Chapter 4

CENG
420 – Water Treatment Lecture Note
Chapter 4 Sedimentation
4.1. Introduction
Sedimentation is removal of particulate materials suspended in water by quiescent settling due to
gravity. It is a commonly used unit operation in water and wastewater treatment plants.
Water Treatment:
1. Plain Sedimentation
2. Sedimentation after Flocculation
3. Sedimentation after Softening
Wastewater Treatment:
1. Grit Removal
2. Primary Sedimentation
3. Biomass Sedimentation
Settling particles can be discrete or flocculating in terms their change in size. Discrete particles
do not change in size, shape or weight during sedimentation. Flocculating particles show a
change in size, shape and weight during sedimentation. Suspensions in which the concentration
of particles is not sufficient to cause significant displacement of water as they settle or in which
particles will not be close enough for velocity field interference to occur are termed dilute
suspensions. Suspensions in which the concentration of particles is too great to meet these
conditions are termed concentrated suspensions.
4.2. Types of sedimentation
Four types of sedimentation depending on the degree of interaction between settling particles can
be identified.
1. Type I: Discrete particle settling
• No interaction between particles
• Settling velocity is constant for individual particles
• Dilute solid’s concentration
• Examples: presedimentation in water treatment, grit removal in wastewater
2. Type II: Flocculent settling
• Particles collide and adhere to each other resulting in particle growth
• Dilute solid’s concentration
• Examples: coagulation/flocculation settling in water treatment and primary
sedimentation in wastewater treatment
3. Type III: Hindered or zone settling
• Particles are so close together movement is restricted
1
AAU, FoT, Department of Civil Engineering Instructor: Zerihun Alemayehu
CENG 420 – Water Treatment Lecture Note
• Intermediate solids concentration

• Solids move as a block rather than individual particles
• Fluidic interference causes a reduction in settling velocity
• Distinguishable solids liquid interface
• Intermediate solids concentration
• Example: settling of secondary effluents
4. Type IV: Compression settling
• Particles physically in contact
• Water is squeezed out of interstitial spaces
• Volume of solids may decrease
• High concentration of solids (sludges)
Type I settling and Type II settling are the common sedimentation processes found in water
treatment.
4.3. Settling of Discrete Particles (Type 1 sedimentation)
Discrete particles in this type of sedimentation settle freely without interference from adjacent
particles. The settling of discrete particles in a dilute suspension is influenced by the following
parameters
1. Characteristics of the particles
i. Size and shape
ii. Specific gravity
2. Properties of the water
i. Specific gravity
ii. Viscosity
3. Physical environment of the particle
i. Velocity of the water
ii. Inlet and outlet arrangements of the structure
When a particle settles in a fluid it accelerates until the drag force due to its motion is equal to
the submerged weight of the particle. At this point, the particle will have reached its terminal
velocity (constant velocity), vs, which can be calculated as
4 ( ρ s − ρ w ) gd
vs = (4—1)
3 ρw CD
Where, νs = settling velocity

ρs = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρw = density of water (kg/m3)
Sg = specific gravity of particle
2
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)

d = particle diameter (m)
CD = drag coefficient
In practice, it is found that CD is a function of the Reynolds Number, Re, and, for spherical
particles, it can be represented by the following expressions
24
Re < 1, CD = (Laminar flow)
Re
24 3
1 < Re < 104, CD = + 1 + 0.34 (Transition)
Re (Re ) 2
103 < Re < 105, CD ≈ 0.4 (Turbulent)

