Experiment B: Particle-Fluid Systems Settling and Fluidization

Learning Objectives
At the end of this laboratory, the CHBE 362 student should be able to:
study the principles of hindered settling of glass beads in water;
assess the behaviour of packed and fluidized beds and compare results to those predicted
by the Ergun equation;
describe different operating regimes of gas fluidization.

Theory
Solid-fluid systems are frequently encountered in industry. The goal may be to separate the
solids from the fluid stream, such as in a settling chamber, or to contact fluids with solids such
as in chromatography, drying or heterogeneous catalysis. The solids may be at rest with the
fluid moving through them, either upward or downward; the solid phase may be moving through
the fluid phase; or both phases may be moving.
1. Particles moving through fluids
See Workshop 2 (Particle Characterization) for a discussion of the forces involved when
particles are moving through fluids. Before beginning this laboratory, you should have a
good understanding of particle terminal velocity and drag coefficient and be familiar with
techniques used for measuring porosity, particle size and density and bulk density.
1.1. Settling and Sedimentation
The terms settling and sedimentation are used interchangeably to describe the separation
from water of suspended particles, with density greater than water, by gravitational forces.
Depending on the particle concentration and tendency for particles to interact, four possible
types of settling have been defined; these are described in Table 1.
Table 1: Types of Settling Phenomena
Type of Settling
Description
Type 1: Discrete
Low solids concentration
No significant particle-particle
interaction
Type 2: Flocculant
Dilute suspensions
Particles coalesce or
flocculate during
sedimentation
Type 3: Hindered or Zone

Type 4: Compression

Intermediate particle
concentration
Sufficient interparticle forces
to hinder particle settling
Visible solid-liquid interface at
top of settling mass
High concentration of
particles

Application
Sand/grit removal

Removal of suspended
solids in untreated
wastewater
Removal of chemical
flocs
Secondary settling
facilities

Sludge

In Type 1 (Discrete) settling, particles settle individually at their terminal velocities. The
simplest separator uses gravity to remove particles from a dilute flowing suspension.

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Experiment B

Particles are carried forward by the fluid and settle with their terminal velocity relative to the
fluid. Ideally, a particle in a settling basin will be captured if its terminal velocity is greater
than a critical terminal velocity, utc, as shown in Figure 1. The critical terminal velocity is
defined by the dimensions of the settling chamber and flow rate of the clarified product.

Figure 1: Type 1 settling in an ideal settling basin. Particles with terminal

velocity uti < utc will not be captured in the basin; particles with
terminal velocity uti utc will be captured in the basin.

u tc

Hs

(1)

where:
Hs = height of settling chamber

= residence time of fluid,

L sW s H s L s

Q
Us

Ls = length of settling chamber

Ws = width of settling chamber
Q = volumetric flow rate of clarified product
Us = forward velocity of fluid in settling chamber
For particles with uti < utc, the fraction of particles captured is the vertical distance moved
divided by the height of the settling basin (uti/Hs = uti/utc). The overall collection efficiency
of a settling chamber depends on the size distribution of the particles in the feed and thus
the particles terminal velocities compared to the critical terminal velocity [1]. This simple
analysis gives a reasonable approximation for simple devices. A number of factors will
cause deviations, including:
turbulence in the fluid
velocity profile of the fluid
time for particles to accelerate to their terminal velocities
saltation (pick-up) of particles from the floor (Us 3 m/s)
interaction among particles

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Experiment B

If many particles are falling together, hindered settling (Type 3) occurs. In this situation, the
velocity gradients around each particle are affected by nearby particles. Thus the normal
drag correlations do not apply. In addition, the settling particles displace fluid, which flows
upward and makes the particle velocity relative to the fluid greater than the absolute settling
velocity. Hindered settling of fine particles (diameter < 100 m), which is frequently
encountered in waste water treatment facilities, will not be covered here.
Richardson and Zaki [2] studied the settling of suspensions of coarse uniform particles
(diameter > 100 m) and report that a plot of the hindered settling velocity, uhindered, versus
the porosity (or voidage), , on log-log coordinates gives a linear relationship. The rate of
settling depends on the voidage as shown below:

u hindered ut n

(2)

where:
uhindered = the hindered settling velocity at voidage
= porosity (or voidage) = void volume (i.e., without solids)/total volume
n = exponent
Log(ut) is the intercept corresponding to infinite dilution ( 1). Richardson-Zaki found that
the exponent n, depends on the wall effect and the particle Reynolds Number as given in
Equations 3 7:
0 < Rep,t < 0.2 n 4.65 19.5

dp

(3)

