Philippine History

By Maria Christine N. Halili

Chapter I
Knowing Philippine History
1. Understanding History
It is by the possession and transmission of a culture that man
differs from other animals, and the first culture began with the
habitual use of tools and articulate speech (Pulmer, ed. 1965: 16).
For some writers like Nick Joaquin, history as culture is not merely
a chronological reconstruction of the past nor an analytical
interpretation of past events, but a process of creation or a
formation of culture, specifically a "national culture."
In its broadest meaning, history is the study of past events. It
generally presents the known past. What is unknown is yet to be
retrieved. The recording and analysis of experiences of a society
comprise the totality of a people's history.
In analyzing history, the use of correlated disciplines is
necessary to understand the reasons and consequences of human
actions. By referring to philosophies of history, the theories of some
great thinkers should be considered. In the investigation and
interpretation of the past, these theories could explain how and
why events happen in societies.
Arnold Toynbee's challenge and response theory is based on
the idea that man responds to the situation placed before him. His
actions are based on his thoughts. Thus, the society's way of facing
the challenges depending upon its capabilities uncovers the pattern
of the society's history. Mankind's approach in coping with
challenges determines history.

The 12-volume series of A Study of History (1934-61) is based on

Toynbee's thesis that history reflects the progress of civilizations
and societies. He viewed the past as a succession of civilizations
rather than political entities. For him, there were patterns in the
histories of various civilizations for which he came to the
conclusion that there appears to be laws governing the lives of
human civilizations. The general pattern shows the growth,
breakdown, and eventual dissolution of a particular civilization
leading to the formation of a new one. Based on his hypothesis, the
failure of a civilization to survive was the result of its inability to
respond to challenges.
Under various circumstances, a power will wish to extend its
influence at the expense of another. The threatened power will then
reevaluate the challenge and adopt the course of action to curb the
strategy of the opposing power.
To illustrate, the prehistoric men had shown their ability to
respond to the challenge of surviving amidst the conditions of the
environment. The use of crude stone tools, then later, highly
polished ones, and those made from metal and other raw materials
like clay soil, shows the capacity of human beings to devise
material equipment for subsistence.
The preservation of the man's material equipment is another
challenge that people have to face. Cultural artifacts made of wood,
barks of trees, and other organic materials decompose more rapidly
in hot and humid regions. Many of the objects left behind by
ancient societies are no longer existing as part of archaeological
record because they have disintegrated over time. This predicament
gives an incomplete view of the past. The response include various
kinds of information and techniques on how to preserve the
material legacy of the ancient past. Some of them are best kept in
their original sites like caves that were used for habitation in the
past. While, items such as potsherds (small fragments of pottery),

devices made of stone, metal, bones, and teeth (covered with hard
enamel) can most likely survive and be presently known and
retrieved through the untiring efforts of the archaeologists.
In the struggle of dauntless Filipinos to regain the lost rights
and freedom during the Spanish era, the propagandists and
revolutionaries responded to colonial oppression by resisting. The
challenge was posed by the colonial subjugation of the Filipinos,
generally characterized by injustice and corruption. The response
was defiance to the prevailing rule.
Man's actions are not just involuntary movements especially
when time allows him to plan his next action. These responses pass
through the process of reasoning and analysis. Often, he deals with
other people to discuss on how to answer a certain situation.
Associated with the aforementioned premises, the exchange
theory of Alvin Scaff may be carefully thought about. His exchange
theory refers to the systematic statement of principles that govern
the exchange of goods (tangible goods like property or money and
intangible goods like peace or prestige) between individuals,
between groups, between organizations, and even between nations.
This is based on the idea of reciprocity. Alliances of people,
communities as well as nations are rooted in the idea of
interchange.
There are some motivational forces found in the society
affecting the actions of people involved in the situation. A case in
point is the barter system, used in business transactions because
there was no currency during those days. Aside from domestic
trading existing among the barangays and the islands, the early
Filipinos also engaged in foreign trade with China, Japan, Siam
(now Thailand), Borneo, Sumatra, Cambodia, and other islands of
old Malaysia.
Another example in relation to this theory, Mrs. Corazon
'Cory' Aquino, wife of the slain opposition leader, was chosen as

the presidential standard bearer amidst high expectations that she

would free all political prisoners, abolish censorship of the media,
and institute legal proceedings to recover ill-gotten wealth taken by
corrupt public servants once elected into office.
For Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831), an idea is the moving
force of History. However, man has tasks to do so that events may
happen. Hegel's role of historical man follows a principle, which he
called Weltgiest or world spirit, which embodies ideals like
patriotism, heroism, and unity. Since historical individuals are
ideals and man follows his ideal, this thought, which is guided by a
particular ideal becomes what Hegel called as Geisteswissenchaften
or the world of Spirit of thought. This area of thought is the thesis.
This combines with a particular situation or matter called
Naturwissenchaften, the antithesis or the complete opposite of the
Geisteswissenchaften. By the combination of thesis and antithesis,
man achieves the synthesis, which is the historical reality.
Applying this theory in history, there were guerilla fighters in
World War II who were guided by their sense of duty and
responsibility to lead the people during the warfare. The situation
was the Japanese invasion. The combination of their thoughts like
patriotism and heroism resulted to their historical acts, manifested
through their deeds and exploits in the battles that were fought
against the Japanese forces during the war era.
In understanding history, another theory to be considered is the
materialist concept of history or economic theory by Karl Marx,
another German philosopher. He asserts that the prevailing
economic system determines the form of societal organization and
the political and intellectual history of the epoch, which thus
attribute actions and events in history to economic motives. For
him, human interrelations depend on the material conditions of
their production. The struggle to maintain life is the most enduring
motivation for any human activity.

To cite an instance, the intensification of inter-island contacts

and the increasing specialization in craftsmanship by early dwellers
were brought about by economic consideration. Centuries of trade
and personal relations with Southeast Asian neighbors led to the
enrichment of Filipino life and culture. As more dwellers traded
with foreign merchants, influences in the field of commerce,
science, religion, language, and the arts became more evident as
they were transmitted to other members of the society.
Another example is the Spanish colonial era. It has been said
that the three primary motives for vast exploration of lands were
for God, gold, and glory, but the main incentive was for economic
reasons. Colonies are the important sources of raw materials and
opportunities for investment. Spain was at the height of its power
in the 16th century since it exercised political and economic control
in its several colonies.
Another approach to historical studies is the method of
historiography developed by Fernand Braudel (1902-1985),
considered the father of historical structuralism. According to
Braudel, human actions are not only based on human decisions but
also on 'structures' that may be natural (like topography and
natural resources) or man-made (like existing laws and
technological devices). For example, men build houses for shelter.
Even if they want to construct high-rise condominiums in the area,
the builders have to consider the availability of resources, the
budget of the clients, and the building site, to narrje a few.
Furthermore, the introduction of new technology literally
transforms societies and thereby, history.
In the Braudelian approach, to achieve "total history" is to
integrate all aspects of man's past. This involves the study of history
in its total view made possible by examining the circumstances
underlying such political, economic, social, and cultural events.

The pioneers of Philippine nationalist historiography generally

wrote in Spanish, and occasionally, in Tagalog. The group in Spain
included the Filipino propagandists Jose P. Rizal, Marcelo H. del
Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, as well as Pedro Paterno, T. H. Pardo
de Tavera, Gregorio Sancianco y Gozon, and among others.
For Rizal, history offers the key to national identity and the
basis for future development. In his writings, he used history to
show a uniquely Filipino culture, one which evolved through
centuries of contact with other Asians. He edited Dr. Antonio de
Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas. His annotations of Sucesos was
Ms major historical work. He depicted the destructive effects of
western colonization on early Filipino societies.
Teodoro Agoncillo (1912-1985) is considered as the father of
Filipino nationalist historiography. He wrote the conditions of the
Philippine past by analyzing the conditions of the masses. His
efforts in rewriting history like other contemporary historians were
reactions to the traditional presentations of Philippine history,
being colonial and elitist.
Philippine history is a people's history. As defined by Renato
Constantino, history is "the recorded struggle of people for ever
increasing freedom and for newer and higher realization of the
human person." It is not about the story of man as the individual,
but man as the associated man. Man interacts with nature and with
other men, thus, consciously changing his own perspective and to
some extent, the system of environment.
Based on Constantino's supposition that "Philippine history is a
story of struggle," the study has to be reassessed with a nationalist
perspective in the interest of objectivity. This is to allow the modern
Filipino to form a clear picture of his ancestors' conditions and
sentiments from the point of view of Filipino writers to correct
some historical impressions made by colonial historiography
tending to racial bias.

***
History is not merely not merely the work of heroes and great
men as elucidated by Constantino in his book the Philippines: A Pant
Revisited. He pointed out that the masses of individuals as well as
the social forces generated by collective lives and struggles have to
be included. Men must struggle together to survive the exigencies
of natural or social forces intervening their development. The
associated man, as part of the society, makes history through his
collective lives.
Constantino further mentioned that history is not necessarily
presenting a long, unbroken chain of events. It illustrates
movement of people and ideas over time and space. They may even
be in conflict with one another. It is now the task of the historian to
weave particular events into a total view so that these experiences
can be summed up and analyzed.
However, for Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), absolute objectivity
is inconceivable. Since people grow up in cultural environments,
they have imbibed the prevailing worldview in addition to their
own nature. The worldview that they have developed are colored
with perspective from which people understand their
environments and the events that happen. Clearly, this results to
subjectivity according to Dilthey.
In conclusion, history can serve as a guide to present and
succeeding generations in facing the challenges of the times. By
projecting the people's aspirations, a people's history will enable us
to grasp the direction of the country's development and identify the
factors that impede real progress. Truly, the need for a real people's
history becomes more urgent as we Filipinos search for truly
Filipino solutions to the problems besetting our country.

2. Sources of History

Sources of information provide the evidence from which the

historian obtains facts about the past. In writing history, the
historian not only relies on past thoughts, rather, reenacts it in the
context of analyzing the documents and other records left. This is
an indispensable condition in the quest for historical facts.
Literature, sports, visual and performing arts like dance can also be
considered as visual records of a country's history and culture.
Printed sources for the study of early Philippine history can be
traced from the missionary chronicles published by the various
religious orders assigned to the Philippines, which include the
Augustinians, Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, and Recollects.
Although generally viewed as moralistic and ethnocentric with
regard to description of Filipino culture and society, these records
provided valuable contribution for the study of history during the
Spanish period in the Philippines.
Friars of the religious orders who had later known the dialects
of the natives, recorded observations of Filipino society and culture
like Fray Juan de Plasencia (1589), a Franciscan and Fray Pedro
Chirino (1604), a Jesuit.
The only secular historian in the islands before 1887 was Dr.
Antonio de Morga with his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Mexico,
1609), a book on 16th century Philippines.
The Filipino Muslims were able to preserve written materials of
great historical value. The first is the sarsila or tarsila, which is a
genealogical record of the sultans or datus who tried to preserve
the lineage of the ruling class like the Sulu Sarsila and the
Maguindanao Tarsila. Copies are in the possession of the existing
heirs. Translations are found in Najeeb Saleeby's works.

Another material is the kitab, a book attributed to the late Hadji

Butu Abdul Baqui, Wazir of the Sulu Sultanate, who tried to record
the historical and personal events of his time-the early 20th century.
Philippine Insurgent Records (renamed the Philippine
Revolutionary Records, now located in the National Library)
represents the records captured by the United States Army during
its suppression of the Filipino resistance against American takeover
of the Philippines from 1899-1903.
An important repository of Filipiniana materials is the National
Library, established in Manila on March 9, 1900 to honor the
memory of American military personnel killed during the FilipinoAmerican War. Years later, Public Law Act No. 1935, mandated the
creation of The Philippine Library, to consolidate all libraries in the
Philippine colonial government. Then, in 1916, the colonial
administration decided to merge The Philippine Library with other
entities and it came to be known as the Philippine Library and
Museum. However, in 1928, the Philippine Legislature passed
Public Law No. 3477 providing for the separate entities to be called
The National Museum and the National Library.
Pursuant to Executive Order No. 486, s. 1951, issued by
President Elpidio Quirino and a follow-up order, Executive Order
No. 39, s. 1963 by President Diosdado Macapagal, public school
teachers throughout the Philippines were assigned to collect the
histories and customs of their localities. These records are now
known as the Historical Data Papers or Provincial Histories, intended
to replace government records destroyed during the World War II.
Sources of history may be classified as primary and secondary.
Primary sources are those that have witnessed the event that took
place or have been part of the incident being studied. These include

10

written records (e.g. narratives, manuscripts, public documents,

letters, diaries), fossils, artifacts, and testimony from living
witnesses. On the other hand, secondary sources have not been part
of the event being considered such as magazines, newspapers,
pamphlets, typescripts, and articles written about the primary
sources.
In the Philippines, aside from the National Archives, there are
other important repositories of historic documents, which include
the Archives of the Dominican Province of the Philippines (Sto.
Domingo Convent), the Archives of the University of Santo Tomas,
the Archives of the Province of Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary,
the Jesuit Archives at the Ateneo de Manila University, and the
Archives of the Archbishopric of Manila. Primary and secondary
sources are also found in libraries as well as in private collections.
Archaeology studies and reconstructs the cultural events of the
past through the material remains left by people. Archaeologists
study artifacts (material equipment made by people of the past like
tools, pottery, and jewelry) and fossils (preserved remains of plants,
animals, and people of a remote geological past). Archaeological
excavation refers to the systematic recovery and study of these
pieces of material evidence.
Prehistory, a term given by 19th century French scholars, covers
the past human experiences prior to the existence of written
records. The basic source of prehistory is prehistoric archaeology,
which is one of the fields of anthropological archaeology. It studies
societies at the time writing system has not yet been invented.
Societies with written records are being studied in historical
archaeology.

Archaeology gives us an idea on how things might have looked

like at a particular time. Cultural artifacts may be looked at as
concrete expressions of the ancient settlers' way in dealing with the
problem of adaptation to the environment. Their achievements in
material and social culture show much of their behavior, values,
and beliefs as well as their intellectual maturity.
Unfortunately, the reconstruction of Philippine prehistory will
always be incomplete. Many of the objects recovered have
disintegrated over time. Materials like wood, barks of trees, and
clothing decompose easily particularly in a tropical climate such as
ours. Devices made of stone, clay soil, metal and the like, can
survive the society that created it and thus, be presently known
through the efforts of the archaeologists.
Early archaeological undertakings in the Philippines began
with the first major expedition in 1881 by a Frenchman, Alfred
Marche in the island of Marinduque and the other sites in Central
Philippines. Most of his collections are now with the Musee de l
homme in Paris, and some in Madrid. There were also sporadic
finds and pot-hunting activities in various parts of the archipelago
prior to this major archaeological excavation. Feodor Jagor, a
German traveler, reported having encountered a priest in Naga,
Camarines Sur who collected artifacts from ancient graveyards.
Dr. Antonio de Morga, in his Sucesos de Las Islas Filipinas
(Historical Events of the Philippine Islands), described the ancient
artifacts that were recovered by farmers in Luzon, particularly in
Ilocos, Pangasinan, Pampanga and Manila. These were day vessels
of dark brown color and some marked with characters. These items
are no longer being manufactured in the islands.

12

Jose Rizal was noted to have found ground and polished stone
tools during his exile in Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte.
The second major archaeological exploration was carried out by
Carl Guthe from the University of Michigan from 1922-1925. With
his team, they conducted several test-digs in Palawan, Bohol,
Northern Mindanao, and other places in Central* Philippines. The
purpose of this Michigan archaeological expedition was to collect
Chinese ceramics exported to the Philippines from China, to look
into the early Filipino-Chinese relationship. The collection,
resulting from the excavation, consisted of more than 30 cubic tons
of prehistoric artifacts. They are now kept at the University of
Michigan.
From 1926 to the outbreak of the Second World War, much of
the archaeological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer
(1883-1966) born in Edgewood, Iowa who had married Lingayu
Gambuk, the 15-year- old daughter of a powerful Ifugao chief in
1910.
The discovery of a major archaeological site in Novaliches in
1926, resulting from the construction of a dam for Manila's water
supply, was Beyer's first archaeological research in the country. In
1947, Beyer published the Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by
Islands and Provinces, a pioneering research activity in Philippine
prehistory.
Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted Beyer in the
exploration of numerous Pleistocene sites in Northern Luzon. It
was Beyer who first disclosed the importance of Palawan in the
search of the early man in the Philippines.

