Horizontal Well Technology

Contents

Contents
List of Figures
List of TAbles
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 WELL CATEGORIES
1.1.1
Vertical well
1.1.2
Directional well
1.1.3
Slant wells
1.1.4
Horizontal wells and multiple laterals
1.2: Application of Horizontal Wells

1.3
1.4
1.5:
1.6

1.8
1.9

1-10

1-4
1-8

1.2.1

Horizontal well constraints

1-15

1.2.2

Multi-lateral well constraints

1-15

GROWTH OF HORIZONTAL WELL DRILLING/TECHNOLOGY

CHALLENGES FACING HORIZONTAL WELLS
FUTURE OUTLOOK
CASE STUDIES
1.6.1
Elf Aquitaine (Coffin, 1993)
1.6.2 Chevron (Thakur, 1995)
CASE HISTORIES (SPECIAL HETEROGENEOUS RESERVOIR EXAMPLES)
1.7.1
Coning application: Rainbow Keg River Reef
1.7.2 Fractured reservoir: Rospo Mare and Weyburn
1.7.3 Low Permeability Fractured Reservoir (Austin Chalk US)
HORIZONTAL WELL EVALUATION AND STATISTICS
APPLICATION OF HORIZONTAL WELLS IN SAUDI OIL FIELDS
1.9.1
Application in Saudi Oil Fields
1.9.2 Economics of Horizontal wells in Saudi Arabia fields

1.7

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CHAPTER 2
DRILLING OVERVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 WELL GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS
2.2.1
Length of the horizontal well
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4

Vertical control
Radius of curvature:
Diameter of horizontal section

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2.3
2.4

Contents

HORIZONTAL WELL PROFILE CONSIDERATION

DRILLING TECHNIQUES
2.4.1 Ultra-short Radius
2.4.2 Short radius
2.4.3 Medium radius
2.4.4 Long radius
2.5
CRITERIA USED TO CHOOSE WELL PROFILE
2.6
DRILLING TOOLS
2.6.1 The drill-string and the bottom-hole assembly
2.6.2 Drill-pipe string
2.6.3 Bottomhole assembly
2.6.3.1 Measurement while drilling (MWD)
2.7
DRILLING FLUIDS
2.8
WELL-BORE STABILITY
2.9
FORMATION EVALUATION PRACTICES
2.9.1 Wire-line conveyance
2.9.1.1 Pipe-conveyed logging technique (PCL)
2.9.1.2 Coiled tubing-conveyed wire-line systems (CTCW)
2.9.2 Tool response issues
2.9.2.1 Naturally fracture reservoir (Austin Chalk)
2.9.2.2 Sand-shale reservoir
2.10
FORMATION DAMAGE
2.10.1 Formation damage mechanism
2.10.2 Prevention from formation damage
2.11
UNDERBALANCED DRILLING (Bennion et al, 1994)
2.11.1 Advantages
2.11.2 Disadvantages
2.12 GEOPHYSICAL ASPECTS OF HORIZONTAL WELL APPLICATION
2-28
2.12.1 Introduction summary
2.12.2 Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP)
2.12.2.1 Full-waveform acoustic technique
2.12.2.2 Key issues in application of tools to horizontal wells
2.12.2.3 VSP data acquisition in horizontal wells
2.12.2.4 VSP Tool
2.12.2.5 VSP processing in horizontal wells
2.12.2.6 Key issue
2.13
CASE STUDIES geophysical aspects
2.13.1 The Institute Francais du Petrol (IFP) and Elf-Aquitane
2.13.2 Petro-Canada in the Brazeau pool
2.13.2.1 3-component (3-C) VSP
2.13.2.2 3-D Seismic
2.13.2.3 2-D Seismic