DT

0.2 < Rep,t < 1 n 4.35 17.5 p Re t0.03

DT

1 < Rep,t < 200 n 4.45 18 p Re t0.1

DT

200 < Rep,t < 500

Rep,t > 500

(4)
(5)

n 4.45 Re t0.1

(6)

n 2.39

(7)

where:
Rep,t = particle Reynolds number for free settling = utdp/
Equation (2) from Workshop 2,

b p (1 ) , defines the relationship between particle and

bulk densities. The porosity or voidage of a uniform particle slurry, , can be calculated by
rearranging this equation to give Equation 8, if the mass of the particles, mp, the total volume
(liquid + solid) in the tube, VT, and the density of the particles, p, are known. represents
the average voidage when the slurry is well mixed in the total volume.

m p VT (1 ) p

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(8)

Experiment B

2. Fluids moving through particles

The pressure drop for fluids moving through packed beds of particles is often approximated
as a bundle of tortuous channels. The Hagen-Poiseuille equation, which describes the
pressure drop for laminar flow in straight tubes, can be adapted to packed beds. This
results in the Kozeny-Carman equation, valid for Re < 1, for the prediction of pressure drop,
p, across a packed bed of length, L:

p 150U (1 ) 2

2
L
3
dp

(9)

where:
U = superficial velocity

Re

Ud p

(1 )

(Reynolds number of the fluid travelling through the bed)

At high Reynolds numbers, Re > 1000, the Burke-Plummer equation describes the pressure
drop:

p 1.75U 2 (1 )

L
dp
3

(10)

The assumption that viscous losses, described by the Kozeny-Carman equation, and kinetic
energy losses, described by the Burke-Plummer equation, are additive results in the Ergun
equation:

p 150U (1 ) 2 1.75U 2 (1 )

2
L
dp
3
3
dp

(11)

Equation (11) can be rearranged into dimensionless groups and plotted as shown in Figure
2, indicating that the Ergun equation fits data over a wide range of flow rates.

Figure 2: The Ergun equation for flow in packed beds [3]. Go=U; .

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Experiment B

2.1. Fluidized Beds

When a fluid travels at low velocity upward through a bed of solid particles, there is very little
upward fluid drag on the particles; they do not move and the pressure drop is given by the
Ergun equation. Figure 3(a) shows this situation where the screen at the bottom of the bed,
"the distributor", supports the weight of the bed and the bed remains packed or "fixed". As
the fluid velocity is gradually increased, the upward drag forces on the particles increase,
until eventually, this frictional drag becomes equal to the apparent weight of the particles.
As the flow increases further, the bed assumes the loosest stable form of packing, and then
the particles separate from each other and become freely supported by the fluid. At this
point the bed is said to be fluidized, the drag completely supports the weight of the particles
and the pressure drop is approximately equal to the weight of the bed per unit area.
Fluidized beds behave like liquids in that objects may float on them, their surface remains
horizontal as the bed is tilted, levels between beds or sections will equalize, and they have
measurable viscosity. They offer many process advantages including ease of solids
handling, rapid mixing, and high heat and mass transfer.

Figure 3: A bed of particles sitting on a retaining screen

with fluid flow upward. Depending on the fluid velocity, the
bed is packed (a) or fluidized in one of various fluidization
flow regimes (b-e) hmf = Hmf [4].

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Experiment B

2.1.1. Minimum Fluidization

At the onset of fluidization:
drag force by upward fluid motion = weight of particles in the bed

pAc W Ac H mf (1 mf )( p ) g

(12)

p
(1 mf )( p ) g
H mf

(13)

where:
p= pressure drop across bed
Hmf = bed height at minimum fluidization
mf = bed voidage at minimum fluidization
The height of a fluidized bed, H, is related to the bed height at minimum fluidization, Hmf,
through the voidages:

H H mf

(1 mf )

(14)

(1 )

If the superficial fluid velocity, U, through a packed bed is slowly increased, the pressure
drop across the bed will roughly follow that shown in Figure 4. A linear relation on loglog co-ordinates is observed up to the point A, where expansion of the bed takes place.
After A, the slope decreases, and the pressure drop goes through a maximum, B, falls
slightly, and then goes to an approximately constant value, C.

