What is the difference between

and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells

Cholera bacterium is Prokaryotic but the Epithelial cell

is Eukaryotic.
Prokaryotic

Eukaryotic

No nucleus

Nucleus

No membrane around
Have organelles
organells so they dont have
Eg
organelles eg
mitochondria
chloroplast
No mitochondria
endoplasmic reticulum
No chloroplast
No endoplasmic reticulum
None
Have flagellum and slime
capsule
Have small ribosomes 70 s

Large ribosomes 80 s

Circular strands of DNA

and plasmids

Have chromosomes in
nucleus

Cell wall made of

peptigoglycans

Cell wall made of cellulose

in plants

Give 2 ways in which pathogens can cause disease

when they enter the body of their host.
Damage tissues
Production of toxins
What is cholera
It is a disease which is caused by Vibrio Cholera bacteria
which is prokaryotic.
5 million people contract cholera every year . It causes 100
000 deaths per year.
How does it spread.
By contaminated water and faeces.
What does it do? It causes dehydration. Water leaves the
epithelial cells by osmosis causing them to shrink
What causes dehydration
It infects the small intestines
By damaging the epithelium cells causing chlorine
channels open

 Toxins damage the

microvilli
This cause dehydration of
cells

The excess water from the

epithelial cell move into
the intestine by osmosis causing diarrhoea and vomiting

How exactly does

V.cholerae cause

Diarrhoea

1. The cholera bacterium attaches to the epithelium and

releases toxins.
2. The toxins enters the epithelial cells and causes the chloride
ion channel in the cell membrane to open
3. . chloride ions to diffuse out of the cells into the lumen.
4. This lowers the water potential in the lumen of the gut.
5. So water is lost from cells to the lumen by osmosis,
producing diarrhoea and dehydration

..
Oral rehydration solutions (ORS) are used to treat
diarrhoeal disease. What does an ORS consist of and
how does it work?

Drinking water does not help rehydration as it will not

be reabsorbed
The oral (by mouth) solution should contain
Glucose ( glucose gives
energy and activates Na/ cotransport )
Sodium ions , Sodium flows
into the epithelium cell from
HC to LC by facilitated
diffusion . Glucose also flows
in by co-transport
The cell now has a low water
potential. So water flows in by
osmosis causing rehydration.
Potassium increases
appetite and replaces lost ions
Water
Other electrolytes

1-Why are antibiotics injected in the blood treat cholera but if

antibiotics are taken orally it cannot treat it.
2-Oral antibiotics are flushed out by vomiting and diarrhoea so it
cannot be absorbed by the intestine.
3-If the flagellum of the bacteria is inhibited it can be used as a
treatment for cholera
Why is it not good to have too much glucose in the oral
solution.
Glucose will lower the water potential in the gut so more water
will leave the cells by osmosis
Sports drinks should not contain too much glucose because
dehydration will occur.
Instead of glucose some starch can be added to oral rehydration
drinks.

Starch is slowly broken down by amylase to glucose as time

passes. Starch is insoluble so it does not lower the water
potential.

Microscopes
What is resolution and why is it better in Electron
|Microscopes than in light
It is the Ability to distinguish two points (close
together),
It use Electrons not light.
Electrons have a have a shorter wavelength;
Advantage and disadvantages of using the
electron microscope
TEM
Advantages:
1 Small object can be seen, can see organelles;
2 TEM has high resolution; 1 nm because Wavelength
of electrons shorter than light ;
3 it magnifies x 500 000

Limitations:
4 Cannot look at living cells;
5 Must be in a vacuum;
6 Must be a very thin section which
is difficult
7 when you prepare the section it
may have artefacts
8 Does not produce colour image black and white;
9 it is 2D
Measuring the size of an object under a light
microscope
Measure with an eyepiece graticule
Calibrate with the stage mcirometer (an object of a
known size)
Repeat and calculate an average
Mag = size of image / size of object