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CHAPTER 3

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WELL COMPLETIONS
3.1
3.2

CONSIDERATIONS
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL WELL COMPLETIONS
3.2.1 Open hole Completions
3.2.2 Slotted or perforated liner
3.2.3 External Casing Packers (ECP)
3.2.4 Pre-Packed Liner Completions
3.2.5 Gravel Packed completions
3.2.6 Cased and Cemented
Recommended Completion Procedures
3.3.1 Naturally fractured formations
3.3.2 Matrix permeability formations
3.3.3 Hydraulic fractured formations
3.3.4 Special cases

3.3

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3.4 PUMPING DEVICES

3-11
3.5
Matrix Stimulation of Horizontal Wells
3-11
3.5.1 Introduction Summary
3-11
3.5.2 Damage Characterization
3-12
3.5.3
Analytical expression for damage
3-16
3.5.4 Issues: stimulation of damage
3-18
3.5.5
Skin effect from stimulation of a horizontal well
3-18
3.5.5.1 Even distribution of damage and stimulation fluid
3-18
3.5.5.2 Uneven distribution of damage and stimulation fld in sandstn 3-19
3.5.5.3 Uneven distribution of damage and stimulation fld in carbont 3-19
3.5.6: Stimulation using coiled tubing
3.5.7
Maximum injection rate for matrix stimulation
3.5.8 Optimization of Matrix Stimulation Treatments
3-22
3.6 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING HORIZONTAL WELLS
3-24
3.6.1 Introduction
3-24
3.6.2
3.6.3

Determination of magnitude & orientation of least principal stress

Optimal Hydraulic Fracturing Strategy

3-26
3-27

3.6.4

Types of fractures

3-27

3.6.5 Number of fractures

3.6.6 Orientation of fractures
3.6.7 Transverse fractures
3.6.8 Experience in Fracturing horizontal wells
3.6.9 Evaluation
EXAMPLE APPLICATION
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
CASE STUDIES
3.9.1 Matrix stimulation of horizontal wells
3.9.1.1 Procedure
3.9.1.2 Diversion: Maximum injection pressure and rate
3.9.1.3 The role of friction reducers

3.7
3.8
3.9

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3.9.1.4 Real time stimulation control

3-36
3.9.1.5 Post Treatment Evaluation
3-38
3.9.2 John Snowden # 7 horizontal well, Lower Spraberry, Midland, Texas 3-39
3.9.3 Hydraulically fractured deep hz. well in ultra-tight Rotliegendes sand
3.9.4 Multi-fractured horizontal well in tight chalk reservoir in Denmark 3-42
3.9.4.1 Economics of multi-fraced horizontal wells in the Dan field 3-43

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CHAPTER 4
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING CONCEPT
4.1 BASICS
4.1.1
4.1.2

OF

Example 4.1

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
Natural Flow Recovery Mechanisms
Productivity of Horizontal well, Flow regimes
4.1.2.1 Time to reach the Pseudo-steady state

4.1.2.2 Steady State Analysis

4.1.3
Fractured Vertical Well (Ozkan et al, 1989)
4.1.4
Uniform Flux Fracture
4.1.5
Finite Conductivity Fracture
4.1.6
Infinite Conductivity Fracture
4.1.7
Other Methods
4.2 USING A HORIZONTAL WELL TO REPRESENT AN INFINITE CONDUCTIVE FRACTURE
Example 4.2
Example 4.3
Example 4.4
4.3 FLUID FLOW INTO A HORIZONTAL WELL
4.4 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL PERMEABILITY AVERAGING
4.4.1
Vertical Permeability
Example 4.5
Example 4.6
4.5
PRESSURE DROP IN HORIZONTAL WELL-BORE
4.5.1 Single phase flow
4.5.2 Multi-phase flow
4.5.3 Optimum Well Length Considerations

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CHAPTER 5
HORIZONTAL WELL PERFORMANCE PREDICTION
5.1
5.2

INTRODUCTION
PERFORMANCE PREDICTION MODELS
5.2.1
Transient Well Test Analysis Models
5.2.2
WELL PRODUCTIVITY MODELS
5.2.2.1 Steady State Model
Example 5.1