Fixed bed

Fluidized bed
B

P, kPa

Umf

0.01

0.1

Uo, m/s
Figure 4: Pressure drop versus fluid superficial velocity (Uo) for a bed of solids.

For the fixed bed region, the Ergun equation (Equation 11) predicts the pressure drop
across the bed. Applying this equation at the point of minimum fluidization gives:

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Experiment B

2
p 150U mf (1 mf ) 1.75U mf (1 mf )

2
H mf
dp
dp
mf 3
mf 3
2

(15)

Substituting Equation 13 gives a quadratic equation in the minimum fluidization velocity:

(1 mf )( p ) g

150U mf (1 mf ) 2
dp

mf 3

1.75U mf (1 mf )
2

dp

(16)

mf 3

At low Reynolds number (Re<1), the second term in the Ergun equation can be
neglected and Equation 16 can be solved for Umf:

( p ) g mf d p2
3

U mf

(17)

150 (1 mf )

At high Reynolds number (Re>1000), the first term in the Ergun equation can be
neglected; Equation 16 can be solved for Umf:

U mf

( p ) g mf 3 d p

1.75

0.5

(18)

mf is difficult to predict, limiting the usefulness of equations (17) and (18). Wen and Yu
[5], [6] provided approximations for the voidage terms, based on experimental data,
simplifying the expressions for Umf to:

U mf

( p ) gd p2
1650

U mf

for Re < 1;

( p ) gd p

24.5

0.5

for Re > 1000

(19)

At intermediate Reynolds number the quadratic equation (Equation 16) must be solved
to determine Umf.
For non-spherical particles, dp in the equations above must be replaced by sdp, where
s is the sphericity. s = 1 for a sphere.
The equations derived for minimum fluidization apply to both liquid-solid and gas-solid
systems. However, beyond Umf the bed appearance can be quite different for these two
systems.

2.1.2. Liquid Fluidization

Liquid fluidization systems are frequently encountered in wastewater treatment,
flocculation and purification (adsorption, ion exchange). As the superficial velocity
increases in a liquid fluidized bed, the particles move farther apart from each other and
with greater motion but the average bed density remains the same in all sections of a
bed for a given superficial velocity. This results in large, uniform expansion of the bed

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Experiment B

and is called particulate or homogeneous fluidization. The Richardson-Zaki equation

(Equation 2) for hindered settling can be applied to this type of fluidization where is the
voidage in the fluidized bed, and uhindered is replaced by U, the superficial velocity of the
liquid in the bed.
2.1.3. Gas Fluidization
Gas fluidization is very common in the chemical industry; applications include catalytic
reactors in the petroleum industry, combustion of coal, and roasting of ores. Unlike
liquid fluidized beds, gas beds usually do not exhibit homogeneous fluidization, except
for very fine powders at low velocities. The gas generally passes up through the bed as
bubbles; in the space between the bubbles, the voidage is about the same as at
minimum fluidization. This phenomena is called bubbling fluidization. The performance
of the fluid bed as a chemical reactor, or in physical operations such as drying, is
strongly influenced by the behaviour of the bubbles. Bubbles in fluid beds tend to be
spherical if small, and spherical cap shaped if large. As bubbles rise, they coalesce with
others, increasing in size. Figure 3(c) shows bubbling fluidization.
When the gas velocity is gradually increased in the bubbling regime, the size of the
bubbles grows. They also grow by coalescence as they rise through the bed. With an
increase in bubble flow and size, the bed surface rises higher and higher from its packed
bed level. The bed is said to expand, and its voidage (the volume fraction of the bed
occupied by gas) increases. Eventually, especially in small units, bubbles may grow too
close to the diameter of the bed itself, forming a slugging bed and moving into the
"slugging regime" [7], shown in Figure 3(d). In this regime the bed surface fluctuates
wildly as each successive large "slug" breaks the surface. Bubbles reach a maximum
stable size at which point they break down. This size depends greatly on the size of the
particles and can vary from centimetres for fine particles (50 m) to tens of centimetres
for coarser particles (500 m). Large industrial fluidized beds can be more than 10 m in
diameter and slugging cannot exist even for the coarsest bed materials.
More and more of the bed being occupied by bubbles characterize increasing velocity.
Eventually they start to run into each other (coalesce) and breakdown so frequently that
individual bubbles as such can no longer be identified. Neither the solid, nor the gas
phase can really be identified as continuous, and the bed is said to be in turbulent
fluidization [7].
Eventually, with continual increase in the gas velocity, a point called the "transport
velocity" is reached. This velocity may be four to five times higher than the terminal
velocity of the particles because they behave as "clusters" rather than individuals within
the turbulent fluidization flow regime. Above the transport velocity, it is no longer
possible to maintain the fluidized bed without continuous recycle of the solid material
carried out to the top of the reactor. In the transport regimes, the gas velocity alone is
no longer sufficient to describe the fluidized bed; the structure of the bed now also
depends upon the return rate of the solids, and this offers unique advantages for certain
types of processes. There are two regimes subdividing the transport regime: fast
fluidization and pneumatic transport.
Fast fluidization or circulating fluidization is characterized by relatively lower velocities
and higher solids circulation rates [7]. In this regime, there is a continuous gradation of
structure in the bed from a turbulent type bed at the base to a more dilute structure at
the top. There is tremendous and vigorous refluxing of solids down the wall of the