Substituting the above expression for Re < 1 (laminar flow) in above equation and noting that Re
= ρwvsd/μ (for perfect sphere), Stoke’s law can be obtained:
gd 2 ( ρ s − ρ w ) gd 2 ( S g − 1)
vs = = vs =
18μ 18ν (4—2)
Where, μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s) =µ/ρw
In order to apply Eqs. (4-1) and (4-2) we need to know the exact size and the sphericity of the
particles in the water to be treated. An indirect method of measuring settling velocities of
discrete particles in dilute suspensions, and of determing settling characteristics of suspension,
was devised by Camp. A settling column is constructed as shown in Fig. 4-1. The suspension to
be tested is placed in the column and is mixed completely to ensure uniform distribution of the
particles. The suspension is then allowed to settle quiescently.
Suppose that a particle is just at the surface at time equal zero and its settling velocity is such that
it arrives at the sampling port at a later time, say t = to. Now, the average settling velocity of this
particle can be calculated as
Suppose also that another particle is initially suspended at a distance Zp above the sampling port
and that its terminal settling velocity, less than v0, is such that it arrives at the port at the same
time as the previous particle. Its settling velocity can be calculated as
Observing that the time of travel is equal for the two particles, it follows that
3
Water level
Zo
Zp
Sampling port
Figure 4-1 Settling column for analyzing type-1 suspension
Some generalized statements can be made based on the above equation.
1. All particles with diameters equal to or greater than do, such that their settling velocities
equal or exceed vo, will arrive at or pass the sampling port in time to.
2. A particle with diameter dp < do will have a terminal settling velocity vp < vo and will
arrive at or pass the sampling port in time to, provided its original position was at, or
below a point Zp.
3. If the suspension is mixed uniformly (i.e., all particle sizes are randomly distributed from
to to bottom of the column), then the fraction of particles of size dp with settling velocity
vp which will arrive at or pass the sampling port in time to will be Zp/Zo = vp/vo. Thus, the
removal efficiency of any size particle from suspension is the ratio of the settling velocity
of that particle to the settling velocity vo defined by Zo/to.
These principles can be used to determine the settleablility of any given suspension.
Theoretically, the depth of the water column is not a factor in the analysis, but practical
considerations dictate a depth of 2 m. The suspension is mixed completely to ensure an initially
uniform distribution of particles. A suspended-solids test is run on a sample of the completely
mixed suspension, and an initial concentration Co is determined. After the suspension is allowed
to settle for a time t1 a second sample is then drawn off and another concentration C1 is
determined. All particles comprising C1 must have settling velocities less than Z0/t1. Thus the
mass fraction of particles with v1 < Z0/t1 is
4
The process is repeated several times with xi always being the mass fraction of particles with xi <
Zo/ti. When these values are plotted on a graph, as shown in figure 4-2, the fraction of particles
corresponding to any settling velocity can be obtained.
For a given detention time to, an overall percent removal can be obtained. All particles with
settling velocities greater than v0=Z0/t0 will be 100 percent removed. Thus, 1 – xo fraction of
particles will be removed completely in time t0. The remaining will be removed to the ratio vi/vo,
corresponding to the shaded area in Fig. 4.2. If the equation relating v and x is known the area
can be found by integration:
1 4 3
Where X is the total mass fraction removed by sedimentation.
Figure 4-2 Settling-velocity analysis curve for discrete particles.
Example 4-1: Settling column analysis of type-1 suspension: A settling analysis is run on a
type-1 suspension. The column is 2 m deep and data are shown below.
5
Time, min 0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

Conc, mg/L 300 189 180 168 156 111 78 27
What will be the theoretical removal efficiency in a settling basin with a loading rate of 25
m3/m2-d (25m/d)?
4.4. Type2 Settling
Type 2 settling involves flocculating particles in dilute suspension. The Stock’s Equation cannot
be used because flocculating particles are continually changing in size, shape, and specific
gravity.
Settling column analysis with some alteration to that of type-1 settling can be used for
settleability analysis of flocculating suspension. In this case, samples will be taken at several
depths at several time intervals and analyzed for suspended-solids concentrations. These
concentrations are used to determine mass fraction removed at each depth and for each time.
1 100 4 4
where xij is the mass fraction in percent that is removed at the ith depth at the jth time interval.
These values are graphed as shown in Fig. 4-3, and a family of isoremoval lines is drawn similar
to a contour map. The slope at any point on any given isoremoval line is the instantaneous
velocity of the fraction of particles represented by that line.
Figure 4-3. Settling column and isoremoval settling curves for flocculant particles.
Example 4-2. Settling column analysis of flocculating particles. A column analysis of a
flocculating suspension is run the apparatus shown below. The initial solids concentration is 250
6
mg/L. The resulting matrix is shown below. What will be the overall removal efficiency of a
settling basin which is 3 m deep with a detention time of 1 h and 45 min?
Depth, m Time of sampling, min

30 60 90 120 150 180
0.5 133* 83 50 38 30 23
1.0 180 123 93 65 55 43
1.5 203 150 118 93 70 58
2.0 213 168 135 110 90 70
2.5 220 180 145 123 103 80
3.0 225 188 155 133 113 95
*Result of suspended solids test on sample Ci, mg/L
4.5. Settling tanks (or) sedimentation tanks