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5.2.2.2 Pseudo Steady State Model

a) Infinite Conductivity Well (Mutalik et al, 1988)
b) Uniform Flux Method (Babu and Odeh, 1988)

5-11
5-12
Example 5.2
5-17
Example 5.3
5-18
c) Generalized Pseudo Steady State Equation
5-18
5.3
SLANT WELLS
5-24
5.4
AREAL ANISOTROPY
5-24
5.5
EFFECTIVE WELLBORE RADIUS
5-25
Example 5.4
5-25
5.6
VERTICAL TO HORIZONTAL WELL PRODUCTIVITY RATIO
5-26
5.7
REPLACEMENT RATIO
5-26
5.8
DRAINAGE AREA
5-27
Example 5.5
5-29
a) Method 1
5-29
b) Method 2
5-29
5.9
PRODUCTIVITY INDEX RATIOOF HORIZONTAL TO VERTICAL WELL
5-30
5.10
EFFECT OF NEW HZ. WELLS ON THE PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING VERTICAL WELLS 5-31
5.11
AN OVERVIEW OF VARIOUS PRODUCTIVITY EQUATIONS
5-32
5.11.1 Steady State Well Productivity Equation for Anisotropic Reservoir 5-32
5.11.2 Fully Penetrating and infinite conductivity vertical fracture
5-33
Example 5.6
5-34
Example 5.7
5-39
Example 5.8
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5-11

CHAPTER 6
NEW TRENDS IN HORIZONTAL WELL TECHNOLOGY
6.1 MULTILATERALS
6.1.1
Introduction
6.1.2
MULTI-LATERAL WELL COMPLETIONS
6.1.2.1 Achievement of wellbore integrity and pumping

6-1
6-1
6-4
6-4

6.1.2.2 Access to the various branches

6-4
6.1.2.3 Most Recent Advances
6-5
6.1.3
Performance of Multiple lateral Configurations
6-6
6.1.4
Productivity index ratio: multiple-lateral to horizontal well
6-11
6.1.5
Reservoir Simulation Results of Multilateral Well Geometry Examples
6.2 MULTIPLE-LATERAL HORIZONTAL WELL SYSTEMS -FIELD CASE HISTORIES
6-12
6.2.1
The First Multi-Lateral / Dual Completion Well in Saudi Arabia
6-12
6.2.2
Trilateral Wells in the Dos Cuadras Field, USA
6-13
6.2.3
Rainbow Keg River Multibranch Experience:
6-18
6.2.4
Texaco Multi-Laterals
6-22
6.2.5
CS Resources Pelican Lake
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Contents

SUMMARY
6.3.1
Reservoir application of ML
6.3.2
Business Drivers
6.3.3
Level 1
6.3.4
Level 2
6.3.5
FACT
6.3.6
Drawback to increasing usage of ML
6.3.7
Evaluation Tools
6.3.8
Issues with predicting ML performance
6.3.9
Using Numerical simulation key issues
6.3.10
Conclusions

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CHAPTER 7
HORIZONTAL WELLS APPLICATIONS IN WATERFLOODED RESERVOIRS
7.1
7.2

INTRODUCTION
CASE HISTORIES
7.2.1 Weyburn Field
7.2.2 New Hope Shallow Unit
7.2.3 Taber and Seright Work
7.2.4 3D Simulation Study by Ferreira
7.2.5: Mixed Pattern Water-flood
7.2.6 Wilcox Sandstone Formation
7.2.7 Midale Fracture System
7.2.7 Adegbesan Work on Pembina Cardium
Orientation of Horizontal Well

7.3

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CHAPTER 8
Coning
8.1
8.2
8.3

INTRODUCTION
CONING EVALUATION
CRITICAL RATE ESTIMATION
8.3.1 Guo et al Method
Example 8.1
8.3.2 Chaperon Method
a)
Horizontal well
b)
Vertical well
8.3.2.1 Horizontal well to vertical well performance ratio
8.3.3 Giger and Karcher et al Method
Example 8.2
8.3.4 Joshi Method
Example 8.3
8.3.5 Yang and Wattenbargar Method