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Experiment B

reactor, and particles travel in dilute clumps, which have been described as "strands" or
"swarms".
Pneumatic or dilute phase transport, shown in Figure 3(e), is characterized by higher
gas velocities and lower solids fluxes. Here, voidage is much higher and particles
behave as individuals rather than traveling in swarms. Particles do not travel downward
against the gas flow even at the wall of the reactor. This has a significant impact upon
the types of use for this form of reactor.
Selection of which fluid bed regime to operate in, and even whether to use a fluid bed,
depends both upon the process and the type of solids being handled. Figure 5 is a
powder classification diagram developed by Geldart [8] in which a gas-particle system is
classified into group A, B, C or D depending upon the size and the density difference
between particle and fluid.

Group C (Cohesive): These particles are extremely fine powders, such as flour or
talcum powder. For such fine particles the surface forces are very large, and the
powders tend to be very cohesive. Such particles do not fluidize readily without
special measures such as vibration or mechanical stirring; instead, the fluid tends to
flow through large channels which rapidly form in the bed.
Group A (Aeratable): These are particles that experience a period of particulate
fluidization prior to bubbling. Fluid cracking catalysts are group A particles. Fluid
cracking is perhaps the largest single use of fluidized reactors in the chemical
process industries.
Group B (Bubble): These particles, such as sand, are coarser than group A and are
typical of the particles found in fluidized bed combustion systems. These particles
bubble immediately upon fluidization.
Group D: These particles (greater than approximately 1.5-mm diameter) are too
coarse to fluidize at practical velocities. Special techniques are needed to contact
these particles, one of them being "spouting".

B
(bubble readily)

D
(spoutable)

s-f , (kg/m )

10000

1000

A
(aeratable)
C
(cohesive)
100
10

100

1000
Mean particle diameter, dp (m)

Figure 5: The Geldart classification of powders [8].

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Experiment B

Pre-Laboratory Assignment
This assignment is in addition to the general pre-laboratory assignment required for all
laboratories. It must be completed and reviewed by the TA before the laboratory can begin.
1. Provide 2 examples of important industrial processes, besides wastewater treatment,
which involve sedimentation.
2. Provide 1 important industrial process that involves gassolid fluidization and 1 that
involves liquid-solid fluidization.
3. Predict the pressure drop per unit length of bed for 500-m glass beads packed in a bed
with water flowing at a superficial velocity of 0.1 cm/s. Assume a bed voidage of 0.3.
Download the Data Submission spreadsheet (D file) from the course website and bring it to the lab
on a laptop computer (one per group).

Apparatus
Sedimentation Apparatus 1, shown in Figure 6, is used to determine the hindered settling of
particles (large particles characterized in Workshop 2). This apparatus consists of six 1-inch ID
tubes mounted vertically on a frame; each tube has a ruler-like marking attached to its length.
The frame can be rotated in order to mix the contents. Each tube has a stopper on the upper
end, where it can be closed after adding the liquid and solids, and a valve on the lower end, to
allow for drainage of the slurry. The apparatus must remain sealed; do not remove the stoppers
or open the valves on the apparatus.

Figure 6: Sedimentation experimental apparatus 1 used for hindered settling studies.

