
+1-814868-5299
+1-281590-2233
+1-614488-8892
+81-332129800
http://www.unep.fr/energy
48
Supplier
Country
Address
Phone
UK
Werrinton Parkway,
Peterborough, UK,PE4 5 HG
+44-1733
292200
Germany
FBC BOILER
(Biomass Fired)
Babcock &
Wilcox
USA
FBC BOILER
(Biomass Fired)
Wartsila
Biomass Power
Finland
FBC BOILER
(Biomass Fired)
Indtex Boilers
Pvt Ltd.
India
Margarethenstrae 25,
Frechen B. Koln, Nrw
Germany 50226
Werftstrasse 5, Hamburg,
Germany 20457
9, Community Centre, Basant
Lok, Near Priya Cinema, New
Delhi - 110 057
20 S. Van Buren Avenue
Barberton, OH, U.S.A 442030351
Wrtsil Corporation
John Stenbergin ranta 2
FI-00530 Helsinki /
P.O. Box 196 FI-00531
Finland
Mr. B. K. Gupta
204, Amber Tower, B/H,
Akash Cinema, Badlapur, New
Delhi - 110033 India
+49-22344356886
FBC BOILER
(Biomass Fired)
Peter
Brotherhood
Ltd
Solar
International
Energy Ltd.
Spilling Energie
Systeme Gmbh
Thermax
Limited
FBC BOILER
(Biomass Fired)
Fluidcon Boilers
Equipments Pvt.
Ltd.
A.V.U.
Engineers Pvt.
Ltd.
India
Mega Retro
Thermal
Equipments
India
Steam Turbine
Steam Turbine
FBC BOILER
(Biomass Fired)
FBC BOILER
(Biomass Fired)
Germany
India
India
Fax
+49-40-789
1750
+91-11-2614
5326 /26145319
+1- 330-7534511
+441733292300
+4922344356887
+49-407892836
+91-112614
5311/
+1-330860-1886
+358-10-7090000
+358-10709-5700
+91-11-27676771 / 27677137
+91-9811134966 /
+91-11-42773736 / 30911908
+91-40-23092343
+91-40-23092343
+91-1125083509
+91-4023093235
+91-4023093235
http://www.unep.fr/energy
49
The raw material used for Kraft paper manufacturing is a mix of agriculture residue
(60%) such as bagasse, wheat straw, etc. & waste paper (40%). A rotating spherical
http://www.unep.fr/energy
50
digester is used for cooking agro based raw material along with caustic. After
cooking, the pulp is passed through mechanical devices such as refiners, and the
ratio of agro based pulp & waste paper pulp is maintained as the per requirement.
Again this stock is passed out through the refiners. In the blending chest, the
chemicals & colors are added as per requirement, after which the pulp is fed to
machine chest & to subsequent machine sections. The Unit #1 is installed with a
four dryer machine with Machine Glazed (MG) & 16 dryers cylinder for producing
Kraft paper. Steam supply to digester for cooking and dryers is provided by help of
boilers installed in the utilities section of the industry. The process flow diagram is
illustrated in Annexure 1.
5.2.2 Duplex Board Manufacturing process
The raw material used for Duplex board manufacturing is entirely waste paper. In
Unit # 2, the Duplex board (coated) manufactured is prepared in four layers. The
1st layer is white, the 2nd layer is for protection purposes, the 3rd layer is the filler
and the 4th layer is the back layer. For the 1st & 2nd layers, de-inking & bleaching is
carried out for improving whiteness. Steam supply to the process is supplied by the
boilers installed in the utility section. The process flow diagram is illustrated in
Annexure 2.
5.3 Baseline Energy Scenario
The present electrical load of the plant is 1.875 MW and the steam requirement is around
10 TPH. The management has already initiated measures for modernization, which would
increase the production as well as quality. After the modernization i.e., by the end of
financial year 2003-04, the production is expected to increase to 8250 TPA of Kraft paper &
16500 TPA of Duplex board. Simultaneously the power & steam requirement are also
expected to raise to 2.38 MW & 12.32 TPH respectively
5.3.1 Electrical Energy
The industry had its own captive power generation through the Diesel generating sets
because of the fact that the utility power company namely Uttar Pradesh State Electricity
Board (UPSEB) power supply has been erratic and unreliable, the management of BDL was
compelled to discontinue use of UPSEB power and install its own captive power generation
plant. This consists of a battery of DG sets, with a combined aggregate capacity of 5.7 MVA.