All over the archipelago, the fossilized remains of large

mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle Pleistocene
Epoch have been discovered in the 1920s. The fossils of elephas,
stegodons, rhinoceroses, and deer have been discovered in
Cagayan, Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay Island, and in Northeastern
Mindanao. The elephas, stegodon, and rhinoceros are now extinct
in the country.
In Cabarruyan Island in Lingayen Gulf, a fossilized tooth of a
dwarf elephant was reported to have been retrieved. This specie of
dwarf elephant was subsequently identified and named Elephas
beyeri after H. Otley Beyer, considered as the Father of Philippine
Archaeology and Prehistory. Von Koenigswald, a paleontologist
known for his work on Java Man, gave the name for this specie.
After the Second World War, increased interest in the
prehistoric beginnings of the Philippines evolved. Archaeology was
later on introduced as part of the curriculum at the University of
the Philippines.
Wilhelm G. Solheim II conducted the first postwar excavations
in Masbate Island from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo Evangelista and E.
Arsenio Manuel assisted him in undertaking the work.
Between 1950 and 1954, Solheim was the research associate at
the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of the University of the
Philippines and the librarian and curator of the American Historical
Collection of the U.S. embassy in Manila. His earliest work in
Philippine archaeology was in 1951, with the publications on
archaeological fieldwork in San Narciso, Tayabas (now Quezon).
His activities included extensive field experience in Southeast Asia,
as well as the various islands of the Pacific Region.

14

From 1958 to 1962, Robert B. Fox and Alfredo Evangelista, both

working for the National Museum of the Philippines, undertook a
series of test-digs in the caves of Cagraray, Albay, and Bato,
Sorsogon. Tradeware ceramics from China and Thailand were
recovered in Calatagan.
Fox led the Tabon Caves Archaeological Project in
Southwestern Palawan, resulting in the unearthing of late
Pleistocene human fossils and stone tools and implements.
Charcoal materials analyzed by carbon-14 technique revealed the
presence of man in the area between 22,000 to 24,000 years ago.
Human fossil bones of at least three individuals were found.
These included a large frontal bone, with the brows and part of the
nasal bones as well as fragments of a mandible and teeth. Classified
as modern man or Homo Sapiens, these are the earliest known
human inhabitants of the Philippines.
Neil Mcintosh of the University of Sydney in Australia
undertook the analysis and X-rays of the Tabon skullcap and
mandible in 1975. Details showed the presence of a thin fissure on
the right side of the skull, which according to Mcintosh, may have
been the cause of death of the individual. It was probably due to a
fall or a bump on the head.
Other minor diggings and explorations followed in the 1960s,
particularly in the southern regions of the Visayas and Mindanao,
led by anthropologists of the University of San Carlos in Cebu and
Silliman University in Dumaguete City, Negros Oriental. In 19631964, Marcelino Maceda of San Carlos University, technically
assisted by the National Museum, conducted archaeological
excavations at Kulaman Plateau in Bukidnon and recovered a

number of limestone burial jars. North of this place, Samuel

Briones, a graduate student at Silliman University reported the
presence of limestone burial jars in several caves he visited in 1966.
In Cebu, Karl Hutterer and Rosa Tenazas of San Carlos
University recovered prehistoric artifacts in the middle of Cebu
City. Tenazas carried out archaeological excavations in the Laguna
area and recovered valuable materials, mostly 10th and 14th century
artifacts in 1968-1969.
In Lemery Batangas,a group of students from Ateneo de Manila
conducted archaeological diggings from 1968 to 1970. The team was
composed of Cecilia V. Locsin, Maria Isabel Ongpin, and Socorro P.
Paterno.
The National Museum of the Philippines, led by its chief
archaeologist Robert B. Fox, began a systematic archaeological
work in Cagayan Valley in the 1970s. This marked the ardent quest
for prehistoric man in the area. Comparable to those previously
reported animals (such as elephas, stegodons, and rhinoceroses),
new fossil discoveries such as those of crocodiles, giant tortoises,
pigs; and deer were found in Cagayan.
In 1971, Karl Hutterer returned to the site he previously
explored in Basey River in Southern Samar. The following year,
Wilhelm Solheim II and Avelino Legaspi dug in the area of Davao
del Sur. They found tools made from large shells, manufactured
through a flaking technique similar to that used in making stone
tools.

16

3. Unhistorical Data
There are some narratives that have been previously accepted
in Philippine history as facts but later were found out to be
historical errors. It is to the credit of many historians who
investigated and took position on what they have discovered in
their careful research. These unhistorical accounts include the
Maragtas (Story), the Code of Kalantiaw, and the Legend of
Princess Urduja.
Maragtas is about the 10 Malay datu from Borneo who settled
into the Philippine islands. According to the Maragtas, at around
1250 A.D., 10 Bornean datu and their families left their kingdom in
search of new homes across the sea to escape the merciless rule of
Sultan Makatunaw. Led by Datu Puti, the Borneans landed in the
island of Panay and bought the lowlands from the Ati king named
Marikudo in exchange for one gold saduk (native hat) and a long
gold necklace for Queen Maningwantiwan. After the land sale and
pact of friendship, the Atis went to the hills. The Malay datus
settled in the lowlands.
Datu Puti, Balensusa, and Dumangsil sailed northward to
Luzon and landed in the region around Lake Bonbon (Taal). There
they built their settlements. Dumangsil and Balensusa's families
occupied other neighboring regions now known as Laguna and the
Bicol Peninsula. Datu Puti left for Borneo after he knew that his
men were leading peaceful lives.
The other seven datu stayed in Panay. They divided the island
into three districts. Hantik (now Antique) was under Datu

Sumakwel. Datu Paiburong ruled Irong-Irong (now lloilo). Datu

Bangkaya governed Aklan (now Aklan and Capiz).
Led by Datu Sumakwel, a political confederation of barangays
(Madya- as) was formed for purposes of protection and close family
relations. The story as told by Father Santaren, further described
the expansion of the Malay settlers to other parts of the archipelago.
The legal code written by Datu Sumakwel also known as the
Maragtas Code was previously known as the "oldest known written
body of laws" in the Philippines.
William Henry Scott (1921-1993) made the study of prehistoric
source materials for the study of Philippine history, the subject of
his doctoral dissertation at the University of Santo Tomas. He
defended his paper before a panel of well-known historians on June
16, 1968. The panelists include Teodoro Agoncillo, Gregorio Zaide,
Mercedes Grau Santamaria, Nicolas Zafra, and Father Horacio de la
Costa, SJ.
The research of Scott showed that Maragtas is not a prehispanic
document but a book written by Pedro Monteclaro, a local historian
of Panay. Monteclaro's publisher in 1907, noted that this Maragtas
should not be considered as facts, all of which are accurate and true.
The publisher pointed out that many of the author's data do not
tally with what we hear from old men. The author wrote that two of
his manuscripts were rotten and hardly legible. None of these
written materials were preserved for future generations. He made
no explanation about the date as well as the origin of his sources.
Neither were there claims to clarity. There is no tradition of
recording history nor legal decision in Panay during the precolonial
times. Thus, the Maragtas could neither support the presence of any

18

pre-Spanish Confederation ofMadiaas (also spelled as Madyaas) nor

uphold the existence of a Sumakwel Code.
Previously regarded as the second oldest legal code in the
Philippines was the Code of Kalantiaw. This code was said to be a set
of ancient laws promulgated in 1433 by Datu Bendara Kalantiaw
(Spanish spelling, Calantiao) of Aklan, the third Muslim ruler of
Panay.
The code itself was contained in one of the chapters of the Las
Antiguas Leyendas de la Isla de Negros (Ancient Legends of Negros
Island) written by Fr. Jose Maria Pavon, a Spanish secular priest
who became a parish priest of Himamaylan, Negros Occidental in
1838-1839. Jose E. Marco of Negros Occidental discovered the
spurious Pavon manuscripts and presented it to Dr. James
Robertson, Director of the Philippine Library and Museum in 1914.
According to Marco's confession, he obtained the two manuscript
volumes from someone who had stolen them from the Himamaylan
conuento during the Revolution.
Director Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published in its
English translation in 1917. The Philippine Studies Program of the
University of Chicago reprinted the translation in 1957. Eventually,
Filipino historians and textbook writers acknowledged the
authenticity of the Pavon manuscripts without any doubt.
In 1971, the late Ferdinand E. Marcos issued Executive Order
No. 294, which created the Order of Kalantiaw Award for services
in law and justice. He also issued Presidential Decree No. 105 in
1973, making the Kalantiaw Shrine in Batan, Aklan sacred. It
prohibited all forms of desecration including unnecessary noise and
violation of such would mean 10 years ol impi isonrnent. Postage
stamps, naval ships, paintings, and even beauty pageants (I
akambini ni Kalantiaw) were made to honor Datu Kalantiaw.

In the unprecedented doctoral study of Scott, he concluded that

the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Code of
Kalantiaw was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this
fake code. They are as follows:
1.

2.

3.

4.

There is no evidence that Fr. Pavon, the alleged author of

the manuscript, was ever in the Philippines in 1838, or
parish priest of the town in 1839/ the dates of the
manuscript. The discoverer of the alleged manuscript, Jose
E. Marco, was also involved in the sale of other fake
historical documents. There is no historical evidence for the
existence of Datu Kalantiaw, or a code of his name other
than the documents presented by Jose Marco.
The contents of the manuscript are of dubious value. For
example, the author prays for the preservation of the King
of Spain in 1838 and dedicates a book to him in 1839, but
Spain had no king between 1833 and 1874.
The author also states that the month of November was
called a bad month for it brought air laden with putrified
microbes of evil fevers. It was only in the 1850s that Louis
Pasteur discovered the theory of infectious germs. The
word "microbe" itself was invented by Dr. Charles
Emmanuel Sedillot. He proposed the term for the first time
in a lecture before the Academy of Sciences in 1878.
The Kalantiaw Code contains many strange edicts that
contradict the character of the JFilipino. For example, the
code prescribed death penalty for the crime of trespassing
on the datu's house, but imposed only a year's slavery for
stealing his wife.

Eventually, Scott's doctoral dissertation was published by the

UST Press (Unitas, Vol. 41, 1968). The following year, it was

20

reissued with the title, Prehistoric Source Materials for the Study of
Philippine History (UST Press, 1969). The same book was published
in the second revised edition by New Day Publishers (Quezon City)
in 1984. In the last chapter of the book, Looking for the Prehispanic
Filipino issued in 1992 by New Day Publishers, Scott wrote a
chapter titled, Kalantiaw: The Code that Never Was. Scott's
conclusions have not been challenged by any historian to date.
Another narrative that many Filipinos have learned is about the
legendary warrior princess named Urduja. She has been adopted as
a symbol of a woman of distinguished courage, an inspiration for
women in the country.
Unfortunately, this tale is another historical error that has
created false impressions and should be corrected. The story
reportedly came from Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Batuta also
known as Ibn Batuta (1304- 1378), an Arab traveler from Morocco.
His book, Rihlah (Travels), includes
descriptions of the Byzantine court of Constantinople (now
Istanbul) and
the Black Death of Baghdad (1348).
According to his travel accounts, while somewhere in Southeast
Asian waters, he reached the land of Tawalisi after a voyage of 71
days, and China was 15 days away with a favorable wind. In
Tawalisi, he mentioned a mysterious amazon named Princess
Urduja who would only marry the man who could beat her in
fistfights. She presided over a court so fascinating and majestic. She
gave Ibn Batuta gifts of silk, spices, sheep, buffaloes, and two
elephant-loads of rice.
The legend of Princess Urduja is quite amusing but historians
could not certify its authenticity. Modern historians agreed that

Princess Urduja was just an illusory creation of Ibn Batuta, a

contemporary of Marco Polo (1254-1324), the Venetian traveler
whose accounts in the East, particularly China (the English
translation of the original title of the book was The Description of the
World recorded by Rustichello, a romance writer from Pisa), drew
the attention of a great number of Europeans and stimulated
interest in Asian trade.
Efforts to correct historical errors are still ongoing. Many
historians even investigate for themselves the validity of sources
and data. The concern of historians has been to collect and record
facts about the past and to discover new facts with utmost care and
truthfulness. The damage caused by deception is surely
immeasurable but the blunder itself is a challenge that every
individual should face. The determination to uncover the past
necessarily involves the use of auxiliary disciplines and literary
forms.

Study Guides
A. Terms/Concepts to Understand Historical
structuralism Prehistoric archaeology
Primary and secondary sources B. Questions to Answer
1.
Why did some civilizations fail to survive according to
Arnold Toynbee?
2.
How do events happen in history according to Alvin Scaff?
3.
How can historical reality be achieved according to Georg
Hegel?
4.
What is the motivation for any human activity according to
Karl Marx?
5.
How can total history be achieved according to Fernand
Braudel?
6.
Explain Renato Constantino's supposition that "Philippine
history is a story of struggle."

22

Give the brief history of Philippine archaeology.

8.
What made William Henry Scott to conclude that Maragtas
is not a prehispanic document?
9.
Why did Scott say that the Code of Kalantiaw was a hoax?
10. Did Princess Urduja really exist in the past?
7.

Chapter II
The Natural Setting and its People
1. How the Earth Was in the Beginning
The story of creation shows the formation of the world and the
infinite character of the Creator. The Holy Bible tells us that, "In the
beginning God created the heavens and the earth (Genesis 1:1)."
The first part of the book relates the story of creation. God created
man in His own image, male and female. Adam and Eve, the first
man and woman, became the progenitors of mankind.
In Filipino mythology, creation stories were popularized by
various tribal groups of the islands. One Tagalog legend tells the
story of how Bathala created the Filipino people. In the beginning,
Bathala (god of the Sky), Aman Sinaya (goddess of the Sea), and
Amihan (Northeast Wind) were the only beings that existed. Bathala
and Aman Sinaya have been rivals for quite a time.
One day, Aman Sinaya decided to send her waves and storms
into the sky. In return, Bathala threw giant boulders to stop her.
This resulted to thousands of islands on the surface of the sea,
which became the Philippine archipelago. Amihan decided to stop
the battle and took the form of a bird. She flew back and forth
between them, which led to a closer sky and sea. Finally, both
deities agreed to end the fight.

As a friendly gesture, Bathala planted a seed underneath the

ocean and it grew into a bamboo reed. Amihan pecked the reed after
hearing voices from within the bamboo asking that they be freed.
The bamboo reed cracked and slit open. Inside were two human
beings. Amihan named the man Malakas (Strong) and the woman
Maganda (Beautiful) and then flew them onto one of the islands.
Soon, Malakas and Maganda had a huge number of offsprings.
They asked their children to work in the fields but the latter
disobeyed. The man and woman prayed to their god Bathala for
guidance. Bathala told them to teach their children a lesson. This
would make them into what they are meant to be.
Malakas and Maganda grabbed spoon laddies and began to give
blows to all their children who started fleeing away. Some of them
hid under bamboo tables and became slaves. A few went inside the
burning cauldron and turned into Aetas. Others climbed the
rooftop and became the datu (chieftains) of the villages; while some
climbed on trees and became the commoners. Those who ran to the
mountains turned into hunters; while the ones who stayed near the
seashore turned into fishermen.
Based on a Visayan legend, there was also a mythical bird
named Mntiiiul searching for a place to rest but cannot find one.
Then, he pleaded the god of the sea, Kaptati, and the god of the air,
Magauayan to help him.
The gods, asserting their might in answering the bird's request,
showed their strength. The god of the sea created tidal waves to
beat the sky. In response, the god of the air threw the waves back
by whirlwinds of rock and soil. Dry land was built in the process.
The fight continued for thousands of years, until Manaul grew
tired of it. He collected the rocks from the mountains and dropped
them on both gods. This ended the battle. The masses of rocks
thrown by the mythical bird became the islands of the Philippine
archipelago.