Each air and water fluidized bed consists of a glass column which contains the bed material and
fluid, flow meters which control the flow rate of the respective fluids, and pressure gauges to
measure the pressure drop across the column. There are two air apparatus (Figure 7), with
internal diameters of 49 mm and 52 mm, which contain small particles (characterized in

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Experiment B

Workshop 2). The water bed (Figure 8) has a 2-inch internal diameter column, contains large
particles (characterized in Workshop 2), and has a pump used to circulate water through the
bed. Schematic diagrams of the air and water beds are given in Figures 9.
The demonstration gas fluidized bed apparatus includes a semi-circular spouted bed, a
circulating fluidized bed, and a two-dimensional bubbling bed. The TA will demonstrate
operation with these beds.
Each group will collect data from the sedimentation apparatus, the water bed and one of the air
beds.

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Experiment B

Figure 7: Air fluidized beds: a) Air Bed #1, ID=49 mm; b) Air Bed #2, ID=52 mm.

Figure 8: Water fluidized bed, ID=2 in.

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Experiment B

Figure 9: Schematics of air (a) and water (b) fluidized beds.

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Experiment B

Procedure
Four groups will perform this experiment each session; groups A and B will begin at 1pm and
groups C and D will begin at 2pm. See the course schedule to see when your group starts the
lab. Your group will be assigned to either the hindered settling tubes or to the air or water bed
initially. After completing work on the first piece of equipment your group will move to the next
equipment, as indicated in the table below, until all parts of the experiment have been
completed.
Time
1:00 pm
2:00 pm
3:00 pm
4:00 pm

Group A
HS
AFB
WFB

Group B
WFB
HS
AFB

Group C

Group D

AFB
HS
WFB

WFB
AFB
HS

Hindered Settling (HS)

1. Record the room temperature.
2. The 6 tubes contain glass beads in water at nominal voidages ranging from 90 to 65%.
Record the volume and mass data provided on each tube for the calculation of the actual
voidage values.
3. Ensure that the stoppers are firmly in place for all 6 tubes.
4. Collection of interface height vs. time data can be done using either the manual method or
by filming the interface. Practice mixing the tubes and observing the interface a few times
before taking measurements.
5. Manual method:
5.1. Place labeling tape on each tube beside the ruler.
5.2. The solid-liquid interface height can be measured for 2 or 3 columns at a time by
assigning 2 or 3 students to mark the interface height on the tape at 1-second
intervals.
5.3. Mix the columns so that the particles are uniformly distributed. Before locking the
columns in the upright vertical position, level off just past horizontal so the air bubble
is at the top of the tube, not the bottom. This will ensure a large air bubble does not
rush upward through the column as the particles fall downward.
5.4. Lock the columns upright and begin visually tracing the interface as it descends.
5.5. Record the interface height with time at 1-second intervals. Repeat the trial two more
times to obtain the data in triplicate.
5.6. Repeat steps 5.3-5.5 for the remaining voidages.
6. Filming method (using an iPhone or similar device):
6.1. Position the columns horizontally and align the camera to ensure that it is not hit by
the apparatus during the agitation of the system, see Figure 10.
6.2. Mix the columns so that the particles are uniformly distributed. Before locking the
columns in the upright vertical position, level off just past horizontal so the air bubble
is at the top of the tube, not the bottom. This will ensure a large air bubble does not
rush upward through the column as the particles fall downward.
6.3. Lock the columns upright and begin filming the interface as it descends.

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Experiment B

6.4. Determine the interface height with time at 1-second intervals by playing and pausing
the video using video editing software1. Repeat the trial two more times to obtain the
data in triplicate.
6.5. Repeat steps 6.2-6.4 for all voidages.

Figure 10: Recommended set up for filming interface height in hindered

settling tubes.

http://www.techradar.com/news/software/applications/best-free-video-editing-software-9-top-programs-youshould-download-1136264