Advantage and disadvantages of using the

scanning Electron microscope.
Advantages
Can see 3D
Can see surface
Magnification is 2500x
Specimen does not have
to be thin like the
electron microscope
Disadvantage
Must be in a vacuum
Specimen is non living

Artefacts
Lower resolution than the TEM
Advantage and disadvantages of using the
optical microscope.
It uses light. The wavelength of light is shorter
than electron wavelength
Advantages
1.Can see living
organisms
2.Can see colour
3.Can see whole
specimen
4.Easy and cheap th
set up
5.Specimen does not
have to be so thin
Disadvantage
1.Poor resolution
2.Magnifies x1500
3.Resolution 0.2 m apart

Cell fractionation
Starting with some lettuce leaves, describe how
you would obtain a sample of undamaged
chloroplasts. Use your knowledge of cell
fractionation and ultracentrifugation to answer
this question.
1. Chop up sample in the homogeniser to break the cell
wall of the cell to release the organelles
2.place in Cold solution (to reduces enzyme activity)
3. Buffered solution ( to prevent pH affecting enzymes)
4. Isotonic so it has the same water potential;
(prevents osmosis bursting and shrinkage of
organelles)
5. Filter to remove debris and now centrifuge the
filtrate;
6.now Centrifuge the supernatant At a higher speed
7. Chloroplasts in (second) pellet;
The heaviest organelles will be removes at slower
speeds
1. nuclei speed 1000g
2. Chloroplast
3. Mitochondria 3500 g
4. Lysosomes 16500g
5. ribosomes

Membranes and movement

Suggest why the model of the membrane is
described as a fluid mosaic.
Molecules within the membrane able to move;
mixture of phospholipid and protein / arrangement
of protein;
Describe the structure of a phospholipid
molecule and explain how phospholipids are
arranged in a plasma membrane.
1 Phosholipid consists of glycerol;
2 two fatty acids facing inwards and a phosphate head outwards;
4 they are formed by By condensation /elimination of water
molecules;
5 Arranged as bilayer in membrane;
6 Head/phosphate hydrophilic and tail /fatty acid is
hydrophobic
7 Heads outside and tails attracted to each other/inside;
Describe the structure of a cell
membrane. (5)
Phospholipid bi layer molecules;
Has Intrinsic proteins molecules passing
right through;
Some are protein channels for ions and
some are protein carries for large
molecules.
there are Extrinsic proteins on outer
surface;
Extrinsic proteins are for providing strength and fro receptors such
as hormones

Describe the part played by cell surface membranes in

regulating the movement of substances into and out of
cells. (6)
Non-polar/lipid soluble molecules move through phospholipid
layer/bilayer;
-Small molecules eg co2 and o2 gases move through phospholipid
bilayer;
-Ions/water soluble substances move through channels in proteins;

Carriers identified as proteins;

Carriers associated with facilitated diffusion;
Carriers associated with active transport/transport with ATP/pumps;
Different cells have different proteins;
Correct reference to cytosis;

Explain how three features of a plasma membrane adapt it for

its functions.
1. Phospholipid bilayer (as a barrier);
2. Forms a barrier to water soluble / charged substances / allows nonpolar substances to pass
OR
Maintains a different environment on each side / compartmentalisation;
3. Bilayer is fluid;
4. Can bend to take up different shapes for phagocytosis / form vesicles /
self-repair;
5. Channel proteins (through the bilayer)/intrinsic protein;
6. Let water soluble/charged substances through / facilitated diffusion;
7. Carrier proteins (through the bilayer);
8. Allow facilitated diffusion / active transport;
9 surface proteins / extrinsic proteins, glycoproteins / glycolipids;
10 cell recognition / act as antigens / receptors;
11cholesterol;
12 regulate fluidity / increases stability;

Describe how the distribution of cell membranes in a prokaryotic

cell such as a bacterium differs from that in a cell from a plant
leaf. (4)
bv
Absence of nuclear envelope/membrane;
Membrane bounded organelles;
Such as mitochondria/chloroplast/vacuole/lysosome;
and membrane systems/endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi;
Mesosomes in prokaryotes;