24

After getting exhausted, Manaul flew to a nearby grove of tall

bamboos to rest. When he alighted on the stalk, he heard a voice
coming from the bamboo, asking to be freed from within. The bird
pecked at the bamboo until it split apart. Out of the stalk came the
first man, Si-Kalac, and the first woman, Si-Kavay. They were
advised by the earthquake as well as the fish of the sea and the
birds of the air to marry so that they would multiply on earth. They
did, so Si-Kavay bore her first-born son Sibo. Satnar, their first
daughter came next.
Numerous legends explain how places got their names. In
many instances, the name of a place is derived from a brief form of
word linked to the story, for example Tagaytay from "taga ltay";
Mindoro, from the names of a couple Mina and Doro; and Manila,
from the word Maynilad (there are nilad plants in the place).
Legends and myths at times provide a fanciful counterpart to
actual explanations of things and events. The legend of Bernardo
Carpio, called Hari ng mga Tagalog (King of the Tagalogs) presents
an imaginative explanation of how the country was shaken by
earthquakes. According to the legend, Bernardo Carpio was
rebuked by the gods for his insolence and left endlessly chained in
the Montalban Gorge in Rizal Province. He was cursed to keep two
mountain walls from colliding. Whenever he pauses to regain
strength, the walls of Montalban Gorge start closing in. Carpio
pushes them back so that the mountains would not grind him into
pieces. As a result, the ground around him shudders.
The analytical study of geology commenced with the
publication of James Hutton's Theory of the Earth (2 volumes, 1795).
Hutton (1726-1797), a British geologist, formulated the
uniformitarian theory of geology, which maintains that the laws of
nature have remained constant. He further explained that the
physical and chemical processes that have acted throughout
geologic time are the same processes seen today. Taking the

hydrologic cycle for instance, condensation always precedes

precipitation. Processes such as volcanism and erosion that have
caused changes in the earth's surface had been operating in thr
same manner over a very long period of time. He rejected the theory
of catastrophism, which was the prevailing belief during his time.
Catastrophism asserts that only major catastrophes could alter the
formation of the earth.
Maps or charts covering the entire world or specific regions are
contained in an atlas. Ptolemy, an Alexandrian scholar, produced
the first collection of maps in about A.D. 150. In the 16th century,
Gerardus Mercator used the term atlas in the title of his collection of
maps. The term was derived from the custom of placing the Greek
mythological figure Atlas holding the earth on his shoulders on the
title pages of map collections. The first modern atlas titled, Theatrum
Orbis Terrarum (Theater of the Earth), was published in 1570 by
Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch cartographer.
Ortelius noticed that the American continents seemed to have
been disjoined from Europe and Africa. He realized that the coasts
of the three continents could be linked together like a huge jigsaw
puzzle.
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930), a German meteorologist, also
noted his inquiry regarding the three continents, which Ortelius had
noticed 300 years ago. He began to combine some observations,
which centered on the view that the east coast of South America fits
within the contours of the west coast of Africa. This suggests that
these continents may have been part of one huge landmass. He
postulated that these continents had simply drifted apart over
millions of years.
Wegener's theory of continental drift was contained in his book,
The Origin of Continents and Oceans, published in 1915. He named
the. supercontinent, Pangaea, a Greek word meaning "all land."
Pangaea had begun breaking up approximately 200 million years

26

ago, earlier into a northern portion, which he named Laurasia, and a

southern portion, termed Gondwanaland by the Austrian geologist
Eduard Suess.
Wegener supported his theory with fossil evidence. Plant and
animal fossils from the coastlines of South America and Africa
found to match. Fossils in unlikely climates fu rther defended his
claim, such as the discovery of tropical plant fossils in Antarctica
and of glacial deposits in Africa.
During Wegener's lifetime, his theory did not receive scientific
validation since the technological means to prove it had not yet been
developed. During those days, most people believed that all earth's
formations never moved.
Arthur Holmes (1890-1965), a British geologist advocated
support for Wegener's theory. In 1928, he proposed that the
convection currents within the earth's mantle driven by radioactive
heat might have caused the mechanism for continental drift.
In the 1950s, scientists began oceanographic research, which
revealed the phenomenon known as sea floor spreading. In the
1960s, the theory of plate tectonics was established. The plates of the
earth move. The theory explains th.it the lithosphere (the outer layer
of the earth) moves sideways above a less rigid layer called the
asthenosphere, which is under extreme pressure. Eventually, the
theory of continental drift gained far-reaching acceptance in the
field of science.
The surface of the earth is continually changing because of
forces either from the internal heat of the earth or the energy
produced by the sun. The first one results in the motion of tectonic
plates while the latter, involves the movement of water from the
earth's surface to the atmosphere and then back to earth, which is
also known as hydrologic cycle, which eventually results to the
washing out of soil.

2. Geological Foundation
Prior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine
archipelago, history has to depend on the works of geologists. The
geologists seek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is
today and forecast possible geologic events. In Arthur Holmes'
book, The Age of the Earth (1913), he developed a geologic time scale,
which he continued to work on until 1959. The dates given for
certain geological formations are informed estimates, in terms of
years before the present (BP).
According to present estimates, the planet earth is between 4.6
and 4.8 billion years BP. The first dinosaurs were believed to have
appeared around 225 million years ago, during the Mesozoic Era.
At about 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs that once occupied the
valleys, plains, and swamps became extinct. It is believed that these
huge creatures perished with a huge meteorite that hit the earth or
with shattering volcanic eruptions.
The Philippine soil is composed of numerous rocks, which
came from regions far from the archipelago's present location. It
was during the Tertiary period(54 million-2 million years BP) of the
Cenozoic era that the land structure of the Philippines was defined
(looking like a nymph lying across the ocean).
In the northern part, the Philippine archipelago was believed to
be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocene (53-54
million years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37-38 million years BP).
However, the Formosan connection was severed during the
Miocene epoch (26 million years BP). The combined effects of
volcanism and other tectonic movements of the basement complex
brought about the disjunction.
As connections with other areas changed, the internal structure
of the archipelago also underwent changes with the flattening of
the crustal surface of the existing higher grounds during the

28

Pliocene epoch (7-13 million years BP). The emergence of man on

earth was estimated at 5 million years BP.
Pleistocene epoch (1.6 million years to 10,000 years BP), the first
division of the Quaternary period, is the epoch prior to the
Holocene epoch (10,000 years BP to the present). During the
Pleistocene epoch, the earth underwent a series of alternating warm
and cold climates. In Europe, scientists agree that there occurred
four cold phases known geologically as Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and
Wurm. In the United States, these cold phases were known as
Jerseyian, Kansan glacial, Ulinoian-Iowan glacial, and Wisconsin
glacial. Between the cold phases are the three interglacial or warm
periods. Each interglacial period lasted for several thousands of
years.
The Pleistocene marked the beginning of evolutionary processes
in both flora and fauna. The freezing of the northern and southern
hemispheres caused an extensive spread of sea ice in the area and
helped provide a suitable climate for ice-age animals like the
mastodon and saber-toothed tiger. In Asia, the Mongolian area and
the Himalayas were also topped with ice sheets. There was a
widespread distribution of glaciers in the higher regions of the
African continent.
In some regions of Africa and Asia, particularly along the
southern coasts, there were no ice sheets. Instead, the climatic
condition was characterized by extensive and continuous rain. This
phenomenon is known as the fluvial condition. Such condition gave
rise to the growth of rainforests and marshes, which favored the
survival of large animals.
Based on recent studies, the earth has undergone 20 cycles of
glaciation over the past two million years. During the Pleistocene,
the glaciers accumulated a big quantity of water in the form of ice,
causing water levels in the world's oceans to drop. The earth's
climate, which began warming some 18,000 years ago, caused the

oceans to regain their present levels. The movements of the water

resulting from vast glaciations and deglaciations in the temperate
region caused convergence, as well as the separation of landmasses.
Some historians claim that the Philippines is a remnant of a lost
continent in the Pacific called Mu or Lemuria, the other remnants
are Marianas and other mid-Pacific islands, and Borneo, Java,
Sumatra, and the Celebes.
The adherents of the Pacific or Magmatic theory say that the
Philippines came into existence after the eruptions of volcanoes
beneath the Pacific Ocean in remote epochs. When the spewed
magma piled up and cooled down, this resulted to Philippine
island formation. This theory explains that the cores of our
mountain systems are similar to the rocks found beneath the ocean.
On the other hand, the Asiatic Theory or Land Bridges Theory
states that the Philippines was once part of Continental Asia. At the
end of the last Ice Age, the ice sheets melted, causing the sea level to
rise and submerge the land bridges that had connected the
Philippines to the Asian mainland.
I )uring the glm lal periods, ocean levels were much lower,
thereupon exposing the Sunda Slu-ll and the Sahul Shelf. These are
extensions of continents otherwise known as continental shelves.
In Asia, the Sunda Shelf, which is an extension of the coastal
shelf of Southeast Asia, included the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
Java, and Borneo to Palawan. From Borneo, the Philippines was
linked through a narrow projection of island now occupied by
Balabac, Palawan, and Calamianes. The continental shelf known as
Sahul Shelf is an extension of the coastal shelf of Australia. It
covered the islands of New Guinea and the Aru Islands of
Indonesia.
When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposed, the land
bridges were believed to have connected most of Indonesia, New
Guinea, and Australia. Dark-skinned people, ancestors to the

30

Australoids, traveled across the bridges to New Guinea and other

islands of Melanesia. The Mongoloid people then populated New
Guinea and gradually journeyed to the southeast by sailing canoes.
The Pleistocene lasted for a long period of time. At the height of
the interglacial period, a great river system flowed from the interior
of Asia mainland and Australia, pouring into the outlying areas.
The riverine connections brought about the drifting of species of
fish. This explains the striking similarities of fish fauna in Eastern
Sumatra with those in Western Borneo and species found in the
Philippines. Similarly, there is a close faunal and floral relationship
between Eastern Mindanao and North Borneo.
The existence of the shallow China Sea between the Asian
mainland and the Philippines, as well as the presence of a foredeep
at the eastern margin of the country, indicates that the archipelago
was once the edge of the Asian continental platform. These reasons
further support the Asiatic Theory or the Land Bridges Theory that
most scientists accept.

3. The Archipelago's Name

During the pre-Spanish era, early Chinese traders and
geographers already knew the Philippines. Sung Dynasty sources
in 982 A.D. referred the islands as Ma-yi. Chau Ju-kua, a Chinese
trade official, gave a detailed account of his travel to various parts
of the islands in 1225, which he called Ma-i.
In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan named the islands, Islas de San
Lazaro (Archipelago of St. Lazarus) when he first set foot on our
native soil. Many other names have been given to the archipelago.
The name Philippines came from the word Filipinos given by
the Spanish navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543 in honor of
Prince Philip of Asturias, who became King Philip II of Spain,
successor to King Charles I. The word Felipina was at first given by

Villalobos's men to refer to Leyte and Samar. Later, it was given to

the whole archipelago.
In 1751, Fr. Juan J. Delgado, a Jesuit historian called Manila,
Pearl of the Orient since it became a rich outlet of Asian trade even
prior to the coming of the Spaniards in the archipelago. Dr. Jose
Rizal, the country's foremost hero, gave the name Pearl of the Orient
Seas to his native land on the eve of his execution in 1896.
The name Filipinas first appeared in a rare map published in
Venice in 1554 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, an Italian geographer.
The Spanish Filipinas or Felipinas was later changed to Philippine
Islands (P.I.) during the American colonial era. It was renamed
Republic of the Philippines (R.P.) after the recognition of its
independence in 1946.
There were some Filipinos who proposed new names for the
Philippines since the name of our country was given by the
colonizers. Artemio Ricarte, a Katipunan general, wanted it to be
called the Rizaline Republic, after Jose Rizal. Former President
Ferdinand Marcos proposed the name Maharlika (also the name of
his guerrilla group in World War II), after his dream of making this
nation great again.

4. Geography and Resources

The Philippines, found in the Western Pacific Ocean, has an
astronomical location of 4023'-2125' N. Latitude and 116-127E.
Longitude. It is situated in the southeastern portion of Asia. Taiwan
bounds the country on the north, on the west by South China Sea
and Vietnam, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the
Celebes Sea and Indonesia and, on the southwest by Malaysia and
Singapore. Because of its central location in the Far East, the
Philippines has been dubbed as the "Crossroads of the Pacific."

32

The country is an archipelago of 7,107 islands and islets. It has a

total land area of 300,000 square kilometers. Manila is the capital
and largest city of the country. It is also the chief port and main
commercial center of the islands.
In 1948, Quezon City was declared as the capital of the
Philippines but on May 29,1976, President Ferdinand Marcos'
Decree No. 940 returned the national capital to Manila (a national
capital since 1595).
Luzon, the biggest of the three major geographical groups, has
an area of 141,395 square kilometers. Visayas has an area of 56,606
square kilometers; and Mindanao, with an area of 101,999 square
kilometers. The northernmost point of the country is Y'Ami Isle,
which is 78 miles from Taiwan. The southernmost point is Saluag
Isle, only 34 miles east of Borneo.
The Philippines is in the middle of two opposing tectonic plates,
making it prone to seismic activity. Between tectonic plates is a
zone known as fault. The Philippine Fault stretches from Luzon to
the tip of Mindanao. The Marikina Valley Fault System, which is
located five kilometers east of Metro Manila branched from the
Philippine Fault.
I'he Philippines h.is the longest irregular coastline in the world,
36,290 kilometers in length. This is longer than the coastline of
Great Britain and twice the coastline of the United States. The
country has 61 natural harbors (with 20 landlocked straits). Manila
Bay, the finest natural harbor in the Far East, has an area of 1,970
square kilometers.
Palawan, which forms the country's western boundary, has a
total of 1,768 islands and islets. It has marvelous subterranean
caves, unexplored dive sites, unpolluted beaches, and dense
tropical jungles. It is also a sanctuary to a variety of fauna and flora.
The country has 16 regions, which include the IIocos Region,
Cagayan
Region,
Central
Luzon,
Southern
Tagalog

(CALABARZON and MIMAROPA), Bicol Region, Western

Visayas, Central Visayas, Eastern Visayas, Western Mindanao (or
Zamboanga Peninsula), Northern Mindanao, Southern Mindanao
(or Davao Region), Central Mindanao (or SOCCSKSARGEN),
Caraga Administrative Region, Autonomous Region of Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM), Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), and
Metropolitan Manila. These regions are comprised of provinces,
which are subdivided into districts. The districts consist of
municipalities with a number of barangays. As of 2002, the number
of provinces has increased to 79, with the creation of Compostela
Valley in 2000 and Zamboanga Sibuguey in 2001.
The ARMM was created by Republic Act No. 6734 in 1989. The
region has jurisdiction over administrative organizations, family
relations, natural resources, economic, social and tourism
development. It does not have powers over certain matters,
including national defense and security, monetary and fiscal
policies, citizenship, international relations and foreign trade. The
ARMM is composed of the provinces of Maguindanao, Lanao del
Sur, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, and Basilan.
The Philippines is represented by a variety of ecosystems:
forests, ponds, grasslands, valleys, plains, rivers, and seas.
The La Mesa Nature Reserve Eco Trail, officially launched on
June 2, 2005 by the ABS-CBN Bantay Kalikasan Foundation, the
MWSS (owner of the forest reserve), and the Quezon City
government, is an eco tourism spot. The 2,700-hectare La Mesa
Watershed is now being run by the Maynilad Water Co. of the
Lopez group as part of its concession agreement with the
government. The ABS-CBN Foundation obtained a 15-year
management contract for the forest reserve five years ago to
shoulder the cost of further reforestation efforts and maintaining it
properly, along with the numerous partners, donors, and