The ratings of the four DG sets are presented in the table 13:
Table 13 : Specifications of the DG sets installed for captive power generative
No.
1
2
3
4
Make
Plistic (Marine)
Kirloskar
Skoda
Kirloskar
Rating KVA
2500
750
1450
1000
Fuel Used
Furnace Oil
HSD
Light Distillate Oil
HSD
Under normal circumstances, the 2500 KVA DG set (Plistic make) and 750 KVA DG Set
(Kirloskar make) are put online while the other two remain as standby. At times, however,
the 1000 KVA DG set (Kirloskar make) is also put into service, for short duration. The
Skoda make generator is hardly used and is just kept for emergency purposes. The annual
fuel oil consumption by the DG sets during the year 2002-03 is 3248.8 kilo litre furnace oil
(FO) and 1272.8 high speed diesel (HSD). The overall annual fuel oil bill (energy) for power
generation through DG sets is around 68.6 million rupees (1.6 Million US $). The average
specific generation (kWh / litre) for each of the DG sets is 3.2 kW/litre for Plistic 2500 KVA
DG set and 3.5 kW for Kirloskar 750 KVA and 1000 KVA DG sets. The existing and
projected electrical power requirements of the industry is depicted in figure 17
http://www.unep.fr/energy
51
4
3
1.875
2.38
2.57
2.906
2.72
2
1
0
2002 - 03
2003 - 04
2004 - 05
2005 - 06
2006 - 07
Year
Figure 17 : Electrical Power requirements trends- Baseline values
5.3.2 Thermal Energy - Steam
Towards meeting plant process steam requirements, two boilers (Industrial Boilers Ltd - IBL
make & Thermax make) have been installed. The IBL & Thermax boilers cater to the steam
demand of Unit # 1 and Unit # 2 respectively. Fuel used in IBL and Thermax boilers is low
grade coal. The rated capacity of both the boilers is 10 tons per hour (TPH) and saturated
steam is generated at a pressure of 9.6-10 kg/ cm2(g).
As the maximum steam pressure requirement by the process is 4 kg/cm2(g), the boiler steam
pressure is regulated through pressure reducing valves and subsequently distributed in the
industry. The total annual fuel consumption in 2002-03 by the boilers was 14100 tons
amounting to Rs 32.4 million (US $0.7 million). The existing and projected steam
requirements of the industry is depicted in figure 18
Steam (T/hr)
20
15
12.32
13.31
14.3
15.28
9.79
10
5
0
2002 - 03
2003 - 04
2004 - 05
2005 - 06
2006 - 07
Year
http://www.unep.fr/energy
52
advantage with this scheme is that the entire process steam & power requirement of the
unit would be met through the project.
Since the installation of a new FBC boiler and steam turbine system would require additional
electrical power and steam requirements, the projected steam and electrical demands were
revised and the system was designed for revised demands. Further, the start of the project
was taken to be in the year 2004-05 as it takes at least 6-9 months to erect and commission
the system. Till the time the new system comes up the old system continued to be in
operation. The revised electrical power and steam demands are depicted in figure 19 and 20.
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
24.23
22.66
3.2
3.06
2.86
21.38
3
2.8
2.7
MW
kWh (Millions)
2.6
2.4
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
Year
kWh (Millions)
MW
Figure 19: Electrical Power Requirements after Installing the Cogeneration System
TPH
24.11
22.55
21.2
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
Year
Considering the steam & power requirement of the plant, it is suggested that the plant may
install a co-generation system with the following configuration.
Type:
Extraction-cum-condensing turbine
Alternator rating:
5 MVA
4 MW
FBC Boiler:
The schematic diagram of the suggested system along with the envisaged steam & power
generation potential is given in figure 21.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
53
64 kg/cm2 (a),
485 0C, 21.2 T/hr
Turbine
2.7 MW
The technical specifications of the various equipments and accessories are enclosed in
Annexure 3.