With reference to
named parts of the
diagram, explain the
difference between
the terms:
Triglyceride and
phospholipid;
Phospholipid has (one) phosphate /
Phosphoric acid;
replacing fatty acid;
Saturated and unsaturated.
Saturated all valencies of C filled / saturated with hydrogen /
all (CC)
single bonds / no double bonds;
fatty acid 1 is saturated/fatty acids 2 and 3 are unsaturated;

Describe a chemical Nucleus.

test you This is the largest
could carry out to show
that aIt is surrounded by a
organelle.
piece of coconut contains lipids.
double membrane with nuclear
(3)
pores large holes containing
(Crush in) ethanol / alcohol;
proteins
controlfor
the
exit
of
(to)(ER).
water
of addingthat
is critical
this
point);
Endoplasmic Add
Reticulum
This is(Order
a series of
from the nucleus. The
Emulsion
white involved
coloursubstances
interconnected
membrane/channels
in
synthesising and transporting materials. Rough
interior is called the nucleoplasm,
Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is studded with
numerous ribosomes, which give it its rough which is full of chromatin the
appearance. The ribosomes synthesise proteins,
DNA/protein complex (see unit 2).
which are processed in the RER (e.g. by
During cell division the chromatin
enzymatically modifying the polypeptide chain,
becomes condensed into discrete
or adding carbohydrates), before being
exported from the cell via the Golgi Body.
observable chromosomes. The

Ribosomes: These are the smallest and

most numerous of the cell organelles, and
are the sites of protein synthesis. Ribosomes
are either found free in the cytoplasm, where
they make proteins for the cell's own use, or
they are found attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, where they make
proteins for export from the cell. All
eukaryotic ribosomes are of the larger, "80S",
type.
Chloroplast
Membranes arrangement and disc shape
provides large surface for light absorption;
Mitochondrion: This is a sausage-shaped
layering of membrane allows a lot of pigment;
organelle (8Vm long), and is where aerobic
Permeable membrane allows diffusion of
respiration takes place in all eukaryotic cells
gases /carbon dioxide;
(anaerobic respiration takes place in the
membranes provide surface for attachment of
cytoplasm). Mitochondria release energy (in
electron / hydrogen acceptors;
the formATP) from carbohydrates, lipids and
Contains chlorophyll for light absorption;
other energy rich molecules. Cells that use a
Contains different pigments to absorb
lot of energy (like muscle cells) have many
different wavelengths;
mitochondria.
Stacking / arrangement of grana/thylakoids
maximises light catchment;
Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis;
Outer membrane
keeps enzymes
in
Mitochondria
are surrounded
by a double
Lysosomes: These are small membrane-bound
chloroplast;
membrane:
the outer membrane is simple
vesicles formed from the RER containing aand
cocktail
Starch
grains
/ lipidwhile
droplets
quiteof
permeable,
the store
inner products of
hydrolytic enzymes. They are used to break
down
photosynthesis;
membrane
is highly folded into cristae,
unwanted chemicals, toxins, organelles orwhich
even
whole
Ribosomes
DNA surface
for enzyme/protein
give it a/large
area. The space
cells, so that the materials may be recycled.
They
can
synthesis;
enclosed
by the inner membrane is called
also fuse with a feeding vacuole to digest the
its contents.
mitochondrial matrix, and contains small
circular strands of DNA. The inner
membrane is studded with stalked particles,
which are the enzymes that make ATP.
Golgi Body (or Golgi Apparatus). Another series of
flattened stacks of membrane vesicles, formed
from the endoplasmic reticulum. Its job is to
transport proteins from the RER to the cell
membrane for export. Parts of the RER containing
proteins fuse with one side of the Golgi body
membranes, and are modified (carbohydrate is
added to form glycoproteins), while at the other
side small vesicles bud off and move towards the