34

volunteers. The La Mesa Watershed is the only forest reserve in

Metro Manila.
Forests on mountain slopes, characterized by a diversity of
natural vegetation, provide materials for food, medicine, and
building shelter and natural habitats tor wildlife. Some mountains
have been regarded as sites for spiritual regeneration. In the
Tagalog region, some people find Mounts Makiling and Banahaw
as mystic mountains for reflection and recreation. According to
legend, Mount Makiling in Laguna is the abode of a goddess
named Mariang Makiling who protects the forest that covers the
mountain. Mount Banahaw along the Quezon border is also
considered a powerful energy source for pilgrims, spiritualists, and
cults having a blend of both indigenous and Catholic beliefs and
rituals.
Three major mountain ranges are situated in Northern Luzon:
the Sierra Madre Range, the Cordillera Range, and the Caraballo
Range. The Sierra Madre, which is the largest and longest range in
the country, faces the Pacific Ocean on the eastern coast of Luzon. It
begins near Aparri and proceeds further through Isabela, Cagayan,
and Aurora provinces. The southern part of Sierra Madre includes
Aurora, Quezon, Bulacan, Rizal, and Laguna provinces.
The Cordillera Mountains in the western part of Northern
Luzon are parallel to the Sierra Madre Range. The Cagayan Valley
occupies the region between these two mountain ranges. The
Cordillera extends from Ilocos Norte down to the Benguet and La
Union area. In the Cordillera Range, Mount Pulag, is the second
highest peak in the country.
The most productive gold and copper mines in the country are
located within the Cordillera region. Roads along the mountain
range are known for their zigzag curves. The famous Banaue Rice
Terraces, looking like stairways to heaven, is in the Cordilleras.
There are places where the rice fields reach from an altitude of 1,500

feet to 4,500 feet. The Ifugaos have built these terraces out of the
mountain slopes using the barest of tools over hundreds of years.
Their devotion for rice has compelled them to carve these majestic
terraces on which to plant. In regions inhabited by a pure Ifugao
population, the walls of the terraces are of round hard river stones.
One of the major appeals of the terraces to local and foreign tourists
is the hiking trail in the area.
The city of Baguio amidst the mountainous region of Cordillera
is one of the most popular vacation destinations in the country.
Owing to the scenic attractions as well as cool temperature of the
place, Baguio has become the "summer capital" of the country.
The Caraballo Range, near Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya,
crosscuts the Sierra Madre at its middle section and the southern
end of the Cordilleras. To the south of Caraballo is the Central Plain
in Luzon.
On the southwestern coast of Luzon is the Zambales Mountain
Range. It extends from the shores of Western Pangasinan to parts of
Bulacan and Bataan. Luzon has a mountainous extension to the
southeast called Bicol Peninsula.
In the Visayas, tin- most prominent mountain ranges are found
across major islands The islands in the Visayas have mountainous
terrains except Samar and Bohol.
In Mindanao, there are four major mountain ranges: the Diwata
Range, the Tago-Apo Range, the Kalatungan-Kitanglad Range, and
the Daguma Range. The Diwata Range borders the Pacific coast and
west of it lies the valley of Agusan. Tago-Apo Range forms a
parallel ridge to Diwata Range. Located in the area are the
Balatukan Mountains, the volcanic peaks of Camiguin, Kinabalin,
Kumakata, and the Mount Apo in Davao del Sur, which is also the
highest mountain in the country (2,954 meters high).
The Kalatungan-Kitanglad Mountain Range, which includes
Mounts Butig, Kidongin, and Ragang, is situated in the Lanao

36

provinces. The Daguma Range extends near Sarangani Bay in the

south. Volcanoes at the boundaries of Daguma Range are Mount
Blik, south of Cotabato City, and Mount Parker, west of General
Santos City.
The country has over 50 volcanoes wherein 22 are active. The
most active among them are Iraya in Batanes, Pinatubo in
Zambales, Taal in Batangas, Banahaw in Quezon, Mayon in Albay,
Bulusan in Sorsogon, Kanlaon in Negros, Hibok-Hibok in
Camiguin, Makaturing in Lanao, and Apo in Davao del Sur.
Mt. Pinatubo, which has been dormant for 611 years started to
emit fumes on April 2,1991 after a hydrothermal explosion at the
volcano's crater took place. The most destructive series of eruptions
were on June 12-15, 1991. Its ashfalls reached as far as Metro
Manila, Mindoro, Palawan, and Cambodia to the east, worsening
damage to the ozone layer.
Several places in the provinces of Zambales, Tarlac, and
Pampanga, including Clark Air Base in Angeles City were filled
with pyroclastic flows and lahar (an Indonesian term for volcanic
mud flow). Devastation to public and private properties was
greatly unfavorable, placing these areas under a state of calamity.
The lahar deposits along Mt. Pinatubo still cascades down the
lowlands after heavy rains. These volcanic mudflows are expected
to last for years. They continue to defy the billion-peso dike built to
contain lahar flows.
Taal Volcano, a regular tourist drawer, is a volcano within a
volcano. It is rising from a lake, which is the crater of a larger
volcano, now extinct. It is a part of a chain of volcanoes along the
western side of Luzon. Subsequent eruptions between 500,000 and
100,000 years have built up the current Mount Taal, on an island
known as Volcano island in the lake. Since 1572, Mt. Taal had 33
recorded eruptions with violent ones that occurred in 1749,
1754,1911, and 1965.

Mount Mayon, world famous for its near-perfect conical shape,

had its
first recorded eruption in 1616. The name was derived from the
Bicol word magayon (meaning beautiful). It continually emits a
plume of smoke even when it is not erupting. Mt. Mayon had a
history of at least 47 eruptions. In 1814, it erupted disastrously,
destroying five towns surrounding its base. During the height of
the volcano's fury, 1,200 people who took refuge inside the church
of the town of Cagsawa (now Daraga) were killed. The ruins of the
church tower solely remain above ground after the tragedy.
Kanlaon Volcano had erupted six times in 1985 and thrice in
1986. In 1989, it had a minor eruption. Fortunately, this did not
cause any destruction.
There are some volcanoes whose hot rocks beneath are being
penetrated by groundwater. When the heated underground water
reaches the surface, hot springs are formed. These hot springs are
used as baths in the houses and resorts around Mt. Makiling and
Mt. Bulusan.
Topographic elevations less than 600 meters in altitude are
considered hills. The most popular of these in the country are the
Chocolate Hills, with more than 1,000 of them in Bohol. During the
dry months of February until May, these dome-shaped limestone
hills turn chocolate-brown as the grasses wither. Thus, the name
was given to it.
Chocolate Hills is one of the geological monuments of the
country. The other four national geological monuments are Taal
Volcano in Batangas, Montalban Caves in Rizal Province, Sand
Dunes in llocos Norte, and Hundred Islands in Pangasinan.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA), and the National
Committee on Geological Sciences (NCGS) issued the declaration of
national geological monuments to highlight the protection of

38

geological structures and features with high scientific or

aesthetic/environmental value. These geological monuments
would serve not only as travel destinations in the country but also
as laboratories for geological research.
Large rivers traverse the principal islands of the country. The
Cagayan River, with a length of 513 kilometers, is the longest river
in the country. It flows from the Caraballo Mountains near the
Nueva Vizcaya-Nueva Ecija provincial boundary and proceeds
down into the Babuyan Channel in Northern Luzon. Other
important rivers in the country include Chico, Abra, Pampanga,
Bicol, Pulangi, and Agusan.
Between Samar and Leyte is the San Juanico Strait, the
narrowest strait in the world. Lagima de Bay is the largest
freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. The deepest among the lakes of
Laguna is Lake Calibato, which is 176 meters deep. This is brought
about by low silt inflow from its small watershed area. The
downstream flow of Lake Lanao propelling hydroelectric plants
supply around three-fourths of Mindanao's power requirements.
In the middle of the tropical blue and emerald green waters of
the Sulu Sea and Palawan lies the Tubbataha Reef, just one of the
sandbars and reefs known for its rich beautiful dive sites and
marine resources. Seabirds, turtles, giant clams, and other marine
animals have been settling in the area. The reef covers an area of 12
miles within the island municipality of Cagayancillo in Palawan. In
August, 1987, the reef was declared a national marine park. It
gained greater distinction and international recognition when the
UNESCO named Tubbataha a World Heritage Site.
Boracay is the perfect island getaway. It is known for its warm
blue waters, powder-fine white sand, and a palm fringed fourkilometer beach. Located in Aklan province, Boracay is accessible
by air from Manila or Cebu.

The largest plain in the archipelago is the Central Plain in

Luzon, known as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines." The
surrounding greenery yields vegetables, tendrils, sprouts, flowers,
and fruits. Among the famous Philippine fruits are lanzones, sweet
mango, and the durian.
There are about 10,000 species of flowering plants and ferns in
the country. Among the flowers in the islands are the sampaguita,
gardenia, dama de noche, water lilies, orchids, and a lot more. Of
the 1,000 varieties of orchids that bloom in the country, the ivalingwaling (Vandasanderiana) is regarded as the "Queen of Philippine
Orchids."
Famous of the Philippine woods is narra, proclaimed as the
country's national tree in accordance with an executive
proclamation of Governor General Frank Murphy dated February
1,1934.
Referred to as the forests of the sea, mangrove swamp forests
grow in saltwater or brackish water. The mangroves are among the
significant ecosystems that characterize the coastal areas of the
archipelago. They are considered minor forest type, compared to
mixed lowland tropical rainforest ecosystem.
Economically, the mangroves are beneficial, especially to the
coastal dwellers. They provide poles for shelter, wood for cooking,
charcoal as domestic energy source and as a source of income, nipa
sap for tuba and vinegar, nipa shingles for roofing, and ground for
aquaculture. Mangrove- dependent fishery products include
shellfish, shrimps, and mangrove crabs. These mangroves likewise
help prevent erosion of riverbanks.
Sea grass communities are dynamic ecosystems where
rhizomes and roots of sea grass stabilize the near-shore bottom. Sea
grass beds filter suspended sediments from the water. The
Philippines has 16 reported species of sea grass out of 58 known
worldwide. Sea grass is the only food of the dugong or sea cow.

40

The country abounds in animal life. Of the 201 species of

mammals in the country, 179 are terrestrial and 22 are marine. The
Philippine carabao, a swamp type of domesticated water buffalo
has long been an important work animal. Other animals include
several species of deer, wild and domesticated pigs, cattle, rodents,
reptiles, birds, and mollusks.
Some unique animals in the world are also found in the
Philippines: the tamaraw or Bubalus mindoretisis of Mindoro, which
looks like a dwarf carabao; the tarsier of Bohol, the smallest
monkey in the world; and the Calamian deer or Cervus calamianensis
(pilandok) of Palawan, the world's smallest deer. Unfortunately,
some animals are near extinction (called endangered species),
which include the Philippine eagle, the tamaraw, and the tarsier. Ln
2004, the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) Appendix I released by the Protected Areas and Wildlife
Bureau (PAWB) listed 27 species of flora and fauna in the country.
There are about 25,000 species of insects in the islands. The
largest insect in the country is the giant moth (Attacus atlas), with a
wingspan of one foot. The largest and smallest bats in the world are
found in the country. The lesser flat headed bats or the lesser
bamboo bats weigh around 2 grams. The golden-crowned flying
fox weighs about 1.5 kilograms. It has a wingspan of 1.7 meters.
These two species of bats are found in Olongapo City, Zambales at
the Subic Bay Forest Reserve (SBFR).
The world's second largest after the Harpy eagle found in the
Amazon forests is the Philippine eagle (Pithecopaga jefferyi), found
in the jungles of Luzon and Mindanao. It has earned the title of
"King of Philippine Birds." It measures five and a half feet in height
and a wingspan of seven feet. It was previously called the monkeyeating eagle. In the 1970s, its name was changed since it was found
out that it only ate monkeys occasionally. Its main food consists of
flying lemurs, lizards, and snakes. In 1996, the Philippine eagle was

officially named the national bird of the country by virtue of a

presidential proclamation.
Other interesting birds in the country are the kalaw, which the
Spanish colonizers dubbed as "clock of the mountains," the katala
(Philippine Cockatoo), which mumbles and croons like a man, and
the tiny Philippine falconet, only six and a half centimeters long.
Also found in the Philippines is the world's rarest shell, called
Glory of the Sea (Connus gloriamaris) and the Tridacna gigas, which is
the world's largest shell and has a length of one meter and weighs
600 pounds. The smallest shell in the world, the Pisidum, is also
found in our country. It is less than one millimeter in length.
In 1995, R. M. de la Paz and E. D. Gomez recorded a total of
2,140 species of Philippine fishes. Among the commercially known
fish found in numerous fishing grounds are the bangus (milkfish),
dalag (mudfish), dilis (anchovy), lapulapu (seabass), galunggong
(round scad), tanguingi (mackerel), tamban (Indian sardines), and
bariles (tuna).
Some of the endemic freshwater species are considered
endangered.
rhese include the Harengula tawilis, locally known as taivilis;
Mestichthys luzonensis, or simrapan; and pandaka pygmaea, the
pygmy goby.
Tawilis, a freshwater species of sardines, are found in Lake Taal,
Batangas. Sinarapan, the smallest commercial fish, can only be
found in Lake Buhi and Lake Bato, Camarines Sur. It measures
between 1 and 1.4 centimeters. The dwarf-pygmy goby or locally
known as tabios, the world's smallest vertebrate, which ranges from
7.5 to 11 millimeters, is said to be dwelling in the Navotas and
Malabon Rivers. It is strongly believed that the tabios is already
extinct due to water pollution.
The world's largest fish is also found in the country. This is the
whale shark, which is 50 feet or more in length. It was first sighted

42

off the coast of Mariveles, Manila Bay, in 1816 by Filipino

fishermen, who called it pating bulik (striped shark).
The Philippine archipelago has rich deposits of gold, copper,
iron, lead, manganese, nickel, chromite, silver and other metals.
Non-metallic minerals include coal, salt, asphalt, asbestos, clay,
marble, and limestone.
Gold mining is an ancient industry in the country. Before the
coming of the Spanish conquerors, the Filipinos were already
mining gold in Paracale, Camarines Norte, in the mountains of
Northern Luzon and the islands of Masbate and Mindanao.
Mount Diwalwal located at Compostela Valley province has
been the site of gold rush since 1983. The Bureau of Mines officially
attributes the discovery of gold in the vicinity to the members of the
Mandaya tribe. Gold nuggets were found, and those who have
entered and engaged in small-scale mining were able to gain a lot
from this business venture.
Since pre-colonial times, the Igorots have been mining copper
in the mountains of Northern Luzon. Mankayan, the oldest and
largest copper mine in the country still exists. Other copper
deposits are found in the islands of Negros and Rapu-Rapu (part of
Albay) and the province of Zambales. Iron deposits are found in
Larap, Camarines Norte; San Miguel, Bulacan; Marinduque; and
Samar. The greatest iron-bearing area in the country is Surigao. The
world's largest deposit of nickel has been discovered in Nonoc Isle,
off the coast of Northern Mindanao. Vast marble deposits are found
in Mindoro, Romblon, Palawan, Cebu, and Bicol while deposits of
coal are in Cebu, Sorsogon, Masbate, and Sibuguey Peninsula.
Potential oil and natural gas reserves are to be tapped in the
disputed Spratly Islands located in the South China Sea. It is an
archipelago of more than 100 islets, reefs and atolls, with a total
landmass of less than 5 sq km. The Philippines is one of the
claimants of these islands, along with China, Taiwan, Vietnam,

Brunei, and Malaysia. The dramatic increase of Philippine crude oil

production was primarily due to the development of deep-sea oil
deposits beneath the natural gas-bearing structures in the
Malampaya field.
5.