the principle involved in these tanks is reduction of velocity of flow so that the particles settle
during the detention period. Such tanks are classified into,
(i) fill and draw types tanks (batch-process),
(ii) continuous flow tanks.
Depending on theor shape, sedimentation tanks may be classified as,
1. circular,
2. rectangular, and
3. square.
Depending on the direction of flow, as
1. horizontal flow—longitudinal, radial flow
2. Vertical flow—circular (upward flow)
For water treatment, continuous circular or rectangular, horizontal flow type tanks are commonly
used.
Detention time. This is the theoretical time that the water is detained in a settling basin. it is
calculated as the volume of the tank divided by the rate of flow, and is denoted as θ = V/Q.
Long-Rectangular Basins
Long rectangular basins are commonly used in treatment plants processing large flows. This type
of basin is hydraulically more stable, and flow control through large volumes is easier with this
configuration. a typical long-rectangular tank is shown in Fig. 4-4.
A long-rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones:
1. the inlet zone in which baffles intercept the oncoming water and spread the flow
uniformity both horizontally and vertically across the tank
2. the outlet zone in which water flows upward and over the outlet weir
3. the sludge zone, which extends from the bottom of the tank to just above the scraper
mechanism
4. the settling zone, which occupies the remaining volume of the tank
7
Figure 4-4. Diagrammatical sketch of long-rectangular basin
Figure 4-5. Horizontal and vertical components of settling velocity

From fig. 4-5, it can be concluded that if a particle is at a height H from the sludge zone it can
reach the sludge zone during the detention period, θ = V/Q
According to the definition,
8
4 5
where, vo is the settling velocity of a particle which has traversed a height ‘H’, B=the breadth of
the tank, As=surface are of the settling zone (LxB).
vo or Q/As is called overflow rate or surface loading rate of surface overflow rate (SOR).
Consider a uniform suspension of discrete particles which have settling velocities Vs . The path
taken by a particle originally at height h is described by the vector sum of the flow velocity vd
and the settling velocity of the particle vsh. A particle initially at height h will just be removed by
the time it has traversed the settling zone. Particles initially at heights less than h will also be
removed and those at greater heights will not reach the bottom before reaching the outlet zone.
All particles with settling velocity vs < vsh are removed partly, depending on their position at a
height from the top of the sludge zone. The efficiency of removal of such particles is given by
h/H.
.
4 6
Substituting equation (4-5) for vo, Equation 4-6 becomes,
4 7
⁄
So the efficiency of removal of particles of a given settling velocity is inversely proportional to
the surface loading rate. That is, for a given rate of flow, the greater the surface area, the higher
the efficiency. From theoretical considerations, the efficiency of removal depends on the surface
loading rate only and is independent of the depth or detention time.
Circular Basins
Circular settling basins have the same functional zones as the long-rectangular basin, but the
flow regime is quite different. When the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially
toward the perimeter, the horizontal velocity of the water is continually decreasing as the
distance from the center increases (See fig. 4-6). Thus, a discrete particle with a settling velocity
vo is continually undergoing a change in its absolute velocity due to the decrease in horizontal
velocity. Thus, the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight
particle path line in the long-rectangular tank.
Circular tanks have certain advantages. Sludge removal mechanisms are simpler and require less
maintenance. There is no excessive weir overflow because the entire circumference is used for
overflow. To reduce low weir overflow rate usually a V-notched metal plates are used to reduce
the effective overflow area.
9
Figure 4-6. Diagrammatical sketch of circular basin

Short-circuiting and reduction of efficiency
According to the assumed ideal conditions, every batch of water (every suspended particle) is
supposed to remain in the tank of detention, θ, to reach from inlet to the outlet; where θ=V/Q.
But these ideal flow conditions do not exist in actual working tanks. The deviation of actual flow
of the tank from the flow pattern of an ideal tank is called short-circuiting. Top layers of water in
the tank actually reach the outlet in a time far less than V/Q, whereas the bottom layers remain in
the tank for a time far in excess of V/Q. therefore, the degree of short-circuiting is related to the
magnitude of the deviation of the actual flow pattern to the ideal flow patter. Hence, the
magnitude of short-circuiting,
Efficiency of displacement = magnitude of short-circuiting x 100.

It should be greater than 30%. Short-circuiting produces clarification efficiencies less than
expected. Currents induced by the inertia of oncoming fluid, turbulent flow, wind stresses and
density, and temperature gradient reduces the settling basin efficiency. Solids losses can result
from the scouring of bottom deposits. Many of the factors that adversely affect the tank
performance can be evaluated by studying the occurrence of short-circuiting in the basin.
Sludge removal
In the sludge zone the solids are accumulated. The removal of the sludge can be done
hydraulically and mechanically. Hydraulic sludge removal is done at regular intervals by
dewatering the tank and flushing the sludge with pressured water (from hydrants) to a hopper at
the bottom of the tank from where it is removed by gravity or by pumping. Mechanical sludge
removal is frequently applied when sludge volumes are large or the sludge is unstable, resulting
in anaerobic decomposition during storage in the sludge zone. Mechanical sludge removal
consists of scrapers that transport the sludge to a hopper in the middle of a round settling tank or
near the inlet of a rectangular tank. From the hopper the sludge is removed. The settled floc and
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solids are small in volume and often quite stable, even in warm weather. For this purpose, the
slope should be about 1 in 10. Municipal and industrial water treatment tanks collect a lot of
sludge which is putrescible. Hence they must be cleaned more or less continuously by a scrapper
mechanism of one revolution per 30 min. Mechanical removal is effective and economical.
Inlet zone
Inlets should be designed to dissipate the momentum and accurately distribute the incoming flow
in such a way as to establish the required flow pattern in the tank. For an even distribution of the
water over the width (and depth) of the tank, several inlet channels followed by a diffuser wall
(baffle wall) may be provided (e.g. Fig. 4.7). Such arrangement reduces the inlet velocity and
distributes the water over the entire cross-section of the tank.
(a) Flow distribution
Baffle Baffle
Multiple
opening
across
Multiple
id h
opening
across
id h
(b) Typical baffle (diffuser) walls