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Experiment B

Packed and Fluidized Beds

Familiarize yourself with the different equipment for the air and water fluidized beds. Study
the piping and valves for diverting air or water to different parts of the apparatus. Note the
range of P and flow measuring instruments. Pressure readings in the experiments (output
signals) are given in units of [inch H2O]; these readings need to be converted to [Pa] or [kPa]
in order to fit the equations. The procedure below for Air Fluidized Bed is applicable to both
air bed apparatus.
Air Fluidized Bed (AFB)
1. Record the room temperature.
2. Ensure the air valve and flow meters are closed.
3. Note the static bed height.
4. Open the air valve.
5. Using the Low Flow Meter, slowly increase the air flow until fluidization of the bed is
observed; note the approximate flow rate where the bed begins to fluidize. Set the
flow rate to 0.
6. Using the Low Flow Meter, increase the air flow by increments of 0.4 LPM until about
0.5 LPM below the expected minimum fluidization flow rate, after which the
increments should be 0.2 LPM; wait 30 seconds and record the pressure drop and
bed height at each flow rate.
7. Note bed height at fluidization. Take 5 additional measurements after fluidization
begins; each time wait 30 seconds before recording flow rate, pressure drop and bed
height.
8. Decrease air flow by increments of 0.2 LPM down to the flow rate of fluidization, after
which the increments should be 0.4 LPM; wait 30 seconds and record the pressure
drop and bed height at each flow rate.
9. Close the air valve.
10. Request the TA to remove the filter from the top of the bed and, using a funnel, add
bed material (SMALL particles): ~10 cm.
11. Replace the filter, do not overtighten. Open air valve.
12. Repeat steps 5-9 for the new bed height.
Water fluidized bed (WFB)
1. Record the room temperature.
2. Make sure the control valves of the flow meters are fully closed.
3. Note the static bed height.
4. Check that the DP cell is zeroed.
5. Open the pump bypass valve (approximately 4 full turns).
6. Start the pump, and set the flow rate half way between 0 and 100 on the high flow
meter. The control valve is very sensitive, so it needs to be operated very slowly.
7. Close the bypass valve and set the water flow to 100 CCM.
8. Increase the water flow by increments of 50 CCM, wait approximately 60 seconds
and then record the pressure drop using the DP cell and the bed height at each flow
rate.
9. Continue increasing the water flow rate until fluidization has occurred. It can be
detected by very small yet measurable change in bed height. Note the bed height at
minimum fluidization. Take 5 additional measurements.
10. Decrease water flow by increments of 50 CCM, wait approximately 60 seconds and
then record the pressure drop and bed height at each flow rate.
11. Continue decreasing water flow until 100 CCM is reached.
12. Open the bypass valve (approximately 4 full turns).

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Experiment B

13. Reduce the flow rate to 0 CCM in flow meter before shutting down the pump.
Demonstration (by TA): operating regimes of gas fluidization.
Remember to indicate sources, and estimates of the magnitude, of error in the lab data book.
Upload the Data Submission spreadsheet (D file) to the course website (one per group) before
leaving the lab.

Data Analysis
NOTE: Results from Workshop 2: Particle Characterization (terminal velocity, particle density,
voidage) are required to complete the calculations for this laboratory. Please ensure that you
have these results available and include them in an appendix to this report.
Settling:
1. Plot the interface height versus settling time and determine the settling velocity of the
suspension for all trials performed (i.e. for the 18 runs in total).
2. Plot the settling velocity versus actual voidage on log-log coordinates and determine the
terminal settling velocity and the value for n. Compare the terminal velocity to that
measured directly (in Workshop 2) and to that predicted by Stokes law.
3. Check the validity of Equations (3 - 7). Does your n value agree with the value predicted
using these correlations? Comment on your results.
4. Settling basin design: Based on the calculations and the particles used in the settling
experiment, estimate the minimum length of a settling basin that will permit 100% collection
of these particles in water flowing at 100,000 m3 d-1. The basin must be 2-m high and 2.5-m
wide. Repeat the calculation for settling in water but using the small particles (used in the
air fluidized bed). Comment on the results.
Packed and Fluidized Beds:
1. Compare the results for the packed-bed region of flow for both the water and air beds to the
Ergun equation by plotting the experimental data (points) and predicted equation (line) as
shown in Figure 2. Note: you must prepare this figure both electronically and by hand using
log-log paper, which can be downloaded from the internet. The hand-drawn figure should be
placed in Appendix A of the report. Determine the average difference between the predicted
and experimental P values for the Ergun equation. Compare to the reported accuracy of
the Ergun equation (~25%).
2. Plot P vs superficial fluid velocity on a log-log scale and determine minimum fluidization
velocity Umf.
3. At minimum fluidization, compare p with W/Ac from Equation 12 and calculate bed voidage,
mf.
4. Calculate Umf using the appropriate correlations provided in the manual (Ergun equation and
Wen & Yu approximation, if possible) and compare the result with the experimental value
found above.
5. Compare the results for the two initial bed heights in the air fluidized bed.
6. Use the data from the water bed to estimate the terminal velocity of the particles in water.
Compare these results to those found in the Settling section.
7. Classify the bed material for the air bed into one of the Geldart powder classes.
8. Describe the fluidization regimes observed during the demonstration by the TA.