Country's Climate

The Philippines, situated at the Torrid Zone, has a tropical

climate with a mean annual temperature of about 27'C (about 80F).
Mountain slopes and peaks found in the archipelago are cooler. The
country has two seasons, dry and wet. In most of the islands, rainy
season occurs from May to November. During this period, the wind
blows from the southwest. Often, the country experiences typhoons
from the months of June to October. The dry season occurs from
December to April, when the wind blows from the northeast.
When typhoon signal no. 2 is hoisted, classes at the pre-school,
elementary, and secondary levels in all public and private schools
are automatically suspended. In 2007, the National Disaster
Coordinating Council (NDCC) issued a memorandum stating that
information from the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and
Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) could be used as
basis to recommend decisions to the Department of Education
(DepEd) and Commission on Higher Education (CHED) concerning
suspension of classes.
6.

The Filipino People

In 2002, Philippine population is estimated at 78 million. The

country is inhabited by different ethnic groups. The Filipino people
is a harmonious mixture of diversity and homogeneity. Despite of
diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds, forces of assimilation have
constantly worked to overcome the differences.

44

Within the blood veins of the Filipinos are the blends of their
forefathers from Malay, Chinese, Negrito, Indian, European, and
American lineage. The intermarriage of a Filipino and a foreigner
did happen, owing to the strategic location of the country to
Southeast Asian neighbors and the colonial rule of Spain and
America. The intermingling of people resulting to adaptation of
different cultures made the country a melting pot of people and
culture.
Since the 19,h century, Filipinos have been referred to as the
Christianized Malays who constitute the bulk of the population.
They are the descendants of those who were colonized by Western
settlers. Numerically greater in number are the Visayans (primarily
in the central portion of the archipelago) and the Tagalogs.
The Cebuanos, Ilonggos, and Waray-Waray comprise a big
number among the Visayans. In the Visayas, the Ilonggos live in
Western Negros, in Southern Mindoro, and in Panay Island while
the Cebuanos predominate in Cebu, Western Leyte, Bohol, Eastern
Negros, and in some coastal areas of Mindanao. The Waray-Warays
are in the provinces of Samar and Eastern Leyte.
Most of the Tagalogs live in Manila, in Central Luzon, and
Southern Luzon. People coming from certain provinces in the
Tagalog region like Batangas, Bulacan, and Quezon have
intonations of their own.
Phe Ilocanos are considered the third biggest group. They live
particularly in llocos Norte, llocos Sur, and La Union but many
have migrated locally and abroad.
Other members of the populace include the Pangasinenses,
Pampanguenos, Zambals, Ibanags (Cagayanos), and Bicolanos. The
Pangasinenses live in the Lingayen Gulf region of Pangasinan,
including the province of Pangasinan. Many of them have already
migrated in other provinces of Central Luzon. The Pampanguenos

or Kapampangans live in Central Luzon, particularly in the

province of Pampanga.
The non-Malay groups include people of Spanish and Chinese
descent. Today, the country has a growing number of FilipinoChinese who are engaged in various commercial activities. They are
part of the economically and politically important minority.
Nature and ancestral beliefs have helped shape the lifestyle of
the tribal communities. The indigenous groups in various parts of
the archipelago have kept their own cultural tradition distinct
through the generations. Most of them maintain indigenous belief
system based on animism (worship of nature deities and spirits).
Included here are the various mountain people of Cordillera, which
consist of the Isnegs of Apayao; Kalingas of Kalinga; Ifugaos,
Igorots, Ibalois, Kankanays, and Bontoks of Benguet and Mountain
Province. The culture of the people in this region is quite different
from that of the lowland communities. Although a number of the
populace are Christians, still many of them are pagans.
The Kalingas tattoo their bodies as a sign of bravery. For them,
prestige can be achieved through oratorical ability. The Isnegs, like
the Kalingas, tattoo their bodies as a status symbol.
The Ifugaos have a high regard for the family's honor and
dignity. They are forbidden to induce hostility, cause bloodshed or
practice adultery. Hagabi, a chair sculpted from a large mass of
wood, plays an important part in the lives of the Ifugaos. This
indicates the high position of the owner in the community.
The principal agricultural work of the Ifugaos is rice culture.
They also grow camote on hillsides where the soil need not be
fertile. Rice, on the other hand, requires irrigation and constant
care.
The Igorots live on rootcrops grown in their yard and on wild
pigs, deer, and fowl in the forest. The Igorots of the past engage in

46

headhunting to avenge the death of a kin or tribesman. This custom

is least practiced nowadays.
The Bontoks basically do hunting and agriculture for a living.
They perform rituals like bagbato to ensure a bountiful harvest and
the ulog, where the unmarried woman stays in a place called ulog to
receive male visitors and suitors.
The Ibalois and the Kank.mays of benguet and Southern
Mountain Province are considered the most sophisticated mountain
region people because they are the most exposed to lowland life.
Although the people of Cordillera dwell in the highlands, they
no longer live in isolation. The influences of modern civilization
have ushered in new changes in their communities through the
years. Modern types of buildings are also found elsewhere in the
region. The young generations that have gone to schools in the
Christian lowlands have almost adopted the way of life of the
lowland communities.
Other indigenous groups are the Gaddangs of Isabela, the
Negritos or Aetas of Zambales and the hinterlands; the Mangyans
of Mindoro; the Tagbanuas, Batak, Tao't Bato, Molbogs and Jama
Mapuns of Palawan; Mamanwa (a Negrito group) of Surigao del
Norte; the Kalibugans, Subanuns, and Samals of Zamboanga del
Sur; the Manobos, Tirurays, Iranuns, and T'bolis of Maguindanao,
Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat; Mandayas of Davao Oriental;
Bagobos and BTaans of Davao del Sur; Yakans of Basilan; the
Tausugs of the Sulu Archipelago; the Badjaos of the Sulu Sea; and
the Muslim groups of Mindanao.
The Mangyans belong to such tribes like the Alangan, Bangon,
Tau- Buid, Hanunuo, Tadyawan, Iraya, and Ratagnon. Each of these
tribes has its own language and customs. The Hanunuo (real
Mangyan) are found within the municipalities of Mansalay,
Bulalacao and some parts of Bongabong in Oriental Mindoro.
Christian lowlanders surround them on the east.

Various Mangyan groups have always been threatened by

inclement weather, limited food supplies and difficulties in farming
the rugged land. The economic activities of the Mangyan centered
on swidden farming however they also engage in hunting and
fishing. They believe in spiritual beings that can influence their
harvest. The Hanunuo Mangyans believe in a Supreme Being Mahal
na Makaako, the giver of life.
Peace and order in the Mangyan tribes are attributed mainly to
the people's being good-natured. When conflicts happen, this is
settled among the members of the community by the elder. Offering
a good meal may be enough to resolve minor disputes. In cases of
theft and adultery, the possible offenders may be subjected to trial
by ordeal.
The Yakans in Basilan traditionally wear colorful hand woven
clothes. Men and women wear narrow cut pants. The women wear
tight fitting short blouses partly covered with a wrap-around
material while the man wraps a sash-like cloth around the waist.
Nowadays, most Yakans wear western clothes and use their
traditional clothes for festivals.
The Maguindanaos constitute the largest Muslim group in the
country. The Maranaos meaning "people of the lake," live
principally near Lake Lanao. The Samals are in the Sulu
Archipelago. Traditionally, the Muslims built houses raised high on
poles above water. I hey used sailboats called vintaa, Though
majority of Muslim Filipinos live in Southern Philippines, there are
a number of Muslim communities in other areas of the country.
Leaders of tribal communities are chosen for their skills and
their ability to evoke support from the communal group. Remnants
of animism linger among some ethnic minorities in the north and
south. They believe in the existence of several unseen beings
bestowing blessings when honored and inflicting pain when
displeased.

48

The indigenous people have adapted to various ecological

zones ranging from coastal to rugged mountain highlands. They
prefer permanent settlements, except for Aetas who are highly
nomadic. Badjaos live in houseboats, while others live in pile
dwellings.
The Aetas have already established their intimate relationship
with the woodlands as forest foragers and hunters. The Pinatubo
Aetas continuously resist acculturation process. They assimilate
only the cultural elements compatible with their needs like some
techniques and rituals in agriculture, concepts of spirits, curing,
and burial rituals.
On the other hand, migration by Visayan settlers in Mindanao
during the American period eventually altered the population
profile in the region. Increased immigration from the north drove
more cultural communities in the hinterlands. Ilocanos, Tagalogs,
and Visayans settled in some provinces of Mindanao like Davao
Oriental and Davao del Sur.
In response to the call of preserving indigenous culture in the
country, some ethnic tribes specifically the Ifugaos initiated moves
adapting ancient practices with Christian religion, which scholars
refer to as inculturation.
High literacy in the country may be attributed to Filipinos' love
for education. Viewed as a key to progress, education is believed to
improve one's means of livelihood and status. Elementary
education in the Philippines is free and compulsory for children
ages 6 to 12. Filipino and English are the primary languages of
instruction.
Most Filipinos love the theater and the arts. Cultural activities
include dramatic presentations and readings, concerts, dancing, art
exhibits, and contests. Most of these are presented in school and
community theater stages and auditoriums like the Cultural Center
of the Philippines. There are some local playhouses like the open-

air theater at Fort Santiago. There are a number of art galleries in

Ermita and in Malate.
Filipino (formerly spelled Pilipino) is the national language of
the people although a good number of them are conversant in
English. The English language is commonly used for governmental,
commercial, and instructional purposes.
Some Filipinos are trilingual, speaking in Filipino, English, and
an indigenous language. Filipinos speak different regional
languages and dialects since the country has over HO local dialects,
Fhe widely spoken dialects are Tagalog, Cebuano, llocano,
Hlligaynon (also known as llonggo), Bicol, Waray, Pampango,
Pangasinense, and Maranao. Intermarriages, internal migration,
and language education have helped to reduce language barriers.
In everyday communication, the Filipinos combine English and
I ilipino resulting to a lingo called Taglish (from Tagalog and
English). For instance, one could hear one say, "Happy ako for you.
Sana you won't forget us," (I'm happy for you. Hope you won't
forget us) or "Okey tia ang lahat, thank you sa iyo!" (Everything's
okay, thanks to you!).
Age is highly valued in Philippine culture. The word po, or its
variation ho is employed in conversation to show respect. The close
approximation of its English translation is Sir or Madam. Adult
male and female who are unfamiliar to the speaker are greeted as
mama and ale.
Siblings in the family are addressed according to their position
within the family hierarchy like kuya or manong for the oldest
brother and ate or manang for the oldest sister; diko and ditse for the
second brother and sister; and sangko and sanse, for the third oldest
brother and sister.
Traditionally, Filipinos have close family ties. Apart from their
blood relatives, Christian Filipinos adopt new kins (kumpadre and
kumare) through having sponsors (ninong and ninang) during

50

baptisms and weddings. They also extend help in the spirit of

bayanihan (cooperation). Family relationships usually extend to
third cousins. The social support provided by these kinship circles
is reflected in the absence of regular retirement homes.
-Filipinos are known for their hospitality. They receive their
visitors with warmth and friendship. They are also thankful to
those who have been good to them, manifesting the Filipino value
of utang na loob or one's debt of gratitude to those who have
contributed to their success. This often creates a long-term
relationship of giving and receiving between individuals or
families. The social values of loyalty, support, and trust are deeply
embedded among Filipino communities.
On some formal gatherings, Filipino men wear the barong
tagalog, which is an embroidered shirt made of either pineapple
fiber, cotton, or raw silk while women wear Filipiniana dress,
usually with long puff-sleeves. Filipinos wear Western clothing on
casual and semi-formal occasions.
The Filipina women have more rights being exercised in her
country than most of her counterparts in Asia. Because a woman's
lineage is equally valued, her rights to property and inheritance are
recognized. Filipina women are strongly represented in politics,
business, and in various fields. At home, the mothers usually
manage the family household and are the primary caretakers of the
children.

For centuries, the Filipinos kept faith in tinAlmighty God. Throughout the good and bad times, they
can easily assimilate, bend but never break like the
strength of the narra and the resilience of the bamboo.

7. Theories on the Origin of Filipinos

Long before the Spanish colonizers came into the
Philippines, people with distinct cultures had already
inhabited the islands. The Migration Theory of H. Otley
Beyer, regarding the peopling of the archipelago became
the most widely known version in Philippine prehistory.
According to Dr. Beyer, the ancestors of the Filipinos came
in waves of migration.
First to reach the archipelago was the caveman "Dawn
Man" type, who was similar to the Java Man and other
Asian Homo sapiens of 250,000 years ago. Dr. Beyer called
the first Filipino the "Dawn Man," for he emerged on the
islands at the dawn of time.
Next to settle in the islands were the aboriginal pygmy
group or the Negritos. They were said to have reached the
islands before the land bridges from Malay Peninsula,
Borneo, and Australia disappeared. They came between
25,000 and 30,000 years ago. They were described to have
black skin, darky kinky hair, round black eyes, flat noses,
and with a usual height of 5 feet.
Third to arrive were the seafaring and tool-using
Indonesian group who came about 5,000 to 6,000'years
ago. They came in two waves of migration, with type A,
arriving about 3,000 to 4,000 B.C. and type B, about 1,500
to 500 B.C. Indonesian A was tall, slender with light
complexion, and thin lips. Indonesian B was shorter, with

52

bulky body, dark complexion, and thick lips. They were

able to displace the Negritos to the mountains with their
more advanced culture.
The last to reach the archipelago were the seafaring
Malays who introduced the Iron Age culture. They moved
into the islands from 300 B.C. to the 14th and 15th centuries
A.D.
Beyer's migration theory became popular and
unquestioned for quite a number of years. Presently, the
so-called waves of migration is now being dismissed
because there is no definite evidence, whether
archaeological or historical, to support it. No evidence of
any "Dawn Man" type (250,000 years ago) or hominid
species have been found in the country. So far, the oldest
human relic discovered is only about 22,000 BP.
In reality, Southeast Asian people shared many
customs and traditions without any ethnic group racially
or culturally dominant. It was the Western colonizers who
divided the Asian inhabitants into ethnic groups.
***
In place of the waves of migration theory, modern
scholars suggest the so-called core population theory.
According to this theory, the inhabitants of the Philippines
consist of a core population to which came accretions of
people who moved in from the region. The movements of
people were erratic rather than in sequential waves.
The Southeast Asian people who reached the
Philippines during prehistoric times became the core
population. Each group, the Indonesians, Malays, and

others, stood as equal, without any of them racially or

culturally dominant.
***
Study Guides
Terms/Concepts to Understand Uniformitarian theory of geology
Magmatic theory World heritage site Continental drift theory
Asiatic theory Torrid Zone

This core population shared common cultural traits or base culture.

1'hey used similarly fashioned tools, pottery, and ornaments; and
upheld common beliefs and rituals. If there were some differences,
these may be due to some factors like adaptation to the
environment. Furthermore, the immigrants did not come into the
archipelago in a fixed period of time nor with a definite destination.
Inculturation
Questions to Answer
1.
What do creation stories tell about the early Filipinos?
2.
How does the country's geography affect the Filipino people?
3.
Identify and describe the culture of the indigenous people of
the Philippines.
4.
Why do modem day scholars oppose Beyer's waves of
migration
theory?