Figure 4.7. Inlet structures
Outlet structure
The outlet structures are situated at the end of the settling tank and generally consist of an
overflow weir and a receiving channel or launder. The launder conveys the clarified water to the
exit channel or pipe. At the outlet construction re-suspension of settled solids must be prevented
and the flow velocity in upward direction thus be limited. Therefore, the length of the overflow
weir must be several times the width of the tank. To create sufficient length for the overflow
weir, several troughs are placed in parallel (Fig. 4.8)
11
Launders
Figure 4.8. Outlet structure
Design details
1. Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for coagulated sedimentation: 2 to
2 1/2 h
2. Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow tanks)
3. Tank dimensions: L : B : 3 to 5 : 1 If LIB is more, chance of short-circuiting is less.
Generally L = 30 m (common) maximum 100 m. Breadth: 6 m to 10 m. Circular:
Diameter not greater than 60 m, due to structural problems. Generally 20 to 40 m
4. Depth 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m)
5. Surface loading (or) overflow rate or Surface Overflow Rate (SOR)
For plain sedimentation for normal water 12,000 to 18,000 1/d/m2 tank area; for
thoroughly flocculated water 24,000 to 30, 000 1/d/m2 of tank area; and in horizontal
flow circular tank 30,000 to 40,000 1/d/m2 of area
6. Slopes: Rectangular 1 % towards inlet and circular 8%
Typical design parameters for water treatment sedimentation basins are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Typical design parameters for water treatment sedimentation basins
Item Value
Rectangular and circular clarifiers
Depth, m 2.4-4.9
Surface overflow rate, m3/m2/d 20-70
Weir loading rate, m3/m/d < 1250
Max. length of rectangular basin, m 70-75
Circular basin max. diameter, m 38
Upflow solids contact clarifier
Depth, m 2.5-3
SOR, m3/m2/d 24-550
Inclined tube or lamella clarifiers
Inclined length, m 1-2
Angle of inclination 7-60
Tube diameter or plate spacing, cm near 5
SOR based on plan area, m3/m2/d 88-78
Depth, m 6-7
12
For basins that are not covered, V-notch weirs are used to minimize wind effects. Submerged
orifices are also in common use. Specified weir loading rates (weir overflow rates) are used to
determine the length of the weir.
Example 4-3. Design a long-rectangular settling basin for type-2 settling. A city must treat
about 15,000 m3/d of water. Flocculating particles are produced by coagulation, and a column
analysis indicates that an overflow rate of 20 m/d will produce satisfactory removal at a depth of
3.5 m. determine the size of the required settling tank.
Example 4-4. Design a circular basin. A circular sedimentation tank is to have a minimum
detention time of 4 h and a maximum overflow rate of 20 m3/m2.d. Determine the required
diameter of the tank and the depth if the average flow rate through the tank is 6 ML/d.
13

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CENG

420 – Water Treatment Lecture Note

• Intermediate solids concentration

Where, νs = settling velocity

g = gravitational constant (m/s2)

103 < Re < 105, CD ≈ 0.4 (Turbulent)

Figure 4-1 Settling column for analyzing type-1 suspension

Some generalized statements can be made based on the above equation.

Where X is the total mass fraction removed by sedimentation.

Figure 4-2 Settling-velocity analysis curve for discrete particles.

Time, min 0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420

Depth, m Time of sampling, min

4.5. Settling tanks (or) sedimentation tanks

Figure 4-4. Diagrammatical sketch of long-rectangular basin

Figure 4-5. Horizontal and vertical components of settling velocity

Substituting equation (4-5) for vo, Equation 4-6 becomes,

Figure 4-6. Diagrammatical sketch of circular basin

Efficiency of displacement = magnitude of short-circuiting x 100.

(a) Flow distribution

(b) Typical baffle (diffuser) walls

Figure 4.8. Outlet structure

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