5.4.2 Investment details (investment break up of cogeneration project)
A total investment of Rs.103.3 million (US $ 2.46 million) was made for implementation of
this project. The break up of investment for the different heads is detailed in Table 14-20.
The cost economics of the scheme has been worked out keeping the base line year as 200405.
Table 14 : (A) Preliminary & Preoperative Expenses
No.
Particulars
Amount (Rs.-Million)
Amount (US $)
0.7
16,666.67
0.1
2,380.95
Miscellaneous Expenses
0.1
2,380.95
TOTAL
0.9
21,428.57
Table 15: (B) Cost Involved for procuring Land & Site Development
No.
Particulars
Amount (Rs-Millions)
Amount (US $)
Cost of Land
Rs.0.8 millions
95,238.09
Rs.0.275 millions
32,738.09
Total Cost
Rs.1.075 millions
127,976.18
Particulars
Proposed
Area
7000 sq. ft.
Type of Construction
A.C. Sheet roofing over
steel column (@Rs.400/-
Amount
(Mil Rs.)
2.8
Amount
(US $)
333,333.33
http://www.unep.fr/energy
54
2.00
238,095.2
RCC
0.3
35,714.3
0.7
83,333.33
0.58
69,047.6
6.38
759,523.8
TOTAL
Amount (US $)
29
690,476.19
0.312
7,428.57
0.676
16,095.238
21.522
512,428.57
10.00
238,095.24
2.450
58,333.33
1.05
25,000.00
1.70
40,476.19
4.5
107,142.86
Crane
0.650
15,476.19
5.00
119,047.62
Transformer
1.45
34,523.81
Sub Total
78.31
1,864,523.81
3.13
74,523.81
Sub Total
81.44
1,939,047.62
Freight 10%
8.14
193,809.52
Total
89.58
2,132,857.14
Table 18: (E.)Repair & Maintenance Cost for Building, Plant & Machinery
Year
Amount (US $)
2003-04
2.9
69,047.62
2004-05
3.35
79,761.90
2005-06
3.85
91,666.67
No.
Designation
Number
Maintenance Engineer
Shift Supervisor
http://www.unep.fr/energy
55
Turbine Supervisor
Boiler Supervisor
Skilled Workers
Semiskilled workers
15
Total
34 Nos.
Annual Salary bill for the above personnel is Rs.1.75 million (US $ 208,333.33)
Table 20 : Summary of Costs (From A to E)
No.
Particulars
Amount
(US $)
0.9
21,428.57
1.075
25,595.24
6.38
151,904.76
89.58
2,132,857.14
2.90
69,047.62
Contingencies
2.50
59,523.81
TOTAL
103.335
2,460,357.14
The industry paid an advance of 10 % for initiating the project and 60 % of the payment was
made after receipt of the machinery & accessories at the industry premises. After the
successful erection and commissioning of the equipment the unit paid 20% of the total cost
and the balance 10 % was made after the warranty period of equipment (Year-2005). The
order was placed in July 2003 and erection and commissioning of the boiler and turbine was
completed by the end of March 2004.
5.4.3 Cost benefit of the scheme
The cost benefit analysis of the scheme was worked out on actual basis taking all the cost.
The complete analysis is depicted in Table 21
Table 21: Cost Analysis Before and After Implementation of Cogeneration Scheme
ITEM
ANNUAL PAPER
PRODUCTION
COST OF STEAM
(with existing set
up)
DETAILS
THOUSAND
TONS
Quantity of
Steam T/hr
Quantity of
Steam T/yr
Quantity of Coal
T/hr
Quantity of Coal
T/yr
Rate of Coal
Rs/T
TOTAL
ANNUAL
COST OF
STEAM (Mil. Rs.)