54

Chapter III
1. Cultural Evolution of the Early Filipinos
Through archaeological records and extensive researches, the
peopling of the Philippine archipelago could somehow be
theorized. Historians believed that during the Pleistocene epoch,
the first settlers of the Philippines came from the present-day
islands of the Malay Archipelago when sea levels were lower,
creating land bridges connecting to the Southeast Asian mainland.
These Paleolithic hunters may have followed herds of wild animals
across these land bridges to the Philippine Islands. Some of these
early migrations were made by the ancestors of the present-day
people of the Aeta and Agta tribes. These people continue to be
primarily hunters and food gatherers. Eventually they explored the
new land even more and sojourned in the islands after the land
bridges had disappeared with the rise of sea level brought by
deglaciation period. The Spanish colonizers of the 16th century
called them Negritos.
Some western historians assume that the aborigines of the
Philippines were the Australo-Melanesian people who are
distinctively small with dark skin and curly brown hair. They were
the ancestors of the people known today as Negritos or Aetas.
- The Mainland Origin Hypothesis by Peter Bellwood of the
Australian National University and K.C. Chang of Harvard
University maintains that the early inhabitants originated from
South China and Taiwan. From there they spread southward and
westward reaching Northern Philippines by about 5,000 B.C. to

4,000 B.C. and to Eastern Indonesia 4,500 years ago. They gradually
replaced the hunting and gathering populations.
The other hypothesis, the Island Origin Hypothesis, believes that
the prehistoric people originated and dispersed from an island in
Southeast Asia. Wilhelm Solheim II of the University of Hawaii has
been the leading proponent of this idea. He assumes that ProtoAustronesian developed primarily in Northeastern Indonesia and
Mindanao Island, expanding northwards with a developing
maritime population through the Philippine Archipelago and into
Taiwan. From there they reached South China.
Solheim II believes that it was the Nusantao (the maritimeoriented prehistoric people) who developed Proto-Austronesian as
a trade language along the coasts of Northern Luzon, Southern
Taiwan, and South China, between 4,500 and 5,000 B.C.
Pre-Colonial Philippines
Historians presuppose that between 30() and 2(X) B.C., inhabitants
of Malay-Polynesian descent settled in the Philippine archipelago.
They were mainly the agricultural and fishing people, others
wandered from place to place. There were 30 to 100 families in a
society known as barangay.
Tool assemblages, clothing, pottery, jewelry, and the like are
technological artifacts. These man-made objects illustrate the ability
of man to respond to the conditions of the environment. The
inhabitants of the islands had to adapt to their surroundings for
subsistence. Such technology that has been developed became a
part of civilization. Skills were handed down from generation to
generation. Whatever has been learned in the process is cultural in
nature. Of course, people are not born with culture. Through

56

practice, word of mouth, written text and rituals, culture is learned.

A country's past history unveils its cultural tradition.
Culture may be associated with manufactured materials, for
these are products of human behavior. Certainly, the structuring of
the early Filipino society has been achieved in response to the needs
of prehistoric Philippine communities.
Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Period (50,000-10,000 B.C.) is the era
of crude stone tools and weapons. In the Philippines, it was
believed to have started in Cagayan Valley. This can be inferred
from the archaeological materials unearthed in the area, bearing
imprints of human use. These traces show the emergence of people
that once wandered in the valley.
The study of tool assemblages indicates the dominance of flake
tools over large cobble tools. However, no fossil evidence of human
beings was found in the vicinity. Perhaps, they had migrated to
some other places, inasmuch as several wild animals were roving
along the area.
Man had no other tools than sharp edged stones that could be
held by the hand. Many kinds of stones, which naturally produce
sharp edges when broken or chipped (e.g. flint and chert), were
commonly used. Such implements are called core tools if the
remaining core itself is used as the tool. Pebble tools are those
rounded stones like those found in the riverbeds. They are called
cobble tools if these rounded stones are larger. Flake tools are
skillfully edged and shaped.
At the onset, man's principal way of adaptation to the
environment was by hunting. These stone tools could be used for
smashing the bones of animals and shellfish that they have
gathered. These implements may also be used in cutting, splitting,
stripping, and piercing wooden branches, palm leaves, and
bamboo. Tree barks were used for clothing.

Certainly, with the abundance of fish in rivers and seas,

methods of preparing food were conceived. Archaeological
evidence shows kinilaw to be the earliest method of preparing fish
for consumption where vinegar or lime juice enhances the taste of
the fish. In Mindanao, the juice of the tabon-tabon (Hydrophytune
orbiculatum), a green fruit, is added to remove the fishy smell. In
Leyte and Cebu, they use coconut milk.
The selection of the labon Cave Complex in Lipuun Point,
Quezon, Palawan, some 30,000 years ago is an example of
prehistoric planning for adaptation. The main chamber entrance is
about 41 meters long. Sunlight enters into the interior area, making
it habitable and warm.
Upon its discovery in 1962, the present surface of the Tabon
Cave was noted to have been a habitat of the Tabon bird (also
known as the Philippine mound builder). The cave must have
gotten its name from this wild fowl.
New types of stone tools appeared in various parts of the
Philippines, more polished and highly specialized, primarily blade
and ax- and adzlike forms for forest clearing and boat making. The
smooth surface of this type of stone tools was made possible by
rubbing against another stone. This development resulted to the socalled New Stone Age or Neolithic Period (10,000-500 B.C.) otherwise
known as Agricultural Revolution by anthropologists. Root crops like
taro (gabi) and yam (ubi) were among the important crops. This
period also indicates that upland rice farming has been developed,
although this practice did not appear at the same time in every
area.
By striking the stones, sparks have been produced, which
resulted to the making of fire at will by the ancient settlers. Light
and heat became available any time of the day. The production of
baked clay pots in the New Stone Age implies that fire had been
fully utilized. The manufacture of pottery was made possible by a

58

process called kilning, which makes use of fire. Fire eventually

changed the lifestyle of the people, particularly in the preparation
of their meals. Thus, the inhabitants could already grill or boil their
food. The slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by the early settlers
also caused them to search for new land.
Jars as burial coffins for secondary burial were also made.
Bones of the departed were enclosed in these vessels after being
buried underground for a period of time. Closely related with
burial practices were bone washing and bone painting or dipping
with materials like sappan wood or red dye wood (Caesalpinia
sappan) and hematite (iron ore) for protection from decay.
In El Nido Cave, Palawan, painted bones were placed in small
niches inside the cave. In some areas of the archipelago, corpses
were interred directly into the ground in reclining or bent positions.
In all kinds of burial, funerary offerings or pabaon were
included such as clothes, food, and weapons. Many indigenous
groups in the interior mountains and coastal areas still practice this
tradition in the belief that the dead will use these materials when he
sojourns towards the "soul world." Others cover the faces of the
dead with thin sheaths of gold to prevent bad spirits from entering
the body.
The Manunggul jar (now at the National Museum), an example
of funerary vessel dating between 890 B.C. and 710 B.C., is now
considered a National Cultural Treasure of the Philippines. I'he
upper portion of the jar has curvilinear incised st roll designs,
painted with red hematitite (iron oxide). On the lid cover is a form
of a boat with two human figures. The figure at the back is a
boatman steering the "ship of the dead." The figure in front is the
passenger whose arms crossed over his chest represent the soul of
the deceased whose bones were placed in the jar.
Philippine pottery shows a variety of shapes and decorative
techniques, such as Incision, stippling, applique, and impression by

rope and mat. Their designs were usually geometric. Subsequently,

pottery became more functional like the palayok for cooking, the
banga and tapayan for storing liquids. In Ilocos, the making of
burnay pottery lives on.
The Early Metal Age (500 B.C.) refers to the time in the
development of human culture where tools and weapons were
made of metal, which gradually replaced stone tools. The metal
implements at this stage were crudely fashioned.
The first metal to be widely used was copper. Raw copper was
then pounded into ornaments and to some extent into tools. Bronze,
made of imported tin and other metals like copper, emerged
simultaneously with copper as a result of interisland movements of
people. Although bronze had entered the Philippines, it did not
constitute a major technological phase in the development of Metal
Age in the country because of the preference of early inhabitants to
iron ore in tool making (200 B.C.).
Jewelry during the early phase of the Metal Age consists mainly
of beads. There were beads made of jade, stones, glass, shells, seeds,
twigs and stems, especially reeds of plants created into necklaces
and other ornaments. Only the beads made of semiprecious stones
endured decay in the graveyards and habitation sites.
Jewelry as an ancient art began as amulets and charms to ward
off bad spirits or to give supernatural powers to the wearer. In
particular tribes like the T'boli, they wore body ornaments to please
the gods and to signify the status of the wearer. It was only later
when personal adornments became purely decorative.
Ornaments of different kinds and designs (ranging from
earrings to necklaces and bracelets) were buried with basic metal
tools in various sites throughout the archipelago. There were
personal adornments made of materials like nephrite and carnelian
beads, which were available only through trade. This indicates that
the economic resources of the community had fairly advanced.

60

Jewelry at this period indicates the emergence of some kind of

social stratification.
The appearance and utilization of improved iron tools as the
major technological device for exploiting the environment
constitute the Developed Iron Age. As the use of iron became
widespread, community specialization emerged as shown by the
advances in tin-smithing, jewelry making, and in the utilization of
resources.
Iron tools were recovered in Luzon (particularly in Bulacan,
Batangas, and Rizal areas). Tool specimens were also dug up in
Palawan and Masbate. The early Filipinos made metal implements
like knives (from simple to elaborate ones), the sumpak (blowguns),
the kalikot for pounding betel nuts into powder, and gongs to mark
the hours of the day and night.
Scholars contend that during this age important industries were
metalworking, pottery making, glassmaking, and tie-and-dye
weaving. Cloth weaving replaced the bark cloth beaters for
fashioning dress and other apparel. It is believed that the backloom
similar to that of the Ifugaos, Bontoks, and other Mindanao groups
was utilized. Fabrics and blankets were not only used for everyday
living but also for important rituals.
About the turn of the Millennium A.D., some families from
surrounding island kingdoms set sail in boats and established their
communities along riverbanks or on deltas. Filipino contacts with
other countries became intensified. The development of a relatively
efficient maritime transportation became the major impetus for
inter-island contacts and commerce especially with Asians. This
phase of Filipino prehistory is known to the anthropologists as the
Age of Contact (500-1400 A.D.), which is the period of trading
relations with neighboring islands, mostly by Asian traders.
Community life throughout the archipelago was dominantly
founded on trade and by increasing specialization in craftsmanship.

The common sharing of cultural orientation like religion and

writing was facilitated by intensive internal trade, principally
between riverine and coastal communities. The people of Southeast
Asia became highly nomadic because of water transportation.
For the natives to succeed in engaging maritime trade with their
Asian neighbors, they had to improve their seamanship and boatbuilding skill. These early wooden watercrafts in the country were
called balangay. The balangay was basically a plank boat. It was
driven either by a sail or by paddling.
The discovery of balangay boats in Butuan, Agusan del Norte in
the late 1970s served as pieces of evidence to further prove the
technical know- how of the early Filipinos. The first boat, now
preserved and displayed in a site museum in Libertad, Butuan City
had a carbon-date of 320. While the second boat, which was dated
1250 A.D., has been transferred to the National Museum in Manila.
Malay was the principal language of Southeast Asian commerce
during those times. It is not surprising that a number of Malay loan
words to Philippine languages pertain to commerce. These include
talaro (scales), upa (payment), lako (peddle), gusali (hall), tunay
(real) means "hard cash," and biyaya (grace) means "disbursement."
Still other words illustrate the impact of commerce on culture like
atsara (pickles), patis (brine), puto (native cake), kcilan (stove),
pinggan (plate), aral (learning), and pagsamba (adoration).
At the height of the Sri Vijaya power (which originated in
Palembang, Sumatra in the 7th century) around 1000 A.D., the Sri
Vijayan merchants conducted extensive trade with China and India.
In the 12th century, the Sumatra-based kingdom of Sri Vijaya had
also expanded its influence in the Philippine archipelago.
According to Sulu tradition, between 900 and 1200 A.D.,
immigrants from Champa, an Indianized kingdom in Indochina,
established a trading colony with the Buranuns of Sulu. The men of
Champa were called Orang Dampuans, who were then vassals of

62

the Sri Vijaya Empire. The Orang Dampuans settled in Taguima

(now Basilan). They became the ancestors of the Yakans.
Years later, immigrants from Bandjarmasin, Borneo (another Sri
Vijaya dependency) settled in Sulu. They were the Orang Bandjar
(Men of Bandjarmasin). They engaged actively in the rich pearl
trade. To establish goodwill with the Buranuns, they brought with
them a beautiful princess and offered her as bride to the native
ruler. This state marriage resulted to deeper relations between Sulu
and Borneo. Like the Dampuans, the Orang Bandjar introduced
Indian culture in Sulu.
Centuries of direct contact-with these Indianized traders left
vivid traces on Filipino history and culture. The Indian influences
were clearly noticeable in the religious beliefs, language, literature,
and customs of the ancient Filipinos. Bathala, the name of the chief
god of the pre-Christian Tagalogs, came from a Sanskrit term
Bhattara, meaning "Great Lord."
Also of Hindu origin was the belief of the early natives that the
universe is filled with good and bad spirits. They offered religious
sacrifices and prayers to these spirits for help and protection.
Many Filipino fables werelinked to Indian literature. Included
here are the story of the monkey and the turtle, the tale of the race
between the deer and the snail, and the Visayan anecdote of the
hawk and the hen. Filipino folk literature was also to some extent,
influenced by Indian literature. Popular epics, including Darangan
of Lanao, Lam-ang of llokandia, Ibalon of Bicolandia, and the Alim
and the Hudhud of the Mountain Province, were inspired by the
Mahabharata (Sanskrit, "Great Story") and Ramayana (Sanskrit,
"Story of Rama"), which likely begun in the 3rd century B.C. These
epics were ritually recited.
The early Filipinos had already developed a system of syllabic
writing, with each symbol representing a syllable. The Tagalog
script was called baybayin, sometimes erroneously called alibata. It

consisted of three vowels and 14 consonants, with a total of 17

letters. The writing system was horizontal, from left to right. The
writing instrument used was a sharp pointed iron locally known as
sipol. With this iron instrument, the natives engraved words on
bamboo shafts, wooden boards, leaves of plants, pottery, .ind
metal. Remaining pieces of evidence of pre-colonial writing are so
rare. Only three had been previously found: the 14^-15th century
Butuan silver strip, the 10th century Butuan ivory seal, and the 15th
century Calatagan jar.
The first artifact of pre-Hispanic origin that had writing on
copper material dates back to 900 A.D. The script inscribed on it
was written in Kavi (Old Javanese writing system), which does not
look similar to the ancient baybayin. The text was in a language
similar to four languages, namely: Sanskrit, Old Tagalog, Old
Javanese, and Old Malay. The copper object is now called Laguna
Copperplate Inscription (LCI). It was found near the mouth of the
Lumbang River of Laguna province in 1990. The thin copper plate
measures 20 by 30 centimeters in size.
Antoon Postma, a Dutch national who has lived with the
Mangyans for a long time and the director of the Mangyan
Assistance and Research Center in Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro,
was able to unlock the message on the copper material.
The LCI is an official record imprinted in the Saka year 822 in
the months of March-April on the 4th day of the dark half of the
moon on a Monday. This document was issued to Lady Angkatan
together with her relative Bukah (child of His Honor Namwran)
clearing Namwran, his family, and all their descendants of a debt
equivalent to one kati and eight suwarnas of gold from the Chief of
Dewata (Diwata, a town near Butuan). The pardon was issued by
the chief of Tundun (Tundo), represented by the leader of Pailah
Jayadewa.