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Example 8.4
Example 8.5
8.4
BREAKTHROUGH TIME
8.4.1 Single Cone: bottom water or top gas
Example 8.6
8.4.2 Double Cone: bottom water and top gas
8.5
WATER-OIL RATIO PERFORMANCE AFTER BREAKTHROUGH
Example 8.7
Example 8.8
8.6
CASE HISTORIES
8.6.1 Prudhoe Bay, Alaska: Water and Gas Coning
8.6.2 Troll Oil Development
8.6.3 Helder field (Murphy, 1990)
8.6.4 Nimr field, Oman (Al-Rawahi, 1993)
8.6.5 Chevron Horizontal Wells

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CHAPTER 9
TRANSIENT PRESSURE RESPONSES - WELL TESTING
9.1
9.2

INTRODUCTION
WELL-TESTING OF HORIZONTAL WELLS
9.2.1 Analysis technique
9.2.2 Comparison of horizontal well models
9.3
FLOW REGIME (Goode and Thambynayagam, 1987)
1
Early time radial flow
2
Intermediate-time linear flow
3
Later-time radial flow
4
Late-time linear flow
9.4
TRANSIENT TESTS ANALYSIS EQUATIONS
9.4.1 Mathematical Representation
9.4.2 Solution methods for pressure response
9.4.2.1Early Radial Flow
9.4.2.2 Drawdown
9.4.2.3 Buildup
9.5
ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Example 9.1
Example 9.2
Example 9.3
Example 9.4
Example 9.5
9.6 HORIZONTAL WELL PRODUCING UNDER A STRONG BOTTOM WATER DRIVE
9.7 EFFECT OF WELL PARAMETERS ON TEST ANALYSIS
9.7.1 Position of pressure measurement in horizontal well
9.7.2 Position of well in the vertical section in the reservoir
9.7.3 Effect of well length

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9.7.4 Effect of well-bore storage and skin effects

9.7.5 Pressure derivatives
Example 9.6
9.9
PRACTICAL DIFFICULTIES IN WELL-TESTING AND ITS ANALYSIS.
9.10 WELLTESTING OF HORIZONTAL WELLS IN DUAL-POROSITY RESERVOIRS
9.11 CHARACTERISTIC OF WELL-TEST DATA FOR NATURALLY FRACTURED RESERVOIR

9.12

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9-43

9.11.1 Introduction

9-43

9.11.2 Theoretical Background

9-43

TYPE CURVE

MATCHING APPROACH

9.12.1 When to use Type Curves

9.12.2 What are type curves?
9.12.3 Procedure
Example 9.7
9.12.4 Commercial Model Approach

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CHAPTER 10
GAS RESERVOIRS
10.1
INTRODUCTION
10-1
10.2
STEADY STATE FLOW EQUATIONS
10-1
10.3
PSEUDO-STEADY STATE EQUATIONS
10-2
Example 10.1
10-3
10.4
IDENTIFYING TURBULENCE
10-8
10.4.1 High Permeability Reservoirs, turbulent flow
10.4.2 Gas Deliverability Equation for Turbulent Flow
10.5
CASE HISTORIES
10-11
10.5.1 Horizontal Gas Well Success Through-out the World
10-11
10.5.2 Zuidwal, first reported gas field development with horizontal wells 10-12
10.5.3 AECs Suffield Gas Storage
10-16

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CHAPTER 11
RESERVOIR SIMULATION
11.1

INTRODUCTION
11.1.1 Why Reservoir Simulation
SUBSURFACE FORCES
11.2.1 Viscous forces
11.2.2 Gravity forces
11.2.3 Capillary forces
11.2.4 Compaction forces
GRIDDING
WELLBORE INDEX