2002-03
19.80
2003-04
24.75
2004-05
26.73
2005-06
28.71
2006-07
30.69
9.79
12.32
13.31
14.30
15.28
77,536.80
97,574.40
105,415.20
113,256.00
121,017.60
1.78
2.24
2.42
2.60
2.78
14,097.60
17,740.80
19,166.40
20,592.00
22,003.20
2,300.00
2,300.00
2,300.00
2,300.00
2,300.00
32.42
40.80
44.08
47.36
50.61
http://www.unep.fr/energy
56
COST OF
ELECTRICITY
PRODUCED
(with existing
setup)
TOTAL COST OF
STEAM AND
ELECTRICITY
TOTAL COST OF
STEAM AND
ELECTRICITY IN
CASE OF
COGENERATION
DETAILS
TOTAL
ANNUAL
COST OF
STEAM (US
$)
Units of
electricity
produced kW/hr
from DG set 1
Quantity of
FO(litre/hr)
Quantity of FO(
KL/yr)
Rate of FO
(Rs/KL)
Annual Cost
(Mil. Rs.)
Units of
electricity
produced in
kW/hr from DG
set 2
Quantity of
LDO(litre/hr)
Quantity of
LDO(KL/yr)
Rate of
LDO(Rs/KL)
Annual Cost
(Mil. Rs.)
Annual
Maintenance
Cost of DG
sets(Mil. Rs.)
Total Annual
MW electricity
produced
TOTAL
ANNUAL
COST OF
ELECTRICITY
(Mil. Rs.)
TOTAL
ANNUAL
COST OF
ELECTRICITY
(US $)
Mil. Rs./year
Million US $
Quantity of
Steam(T/hr)
Quantity of Rice
husk (T/hr)
Quantity of Rice
husk (T/yr)
Rate of Rice
Husk (Rs/T)
Total Cost of
Rice Husk (Mil.
Rs.)
2002-03
0.772
2003-04
0.972
2004-05
1.050
2005-06
1.128
2006-07
1.205
1,312.50
1,662.50
1,795.50
1,903.13
2,034.38
410.16
519.53
561.09
594.73
635.74
3,248.44
4,114.69
4,443.86
4,710.25
5,035.09
13,500.00
14,000.00
16,000.00
18,000.00
18,000.00
43.85
57.61
71.10
84.78
90.63
562.50
712.50
769.50
815.63
871.88
160.71
203.57
219.86
233.04
249.11
1,272.86
1,612.29
1,741.27
1,845.65
1,972.94
19,500.00
21,000.00
24,000.00
28,000.00
28,000.00
24.82
33.86
41.79
51.68
55.24
6.87
8.70
9.39
9.96
10.60
1.88
2.38
2.57
2.72
2.91
75.54
100.16
122.28
146.42
156.47
1.80
2.38
2.91
3.49
3.73
107.97
2.57
140.97
3.36
166.36
3.96
193.78
4.61
207.08
4.93
21.20
22.55
24.11
7.07
7.52
8.04
55,968.00
59,532.00
63,650.40
1,800.00
1,900.00
2,000.00
100.74
113.11
127.30
1,600.00
1,700.00
http://www.unep.fr/energy
57
PROFITS DUE TO
SAVINGS IN FUEL
COSTS
DETAILS
Total Annual
MW electricity
produced
Additional
annual Cost of
manpower (Mil.
Rs.)
TOTAL
ANNUAL
COST OF
STEAM AND
ELECTRICITY
(Mil. Rs.)
(Million US $)
(Mil. Rs.)
Million US $
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2.70
2005-06
2.86
2006-07
3.06
1.75
1.85
1.95
102.49
114.96
129.25
2.44
63.87
1.52
2.74
78.82
1.88
3.08
77.83
1.85
It can be clearly seen from table 21 that the total investment of 2.46 Million US $ would be
recovered in just 18 months after the cogeneration plant comes into operation. However in
reality, due to various other miscellaneous expenditures like price variations, disposal cost of
ash generated etc. the total cost was recovered after 24 months.