64

Others who witnessed the document include the leader of

Puliran (Pulilan); Ganasakti, representing the leader of Paila
(Norzagaray); Bisruta, representing the leader of Binwangan
(Obando); and the Chief of Medang.
The settlements during the LCI era flourished for some
centuries but things like natural catastrophes, epidemics, and
emigration made them disappear. The Dutch expert who looked
into the LCI's authenticity concluded that the specific script style
used in the copper material was consistent with its indicated date
and that the correctness of the languages and words used would
have been very hard for forgers to produce.
Both oral and written literature had already flourished in the
country prior to the coming of the Spaniards. This consists of
bugtong (riddles), awit (songs), salawikain (proverbs), legends,
myths, and poems. Some of the folk epics of the early times include:
in Ilocano, the Lam-ang; in Ifugao, the Alim and Hudhud; in Kalinga,
the Ulalim; in Bicol, the Handiong; in Maranao, the Bantugan; and in
Maguindanao, the Indarapatra and Sulayman. The customs

and traditions of the early Filipinos bear Hindu influence. Among

them were as follows: the placing of a fresh flower garland around
the neck of a visitor; the giving of bigaykaya (dowry) and rendering
of personal services in the house of the bride's parents by the groom
before the wedding; the throwing of rice grains to the newlyweds
after the matrimonial ceremony by the guests; and the offering of
buyo (mixture of betel nut, ikmo leaf, and lime) to a guest as an
expression of hospitality.
There were early superstitions in the country that came from
Indianized migrants. Until today, many believed that a girl, who
sings in front of the stove while cooking will marry a widower and
that a cat cleaning its face indicates the coming of a visitor.
Likewise, eating twin bananas would cause a mother to give birth
to twins.
The mode of dressing in pre-Spanish Philippines shows Indian
influences. The putong (turban) of the early Filipino men and the
sarong (lower garment) of the early Filipino women resemble the
Indian putees and sari.
The archaeological relics excavated in the Philippines further
indicate Indian influences. Some of these are the following: the gold
image ofAgusan, which was excavated on the left bank of Wawa
River near the town of Esperanza, Agusan Province in 1917 (now
preserved at the Gem Room of the Chicago Museum of Natural
History); the copper image of Ganesha, elephant god of the Hindus,
which was also found in Mactan in 1843; and the god Garuda
pendant of Palawan found at Brooke's Point in 1961. The garuda is a
mythical bird that Hindu god Vishnu used as vehicle.
Certain industries in the country are of Indian origin, notably
boat building, weaving of cotton clothes, and metalwork.
Decorative arts were also influenced as shown in the design of gold
necklaces and bolo handles. The manufacturing of some musical
instruments like the kudyapi (guitar) and the planting of some

66

species of flowers like sampaguita and champaka; fruits including

mango and nangka; and vegetables such as ampalaya, patola, and
malunggay came from Indianized sojourners.
According to paleographical experts, the ancient Filipino
writing has originated from India. According to Dr. T. H. Pardo de
Tavera, there are more than 340 Sanskrit words found in the
Tagalog language. Dr. Jose Villa Panganiban, former Director of the
Institute of National Language, gives a longer list of 375 Sanskrit
loan words in the Filipino national language, which is basically
Tagalog. These include the Filipino words: ama (father), nanay
(mother), asawa (spouse), halaga (price), kalapati (dove), kuta (fort),
sutla (silk), saksi (witness), tala (star), raha (king), sandata (weapon),
and maharlika (noble) to name a few.
Historically speaking, Sino-Philippine relations began in the
th
10 century A.D. The earliest known authentic date of these
relations was 982 A.D., when sever.il traders from Ma-yi (believed
to inc lude Mindoro, liatangas, Manila, and I'ampanga) arrived in
Canton board on an Arab ship and sold their valuable merchandise.
Ma-Tuan-lin, a Chinese chronicler, included this detail in his Wen
Shiann Tung Kao (General Investigation on
the Chinese Cultural Sources).
\

China during those times, having refined many of its

developments in the fields of historical writing, painting,
calligraphy, and hard-glazed porcelain, was beginning to expand
its maritime activities in Nanyang (Southeast Asian world)
especially during the Southern Sung (1127-1280), Yuan (1280-1368),
and Ming (1368-1614) dynasties. Chinese merchants on board their
junks left Chuanchow, Canton and other ports in China and traded
with the people of Lingayen, Manila, Mindoro, and Sulu.
In 1225, Chau Ju-kua, a Chinese Superintendent of Foreign
Trade, described China's trade with Ma-i in his book, Chu-fan-chi

(Reports on the South Sea Barbarians). This narrative pointed out

the honesty of the early Filipinos in their business transactions with
the Chinese traders. This was confirmed by another Chinese writer,
Wang Ta-yuan.
Wang Ta-yuan's description of medieval Filipino life appears in
his Tao-i-chih-lio (Summary Notices of the Barbarians of the Isles),
which was written in 1349. Both Chu-fan-chi and the Tao-i-chih-lio
have sections about a barbarous place called P'i-she-ya, which is
presumably Visayas. Wang Ta-yuan describes the natives of P'i-sheya as being tattooed up to the neck.
During the reign of Zhu Di (Chu 1i), the Yung-lo Emperor in
1403-1423 when China was expanding the boundaries of its
domain, he induced the countries visited by his missions to pay
tributes to the Ming court. The native rulers of the Philippines,
Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Indochina, and other
Southeast Asian countries sent regular tribute embassies to the
imperial court of the Ming emperor. According to the Ming Shih
(Annals of the Ming Dynasty), Record of Luzon, Record of Camilig,
and the Record of Sulu, the Philippines sent eight tribute embassies
to Beijing between 1372-1424.
China's greatest maritime explorer, Admiral Zheng He, also
known as Cheng Ho, (1371-1435), led seven expeditions from 14051433 in the south seas and reached the Philippines, Borneo, Malay
Peninsula, Singapore, Indochina, India, and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). It is
said that Cheng Ho's first expedition, which consisted of 62 ships,
landed in the Philippines in December 1405.
While in Jolo, one of his men, Pei-Pon-Tao (also known as Pun
Tao King) died and was buried in Jatti Tunggal, Jolo. Annually, on
December 26, the Chinese of Jolo until these days visit the tomb of
Pei-Pon-Tao to pay homage to the forerunners of Sino-Philippine
relations.

68

t enturies of trade and personal relations with the Chinese

inevitably led to the enrichment of Filipino life and culture.
Decorated enameled ceramics painted in traditional patterns were
exported in the Philippines. The blue-and-white pieces of Chinese
porcelain had their origins in the Ming period.
The manufacture of gunpowder, the art of metallurgy, the use
of porcelain, gongs, lead, silver, tin, and certain occupations like
blacksmithing and goldsmithing in the country were learned from
the Chinese. The Filipinos practiced a form of duck culture around
Pateros and Taguig in Rizal that resembled the Chinese, which
includes the method of artificial incubation of eggs. They also
taught the Filipinos of kite-flying and other games including
various forms of gambling like jueteng, kuwaho, and pangginggi.
The Chinese improved the culinary art of the early Filipinos.
From them, the natives learned the roasting of pigs, the brewing of
tea for drinking and the cooking of dishes like pancit, lumpia,
chopsuey, and okoy. The Chinese also taught the Filipinos the use of
seasonings like toyo (soy sauce) and tahuri, and vegetables like
bataw, petsay, and upo.
During the early times, the Filipino manner of dressing bore
Chinese traces. The sleeved jackets (kangan) of the Filipino males,
the loose trousers of the Muslim women of Mindanao, and the use
of slippers, wooden shoes (bakya), fans, and umbrellas were of
Chinese origin.
The social customs of the early Filipinos showed Chinese
influence. Among them were the arrangement of marriage by the
parents of the boy and the girl, the hiring of a go-between in marital
negotiations, the honoring of departed ancestors, and the
employment of professional mourners during the funeral.
Certain existing social customs bear indications of Chinese
origin like the blasting of firecrackers on New Year's Eve, the
beating of gongs to celebrate a feast, and the collection of tong

(percentage fee) by the owner of a gambling joint. Haggling

between the merchant and the customer to arrive at a price for a
commodity is another practice that the natives have learned from
them.
The linguistic influence of China on the Filipino language is
quite exceptional. About 1,500 Chinese loan words are included in
the present vocabulary of the Filipinos. These words usually
pertain to kinship and family relations, clothes, ornaments, food
and drinks, agriculture and commerce, tools and occupations, and
abstract ideas. Among these are as follows: ate (older sister), sanse
(third older sister), kuya (older brother), diko (second older brother),
sangko (third older brother), suki (friend), gunting (scissors), hiya
(shame), pakyaw (wholesale), and susi (key).
In the 13th century, Japan was said to have traded with the
Philippines based from the early historical records in Ryukyu.
Japanese wakos (pirate- traders) sailed the Orient waters, and many
of them were able to reach the Philippine archipelago. The Japanese
made some early contributions to Filipino culture and economy.
They taught our people some industries such as the manufacturing
of arms and tools and the tanning of deerskins. In the 1400s, they
established a trading post at Aparri, Northern Luzon.
In the middle of the 14th century, the Muslim traders from
Malaysia brought Islam (in Arabic means "submission to the will of
God") to the Philippines. It spread through the southern parts of the
islands. Historians say Tuan Masha'ika brought the Islamic faith in
Sulu. He was mentioned to have established the first Muslim
(means "one who surrenders to God") community in the
archipelago.
Karim ul Makhdum is the next mentioned in the Tarsilas
(records). He was a noted judge and scholar from Mecca. After
converting the sultan and the people of Malacca, he went to Sulu
(1380 A.D.) and began missionary work. He built a house for

70

religious worship (a mosque) at Tubig-Indagan on the Island of

Simunul and won many converts, particularly at Buansa (ancient
capital of Sulu).
About 1390, Rajah Baginda, a Muslim prince from
Menangkabau, Sumatra, landed at Buansa. He overpowered native
resistance because his warriors fought with firearms, the first to be
used in combat on the Philippine soil.
The stage of the makhdumin, an era of receptivity to Islam,
resulted to conversions to the Islamic faith with the arrival of
missionaries in Sulu, an event contemporaneous with the work of
other missionaries in Java, Indonesia. The Muslims established
settlements that dominated the region for years. In some instances,
the conversion process became easier as soon as the male
proselytizers marry the daughters of families belonging to the
ruling class.
In 1450 A.D., Sharif ul-Hashim (popularly known as Sayid Abu
Bakr), an Arab authority on Islamic religion and law arrived in
Buansa, Sulu from Johore, Malacca. He married Princess
Paramisuli, the beautiful daughter of Raha Baginda (from Sumatra).
Abu Bakr founded the Sulu sultanate in the same year, after his
father-in-law's death. He organized the government patterned after
that of the Arabian caliphate and promulgated the first Sulu code of
law. He later transformed the Muslim Tausugs into a powerful
army.
Abu Bakr was said to have unified the coastal and the hill
dwellers (Buranun) of Sulu. He adapted the local traditions to the
Qur'an (bible). He received the title of Sultan Sarif. After reigning
for 30 years, he died in 1480. All sultans of Sulu until the present
day trace their ancestry from him.
In the lirst quarter of the 16th century, more Muslims migrated
into the archipelago. The Islamic conquest of Mindanao was
attributed to the legendary Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuwan, a

johore Muslim. In 1475, he arrived in the Malabang area in

Cotabato (Maguindanao) with an invading force of Islamized
Samals. The pagan natives ferociously opposed him but his Samal
warriors subdued them.
After conquering the Cotabato Valley (Maguindanao),
Kabungsuwan married a native princess in the place. He converted
the overpowered inhabitants to Islam. Those who refused to accept
the new faith fled to the mountains. They became the present-day
Bilaans, Manobos, Subanuns, and other pagan Filipinos.
Kabungsuwan founded the sultanate of Maguindanao sometime in
1515. Years after, several sultanates were also established in the
region.
Other Muslim missionaries entered the Philippines
subsequently. Shortly before Magellan's arrival in 1521, Muslim
traders from Borneo actively disseminated the teachings of Islam in
Mindoro, Batangas, Manila, and Pampanga. One of them was Siat
Saen, who introduced Islam in the town of Balayan, Batangas.
Through their efforts, the spread of Islam was accelerated.
The last recorded Muslim missionary to bring the Islamic faith
into the country was Alawe Balpake, an Arab Sharif from Sarawak,
Borneo. During the early years of the 17,h century, he introduced
Islam in Northern Mindanao and the Lanao Lake region, after
which, he moved to the island of Basilan and became its first
Muslim sultan. In 1956, his grave was discovered in Taguima,
Basilan.
The spread of Islam occurred in two waves: the first was the
expansion of Islam out of Arabia to the Middle East, North Africa,
Spain, Central Asia, and the latter parts of Eastern Europe, while
the second wave brought Islam towards Sub-Saharan Africa and
Southeast Asia. The introduction of Islam in the Philippines is part
of the second wave. The southern part of Luzon and its islands
became under the control of Muslim sultanates.

72

Islam, which professes monotheism, or in the belief of a single

God, teaches that Muhammad was the last and the most important
in a series of prophets. Furthermore, it advocates that all Muslims
belong to one community, the umma, regardless of ethnic
background. Islam believes that man has to treat all God's creation
with kindness and compassion.
The five pillars of Islam are as follows: first, the profession of faith
(shahada): "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the
Messenger of God," which is a prerequisite for membership in the
Muslim community; second, the ritual prayer (salat) wherein the
adult Muslim has to implore the Almighty five times a day facing
Mecca, i.e., before daybreak, at noontime, in mid-afternoon, at
sunset, and any time after sunset, before sleeping preceded by
ritual cleansing; third, the almsgiving (zakat), which is the obligatory
giving of one fortieth of one's income to the needy or religious
cause to purify one's wealth .nd attain salvation; fourth, the
pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), which is a mandatory once-in-alifetime trip to the House of God (the Kaaba) where the title of
hadji shall be given to a Muslim who has performed this
pilgrimage; and fifth, fasting (sawm), which is done during the
lunar month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the Arabic
calendar).
Ramadan commemorates the Holy Qur'an's revelation
(Chapter II, Verse 185) to Prophet Muhammad Sallalahu Alaihi
Wassalam. During the period of fasting, all Muslims must refrain
from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse from daybreak to
sunset. The sick, travelers, and menstruating women are
exempted from fasting but they have to make up the days they
skipped at a later date. Islam celebrates Eid ul-Fitr or the Festival
of Breaking the Fast, after the sighting of the crescent moon at the
end of Ramadan. (Republic Act 9177 declared Eid ul-Fitr a
national holiday in the Philippines to be observed not only by

Muslims but also by Christians). This is a day on which the

Muslims are called upon to visit one another and exchange i
greetings among themselves.
Considered the sixth pillar of Islam by some Muslims is the jihad,
which in Arabic means "to struggle" or "to exhaust one's effort" in
order to please God. Within the belief of Islam, jihad refers to
living a virtuous life, helping other Muslims, and preaching Islam.
It has lately evolved to holy war, which focused on the militant
interpretation of the jihad.
Islam had left her lasting impression on the life and culture of
the Muslim Filipinos, which include the Maranaos of Lanao,
Maguindanaons of Cotabato, Samals of Zamboanga, Yakans of
Basilan, and Tausugs of Sulu. The Muslim Filipinos should abide
the rules and laws to be followed by all Muslims like the overt
expression of belief in Allah and fasting between dawn and sunset
during the Ramadan. Friday is a holy day for Muslims.
The mosque is their special place of worship and point of
convergence for social activity. In most Muslim communities,
there is at least one mosque. The muezzin calls the faithful to
public prayer. Those who responded should remove their
footwear before entering the mosque and aligned themselves in
rows and offered prayers in the direction of Mecca. An imam
(prayer leader) leads the recitation in Arabic verses from the
Qur'an.
The Muslim settlers also brought their political system by
establishing a series of sultanates in Mindanao. Abu Bakr
established his dynasty's legitimacy by claiming to be a
descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. In the sultanate form of
government, title of political dignitaries, such as sultan (supreme
ruler), raja muda (heir apparent), dayang (princess), and kali
(judge) became known.