11.2

11.3
11.4

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11.4.1 For a vertical well in the z direction

11.4.2 For a horizontal well in the x -direction in an anisotropic medium

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CHAPTER 12
EOR APPLICATIONS
HEAVY OIL
12.1
12.2
12.3

12.4
12.5
12.6

12.7

12.8
12.9

ix

INTRODUCTION
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
FLUID FLOW WITH SAND PRODUCTION IN HEAVY OIL RESERVOIR
12.3.1 Introduction
12.3.2 Mechanism and Methodology
12.3.3 Performance Prediction
THERMAL RECOVERY PROCESSES
BASIC CONCEPTS OF HEAT TRANSFER
12.5.1 Heat Conduction
FLOW OF HEAT INTO A SEMI-INFINITE SLAB
12.6.1 Inst. Heat Flux into Surface of Semi-infinite heated area
12.6.2 Heat Flux into the Overburden - changing heated area
12.6.3 Heat Flux from a Fracture - changing heated area
12.6.4 Conduction Heating Ahead of an Advancing Hot Front
CONVENTIONAL STEAMFLOOD AND CYCLIC STEAM STIMULATION
12.7.1 Cyclic Steam Stimulation
12.7.2 Steamflooding
12.7.3 In-situ Combustion
12.7.3.1
Types of combustion process
12.7.3.2
Reaction mechanism
12.7.4 Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD)
12.7.4.1
Theoretical concepts
12.7.4.2
The rising steam chamber
12.7.4.3
Multiple steam chambers (confined reservoir)
12.7.4.4
Breakthrough time
12.7.4.5
Benefits of SAGD over VW operations are
12.7.4.6
Limitation of SAGD
CONVENTIONAL STEAMFLOOD AND CYCLIC STEAM STIMULATION
CASE STUDIES
12.9.1 Texaco McMurray lease
12.9.2 Esso Cold Lake
12.9.3 Sceptre Tangle-flags
12.9.4 AOSTRA UTF
12.9.5 Shell Cadot
12.9.6 Chevron HASDrive
12.9.7 Other field thermal heavy oil projects

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12.11

Contents

OTHER EOR APPLICATIONS

12.10.1 Miscible Displacement
12.10.2 Calculation of SAGD performance
RESERVOIR AND FLUID PROPERTIES DATA (FROM BUTLER, 1991)
12.11.1 PROPERTIES OF OIL
Densities of Oil Reservoir Materials

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12-62

Density of Reservoir Rocks

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Viscosity of Oils
12.11.2 Thermal Properties of Steam
Estimate steam saturation pressure from temperature
Estimate steam temperature from saturation pressure
Enthalpies of Saturated Liquid and Vapor
Heat Capacity of Reservoir Rocks
Heat Capacities of Oils and Water
Thermal Conductivity of Reservoir Materials
Hydrocarbon liquids
Over- and Underburden Materials

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CHAPTER 13
AIR INJECTION
13.1

13.2

13.3

INTRODUCTION
13.1.1 Conventional
13.1.2 Frontal Displacement
13.1.2 Gravity Assisted In-Situ Combustion
13.1.2.1
Key Issues
1)
Gravity Override
2)
Thermal Response
3)
Coates and Ivory
4)
Channeling of gas ahead of the comb. Front
5)
Coning in vertical producers
6)
Sand production
7)
Oil treatment problems
Case Studies
13.2.1 Eyehill Combustion Pilot Project(Morgan, 1993)
13.2.2 Horizontal Well Cyclic Combustion Wabasca Air Injection Pilot
13.2.3 Battrum Field Matured Combustion Project (Ames et al (1994)
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION
13.3.1 Laboratory Experiments
13.3.1.1 Frontal Displacement in-Situ Combustion Process
13.3.1.2 Top Down in-Situ Combustion Process [Coates et al (1995)]
13.3.2 Numerical Simulation
13.3.2.1 Top Down in-Situ Combustion Process [Coates et al (1995)]

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