In addition to the tremendous cost benefits, the adoption of co-generation could
substantially reduce the energy related GHG emissions by the industry as the furnace oil,
LDO/HSD & coal used for steam & power generation could be avoided. The direct GHG
reduction possible for the unit for the year 2004-05 will be 47,322 Tons (The GHG emission
for Diesel: 2.68 Tons/KL, Furnace Oil: 3Tonnes/KL; Coal 1.53 T/T). This will increase further in
the following years due to expected increase in production. An illustration is depicted in
Table 22.
Table 22 : Greenhouse Gases Emissions Reduction due to Cogeneration 2004-05
Fuel
Quantity
BEFORE COGENERATION
Coal (T)
191,66.40
29324.59
4,443.86
13331.58
LDO (KL)
1,741.27
4666.6036
TOTAL GHG
47,322.77
AFTER COGENERATION
Rice Husk
55,968.0
ZERO
http://www.unep.fr/energy
58
Based on survey done by National Productivity Council for An evaluation study on impact of MNRE
incentive for biomass power generation /cogeneration program.Nov 2006, by A. K. Asthana and team.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
59
Figure 22 : Various Biomasses based power plants and their numbers in India
http://www.unep.fr/energy
60
Before choosing a gasifier for any individual fuel, it is important to ensure that the fuel meets
the requirements of the gasifier. Practical tests are needed if the fuel has not previously been
successfully gasified.
For smooth operation of internal combustion engine for power generation the gas as a fuel
requires a fairly clean gas. The gas to be dust and tar free and during the process it is cooled
down. The biomass gas used for power generation must be virtually tar and dust free in
order to minimize engine wear, and should be as cool as possible in order to maximize the
engine's gas intake and power out put. Biomass gasification for power generation is the befit
technology to meet the power requirement for rural electrification.
For small power generating units say (50 kW - 500 kW) the overall efficiency level varies
from 12-18%, whereas for circulating fluidized bed gasifiers can be used for higher capacity
say 4-4 MW - 10 MW with an efficiency of 23-28%. The capital investment for bio-mass
gasifier power generation system varies from US$ 800-1000 /kWh.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
61
WASTE
PAPER
DIGESTER
PULPER
PULPER
KIT
BLOW
TANK
DECKER
TDR/SDR
CHEST
POTCHER
CHEST
TDR
M/C CHEST
CENTRI CLEANER
SCREEN
HEAD BOX
WIRE
PRESS
DRYER
M.G
DRYER
PAPER ROLL
http://www.unep.fr/energy
62
T/L PULPER
PULPER PIT
P/L PULPER
PULPER
PIT
CHEST 01
H.D
H.D
3F SCREEN
Jhonson.
SCREEN
F.N. SCREEN
Jhonson.Screen
SLOTTED
SLOTTED
DECKER
DECKER
REFINING
M/C CHEST
DDR
HEAD BOX
M/C CHEST
HEAD BOX
B/L PULPER
PULPER PIT
SMALL
PULPER
CHEST
H.D
TURBO - 500
TURBO
300
JOHNSON
SCREEN
SLOTTED
SCREEN
SLOTTED
SCREEN
PRIMARY
CC PIT
SECONDARY
CC PIT
DECKER
TERTIARY
CC PIT
http://www.unep.fr/energy
63
CHEST
SDR
TDR
CONICAL
M/C CHEST
M/C CHEST
HEAD BOX
HEAD BOX
CALANDER
MOULD
PRE COATING
PRESS SECTION
CALANDER
PRE DRYERS
TOP COATING
M.G
BACK
COATING
POST DRYER
DRYER
DRYER
CALENDAR
SIZE PRESS
PAPER ROLL
DRYER
http://www.unep.fr/energy
64
BOILERS (MCR)
30,000 kg/hr
65 kg/cm2 (g)
485+/-5 Deg.C.
70-100%
105 Deg.C.
Peak load
Boiler turndown
1:3
Approx. 3000 Kg/hr at 4.0 kg/cm2g & 230 Deg.C. Pr. Control station
inlet.
B.