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Experiment B

Error Analysis
Perform error analysis for the following parameters:
1. Settling:
Hindered settling velocity, voidage, terminal settling velocity, Reynolds Number, exponent n,
and settling basin design length (large particles only).
2. Packed and Fluidized Beds:
Correlation (Wen & Yu) minimum fluidization velocity, bed voidage at minimum fluidization,
P from W/Ac, and terminal velocity of particles (for water bed).

Nomenclature
Symbol
Ac
DT
dp
g
H
Hmf
Hs
L
Ls
mp
n
Q
Re
Rep,t
U
uhindered
Umf
Us
ut,
ut,c
VT
W
Ws

Units
m2
m
m
m s-2
m
m
m
m
m
kg

Pa

m3 s-1

m s-1
m s-1
m s-1
m s-1
m s-1
m s-1
m3
N
m

mf

Pa s
kg m-3
kg m-3

CHBE 362 Lab Manual 2016-09-23

Description
Cross sectional area of fluidized bed
Diameter of hindered settling tube
Diameter of particle
Gravitational acceleration
Height of packed bed
Height of bed at minimum fluidization
Height of settling basin
Length of packed bed
Length of settling basin
Mass of bed of particles
Exponent of voidage for hindered settling velocity
Volumetric flow rate
Reynolds number of fluid
Particle Reynolds number for free settling (at terminal velocity)
Superficial fluid velocity
Hindered particle velocity
Superficial fluid velocity at minimum fluidization
Forward velocity of fluid in settling basin
Terminal particle velocity
Critical terminal velocity
Total volume (liquid +solid) in the tube
Weight of particles in bed
Width of settling basin
Pressure drop across bed
Porosity (or Voidage)
Bed voidage at minimum fluidization
Fluid viscosity
Fluid density
Particle density
Sphericity of solid particles
Residence time in settling chamber

18

Experiment B

References
[1] CHBE 344 course notes Chapter 4 "Fluid-Particle Separation", 2014.
[2] J. Richardson and W. N. Zaki, "Sedimentation and fluidization. Part I.," Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. , vol. 32, pp.
35-53, 1954.
[3] R. Bird, W. E. Stewart and E. N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons,
2002.
[4] D. Kunii and O. Levenspiel, Fluidization Engineering, 2nd Ed., Boston : Butterworth-Heinemann, 1991.
[5] W. C.Y. and Y. H. Yu , AIChE J , vol. 12 , p. 610612, 1966.
[6] W. C.Y. and Y. H. Yu, Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser., vol. 62 , p. 100111, 1966.
[7] CHBE 344 course notes Chapter 3 "Packed and Fluidized Beds", 2014.
[8] D. Geldart, "Types of gas fluidization," Powder Tech., vol. 7, pp. 285-292, 1973.
[9] J. Kestin, M. Sokolov and W. A. Wakeham, "Viscosity of Liquid Water in the Range -8C to 150C," Journal of
Physical and Chemical Reference Data, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 941-948, 1978. Retrieved from
http://www.nist.gov/data/PDFfiles/jpcrd121.pdf..

CHBE 362 Lab Manual 2016-09-23

19

Experiment B

Appendix A: Solution Properties

Table A1 presents density and viscosity of liquid water at different temperatures.
Linear interpolation must be used to estimate the constants at between temperatures.

(2 1 )
( 1 ) + 1
(2 1 )

where c is the constant at desired temperature T, c1 is the constant at T1 (the largest

temperature that is less than temperature T) and c2 is the constant at T2 (the smallest
temperature that is greater than temperature T).

Table A1: Density and Viscosity of Liquid Water [9]

3

Temperature ( C)
10

(kg/m )

(mPa.s)

999.7281

1.3069

15

999.1286

1.1382

20

998.2336

1.0020

25

997.0751

0.8903

30

995.6783

0.7975

35

994.0635

0.7195

40

992.2473

0.6535

45

990.2400

0.5963

50

988.0700

0.5471

55

985.7300

0.5042

60

983.2400

0.4666

65

980.5900

0.4334

70

977.8100

0.4039

CHBE 362 Lab Manual 2016-09-23

A-1

Experiment B