BOILER ACCESSORIES
GENERAL
Type of combustion system
FBC
Type of Boiler
Bi-drum
Overbed firing
Natural
Type of support/installation
Bottom supported/Indoor
No. of Boilers
One
Two
700-800 mm (approx)
12 mm
IS 2062
Nozzles
- Material of construction
Alloy C1
Inbed tubes
- Tube size mm x mm
- Inbed headers
- Material specification
SA 106 Gr. B
- Header dia
219.1 mm OD
http://www.unep.fr/energy
65
IS 8 (50% Alumuina)
Outer Layer
Type of feeders
Screw Feeder
No. of feeders
Four (Total)
CGD/ECV
Type of feeders
Rotary feeder
No. of feeders
Two (Total)
ECONOMISER
Location
Tube size mm
Headers size
Dia 168.3 mm
SA 106 Gr. B
Casing material
IS 2062./4 mm thick
Tube protection
AIR HEATER
Arrangement and type
Staggered tubes
Tube size
BS 6323 ERW
Flow medium
- Inside tube
GAS
- Outside tube
AIR
4 mm Thi IS 2062
Erosion protection
Ducting
3.15 mm Thk
4.00 mm Thk
IS 2062 Gr. A
http://www.unep.fr/energy
66
C.
FD FAN
ID FAN
400
1300
700
370
Medium
Air
Flue gas
Temperature Deg.C
40
150
38 m3/hr
Pressure head
840 mtc
105 Deg. C
Quantity
Connected load
160 KW (Approx.)
Turbine bleed
Design capacity
36 m 3/ hr
10 m3
55 Deg. C
IS 2062
Nozzle/Stubs
IS 1239 C Class
Flanges
IS 2062
Spray Nozzles
SS 304
Trays
SS 304
Feed water
Hardness, max
ppm
Nil
PH at 25 Deg.C
8.8 9.2
Oxygen, max
ppm
0.007
ppm
0.01
ppm
0.01
Silica, Max
ppm
0.02
TDS max
ppm
0.1
Conductivity at 25 Deg.C measured max. us/cm after cation exch. In H+ from and after CO2
removal
0.2
Hydrazine residual
0.02
0.04
ppm
http://www.unep.fr/energy
67
D.
E.
TURBINE PARAMETERS
F.
G.
Composition
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Moisture
Ash
Oxygen
GCV Kcal/Kg
Rice Husk
36.70
3.00
0.40
0.08
10.00
18.80
31.02
3100
Bagasse
23.50
3.25
0.00
0.00
50.00
1.50
21.75
2350
Type
Extraction pressure
: 4 kg/cm2G
: 26 tph
Extraction flow
: 23 tph
: 6 tph
Power developed
: 4000 KW
: 1500 rpm
Alternator
: 4000 rpm
Voltage
: 11 KV
: 32 Deg. C.
: 40 Deg. C
ALTERNATOR PARAMETERS
Rating
Type
: Brushless Excitation
Generation Voltage
11000 Volts
Frequency
: 50 Hz
Speed
: 1500 rpm
Cooling
: CACW
CONDENSER PARAMETERS
Tube material
: Admiralty Brass
Cleanliness factor
: 0.85
: 32 Deg. C
: 40 Deg. C
: 556 Cu.m/hr
The steam turbine with speed reduction gearing shall comprise of the following equipment.
http://www.unep.fr/energy
68
1.
2.
One Number Set of hardened and ground speed reducing gears, capable of
transmitting continuously the power generated by above turbine. The gear
output speed will be 1500 RPM.
3.
One Number High speed coupling (non-lubricated, flexible type) between the
turbine and gearbox and low speed coupling (non-lubricated, flexible type)
between gearbox and alternator.
The A.C. Generator and its control switchgear will be consisting of the following:
1. One Number - 5000 KVA, 4000 kW, 11000 Volts, 50 Hz, 0.8 p.f.1500 RPM,
revolving field, double pedestal horizontal alternator.
2. The alternator will be complete with excitation, automatic voltage regulator and is
of brush less excitation type.
H.
HT PANEL
1. One Number H.T. Panel, sheet metal clad, cubicle type for controlling the generator
output. The panel shall be totally enclosed, self-supporting, floor mounting type for
indoor installation. It shall be complete with following equipment:
2. Vacuum circuit breaker of suitable rating.
http://www.unep.fr/energy