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The Islamization of a number of Filipinos led to the

introduction of Arabic alphabet, Islamic holidays, and the Arabic
arts. Singkil (a Maranao word for "getting a leg or foot entangled
in an object") originated from Lanao del Sur. The dancers, with
solemn faces and dignified poses,
dressed in elegant Muslim costumes begin dancing in a slow pace,
which soon progresses to a taster tempo to the rhythmic clapping
of crisscrossed bamboos. The ladies gracefully wave big fans while
the men glide with brightly colored handkerchiefs.
When performed by ladies of the royalty of Lanao, the dance is
usually ushered by a waiting lady, who holds an exquisitely
embellished umbrella over the Princess' head wherever she goes.
Legend has it that singkil originated from the time the dizvatas
(nymphs or fairies) played a joke on Princess Gandingan as she was
on a stroll. The diwatas caused the trees to tremble and the rocks to
roll; however, the princess skipped nimbly from place to place
unharmed.
In their artworks, the Maranaos used the okir or okkil design, a
curvilinear floral design. The different types of okkil design appear
as border decoration on the cover and in the pages of the Qur'an.
They are also replicated in furniture, boats, farm implements,
silverware, brassware, jewelry, and ceramics. Similar okir designs
were also made on ancestral houses called torogan.
The indigenous bird motif, the sarimanok, is also said to have
been developed by the Maranaos. It is decorative in nature, having
the appearance of a bird or a rooster holding a fish in its claws or
beak.
Another artistic expression by the Muslims is the kris used
extensively by the Tausug, Samal, and Yakan warriors. This is a
sword with a straight or wavy blade. These swords were not only
used as weapons but also considered as great works of arts, at times
inlaid with silver and gold or pearls. The Muslims usually carry

their kris at the right side of their bodies. Another fearsome weapon
is the lantaka (swivel gun) placed on flexible beams that allowed the
gunner to pursue a moving target.
The people in a society collectively create and preserve culture.
The Filipino people culturally evolved because they were able to
exchange their thoughts with others through communication. The
transmission of ideas and skills was made possible through
interaction since the early Filipinos no longer lived in complete
isolation.
The ancient Filipinos prior to the coming of Spaniards have
already possessed a distinctive culture as proven by the material
remains of past societies. They were not uncivilized but intrinsically
endowed with abilities to stand as equal to the people elsewhere in
the world.

2. Traditional Filipino Communities

Early Filipino settlements varied in population sizes. Some
were inhabited by thousands of people while others were small,
composed only of a few scattered family members. The unit of
social organization with broader political, economic, and religious
features than the family was the barangay, headed by the native
chieftain called datu or rajah.
Usually several barangays were situated near each other to
mutually assist in case of war or any emergency. Consolidation of
barangays was formed through marriages and blood compact,
locally known as sandugu. This traditional ceremony signifies that
the partakers of such rite become blood brothers, presumably
because the same blood now flowed in their veins. They drew
blood from their arms and mixed it with wine, which they shared
and drank at the same time, as viewed by witnesses.

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Chroniclers noted and characterized the social stratification

system of pre-colonial Filipino community organization based on
wealth, political influence, and social privileges enjoyed. The ranks
were as follows: (1) the datu class or the ruling class; (2) the
maharlika or the aristocracy; (3) the timagua (pronounced timawa)
or the common class; and the (4) alipin (also known as uripon among
the Visayans) or the dependent class.
The datu or rajah ruled the barangay. Since the term barangay
came from the word balangay, which means boat, Fr. Juan de
Plasencia, a Spanish chronicler in the 16th century, speculated that
the role of the datu arose from the captain of a boat migrating to the
Philippines with his family, relatives, and servants. Miguel de
Loarca, in his Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (1582) said that the datus
who live in the same town obey the wealthiest among them.
Furthermore, Antonio de Morga in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas
mentioned that only the best warriors were obeyed.
The Boxer Codex, an anonymous late 16th century manuscript
mentioned that only men were qualified for the title. The datu's
power depends upon the faithfulness of his followers.
- The datu exercised administrative powers. In arriving at
important decisions, the datu also exercised legislative powers,
calling his people all together and securing their consent. The datu
usually had a council of elders to advise him, especially in the
enactment of a law. He had the duty to protect his community.
A datu also was given judicial powers since he could render
judgment in any dispute. He should hear the testimony of the
claimants before handling down the verdict. His decision could be
appealed to an arbiter of the claimants' choice from another
community.
Control over the disposition of the barangay's real property was
vested in their native chief. The chieftain received the agricultural
produce, personal services as well as respect from his people. He

took his share of the harvest as tribute except from the aristocracy
or the maharlika.
Other historians include the family, relatives, and elders of the
datu as members of the aristocracy. The maharlikas were believed to
be the descendants of mixed marriages between a ruling dynasty
and the one out of power.
The timawa class enjoyed their rights to a portion of the
barangay land. Their normal obligation was agricultural labor but
they were also called to catch fish, to accompany expeditions, or
paddle boats. They were also called out for irregular services like
supporting feasts and building houses.
An alipin was a man indebted to another. His creditor could
have been a datu, maharlika, timaiva, or another alipin. His
subordination was obligatory. A person may be born alipin, for that
reason he was called gintubo. He inherits the debt of his parents.
The degree of alipin indebtedness may vary. For example, if alipin
and timawa marry, their offspring would be half-alipin where he
would only work half of his father's obligation.
There were two kinds of alipin, the aliping namamahay and the
aliping sagigilid. The alipin with land rights was called namamahay
(householder). He owned a house. He came at his master's call to
work on the fields and do other services. A man enters the
namamahay status either by inheritance from namamahay parents,
dropping down from the timawa status or rising from the sagigilid
status.
The aliping sagigilid (gilid is the part of the house where the
stove is) were members of the master's household who ate from
their master's pot. They may be transferred to another creditor at
any moment and may be rewarded at their master's pleasure.
Slaves purchased from outside the community and captives in
battles or raids were included in the sagigilid status.

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The dependent population whom the Spanish chroniclers called

slaves were released from dependence by paying back debts, by
marriage, by purchase or by the voluntary act of the master.
The barangay had both oral and written laws. The oral laws
were their customs (ugali), which had been handed down from
generation to generation. The written laws were promulgated by
datus with the help of the council of elders. However, these laws
may be changed by consensus among ruling datus or by any among
them powerful enough to do so. Such written laws were announced
to the people by a barangay crier known as umalohokan.
The unwritten codes of conduct were strictly obeyed.
Righteousness was cabanalan and an upright person was described
banal. Any wrongdoing would mean reprehension from the
community leaders and more importantly, from the supernatural
beings. When a witness was called to testify against anybody, it
was customary to say, "May lightning strike me if I am telling a lie.
May the heavens or the sun fall upon me if I will tell a lie."
They believed that after death, the soul would travel to another
world to receive due reward or punishment. The good soul would
go to kalwalhatian (state of bliss) according to the Tagalogs and
ologan, to the
Visayans. The bad soul would go to a place of doom called
kasamaan by the
Tagalogs and solad by the Visayans.
Aside from their strong belief for life after death, archaeological
sites show that there was a local form of ancestor worship. Religion
was animistic or based on the worship of spirits of dead relatives
and other spirits, such <is nature deities. Early Filipino contacts
with other Asians brought in the belief system like the anito concept
to honor ancestors. The Visayans called their ancestor spirits
umalagad (from the word alagad or follower). The notion of diwatas

(spirits) that dwell in nature was also pervasive in the Visayas and
Mindanao.
The abstract idea of religion was concretely shown in
sculptured objects known as licha (pronounced likha) or larawan,
reverently worshipped by the natives. The Cordillera people carved
anito figures called bul-ul, signifying as ancestral spirits and
granary gods.
There are over 1,500 gods in the Ifugao pantheon by which
sacrificial offerings were made. The matung-ngulan takes care of the
welfare of animals. The pil-le looks over the property. The minnahu
regulates welfare while the bul-ul controls rice. The bul-ul figures,
usually made in pair is carved by a senior priest-carver or by older
members of the village. The figures are carved either by standing or
sitting and most often the wood is taken from the narra tree. The
figures are then placed in a granary house or house attic where they
are believed to guard the harvest from pests and thieves. Every
harvest time, the bul-ul is brought out to share the bounty of the
harvest and to consume the non-material essence of the sacrificial
rice, chickens, pigs, and rice wine, while the people eat the material
part.
Aside from sculptured objects, the relationship between ancient
spirits and men were expressed in elaborate paintings executed on
the bodies of human beings. Tattooing, as believed by some people,
was done as a thanksgiving offering to the gods, while others in
many instances, had it done to acquire protective powers from
spirits or were applied after a man had shown remarkable courage
in battle. TattoOs were also part of the body ornaments of preHispanic Filipino men and women. These were also regarded as
war medals.
Other minor gods and idols include lakambini, the god of the
throat; bibit, who was offered food by the people for good health;

80

lakambacod, guard of the crops; and, lakapati, who was the god of the
fields and had a half-woman and half-man figure.
There were also major gods considered by ancient Filipinos.
The supreme god of the Tagalogs was Bathala or Abba. He was said
to inhabit a faraway realm of eternal space known as kalwalhatian.
For the Bontoks and Kankanays of the Central Cordillera, Lumawig
was the creator and preserver of life. Among the Ifugaos, the
highest of all their deities is Kabunian, who dwells in the fifth region
of the universe.
Mediums were called upon to communicate with spirits who
often resorted to divination to ascertain the will of the gods. Such
divination usually took place during the rituals practiced by the
natives. Festivities and ceremonies to appease the different
divinities were celebrated customarily by the people, ranging from
simple to complex performance of rites appropriate for the
occasion. Temporary shelters or roofs were built for religious feasts
and rites.
The Patipat, more popularly known as tagitag was an Ifugao
ritual performed by the menfolk of the community to drive away
bad spirits, which they believe bring poor harvest or ailments to
people. The worship service called the baki, which starts at the crack
of dawn, was headed by a mumbaki (native priest). Animal sacrifices
were offered to the gods for good omen.
The participants, with their bodies adorned with leaves of the
red Ti plant or the dongla, beat their wooden planks called bangibang
(painted with chicken blood) from the terraces to the river and to
their homes. This was to frighten hidden rodents and prowling
wicked spirits. At the end of the ritual, the dongla leaves were
removed from the participants and strung together.
One of the most popular religious ceremonies during the
ancient times was the paniwata, frequently celebrated for
thanksgiving and for curing illness. The religious rituals were

performed by mediums and healers, which the Tagalogs called

catalonan while the Visayans termed as babaylan or baylan. They
belonged to the highest rank of the early Filipino priestly caste.
They were highly respected by the community members. The
priestly caste also included the mankokolam, which was of a lower
ranlc. People feared him because he was believed to have the power
to inflict diseases.
One feast, the pandot, was observed at night under a balete tree
or in the open field wherein those who came to participate brought
food and an offering, such as a mat, which they tied to a tree. The
celebration was more of drinking than eating.
Another feast, the maganito, was a month-long celebration.
Usually, they put lights to several poles, which surrounded a
central light. Leaves served as decorations. At times when the
occasion demanded a sacrifice, the prettiest girl was first asked to
stab the offering (usually a live pig). The people in the feast
followed her, and the meat of the dead hog was then given to the
guests.
Meat was primarily provided during rituals and feasts. The
everyday meal of the early Filipinos included rootcrops, fruits, and
fish. The staple food of the early Filipinos was rice. They cooked
food in earthen pots or in bamboo tubes. They ate with their bare
hands, using banana plant leaves as plates and coconut shells as
drinking cups. They made fire by rubbing two pieces of dry wood.
They stored their drinking water in large earthen jars or in huge
bamboo tubes.
In many provint wineinaking is an age-old enterprise. Their
most popular wine was the tuba, made from the sap of coconut or
nipa palms. I he other wines manufactured in the islands were basi,
an llocano wine Irom sugarcane juice; pangasi, a Visayan wine
made from rice; lambanog, a lagalog wine produced by distillation
of tuba; and the tapuy, an Igorot wine made from rice.

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The early Filipinos taught their children how to endure life's

challenges. The fathers trained their sons in hunting, fishing, timber
cutting, boat making, mining, and agriculture. The mothers, on the
other hand, t rained their daughters to do household tasks like
cooking, gardening, and sewing.
It is said that in ancient Panay, there was a barangay school
called bothoan, under the charge of an old man, acting as the
teacher. The subjects taught were reading, writing, arithmetic, the
handling of weapons, and the acquiring of amulets or kinaadman.
From the Negritos and similar aboriginal people in the
mountains of Luzon, Panay, and other islands came indigenous
dances and music made by primitive jaw harps of bamboo, flutes of
mountain cane and bamboo violin with abaca string. Jaw harps
became popular all over the archipelago. Though mostly made of
bamboo, some of them were made of metal. The bamboo jaw harps
of the Kalingas were called olibaw. The Tagalogs called it barimbaw.
In Mindanao, kubing was the common term for these bamboo jaw
harps.
Other musical instruments being played by the natives were the
kudyapi (Tagalog guitar), kalaleng (Tinggian nose flute), babandil
(Maguindanaoan gong), kulintang (Muslim xylophone), tultogan
(Visayan bamboo drum), silbay (llocano reed flute), the suracan
(Subanun cymbal) and tambuli (trumpet made from carabao horn).
Bungkaka is a bamboo buzzer played by striking the split ends
against one's palm.
Ancient songs exhibited varied emotions, with themes about
thanksgiving, birth, death, love, war, labor, religion, and victory.
Among these were as follows: tagumpay, Tagalog song of victory;
ayeg-klu, Igorot serenade song; bactal, Tagbanua death song; and
tudob, Agusan harvest song.
Ethnic dances, which had been part of every tribe and culture,
reflected the sentiments and artistry of the populace. Their dances,

customarily light- hearted and mimetic, were in connection with

their beliefs in spirits, in thanksgiving and healing, in courtship.
Tribes of Malay stock had preserved many dances accompanied by
nose flutes, bamboo guitars, gongs of various sizes and shapes,
drums, and wooden sticks. Some of the native dances included the
mahinhin, a Tagalog courtship dance; the dandansoy, a Visayan tuba
dance; the sua-sua dance, a Sulu courtship dance; and the paunjalay,
a Muslim wedding dance.
Dances of the highlanders were more energetic, in contrast to
lowlanders that were generally slow and tender. People residing
near the sea sang and danced about fishing and rowing of their
bancas. In areas where coconuts abound, shells of the nut were
used in some dances. Dances of rice-growing regions depicted riceplanting, harvesting, pounding, and winnowing. The fast-moving
dances of Visayan, Tagalog, and Bicol regions depict abundance. In
llocos, where life was harder, dances were slower and emotional.
Theater originated within the early communities through ritual
practitioners in their dance-dramas to appease supernatural powers
that were believed to control natural forces, to ensure good harvest
and success in hunting and battles.
Kali, later called amis during the Spanish era, was popular all
over the islands. It was a method of self-defense with instruments
made of rattan canes or betel nut tree trunks. As an art of battle, the
kali requires basic skills for parrying, offense, and defense.
In commerce, the early Filipinos had their own weights and
measures. They used the talaro, a kind of balance with scales, for
weighing things. Measurement for capacity were the kaban (25
gantas), the salop (one ganta), the kaguitna (one-half ganta), and the
gatang (one chupa). For length, measures used were the dipa, the
length of the outstretched arms; the tumuro, the length between the
tip of the thumb and that of the forefinger when extended; the

84

sandamak, the width of the hand with the five fingers pressed
together; and the sandali; the width of one finger.
They also knew the art of coinage and had gold used as
medium of exchange. Modern numismatists call these ancient gold
coins piloncitos (little cones) because of their conical shape.
Shells and bronze gongs were also used as money in exchange
of other goods. However, the usual method of trading during those
times was barter in which they offered their own products in
exchange of other goods. Aside from rattan, pearls, precious shells,
and other marine and forest products, the early Filipinos traded
their native merchandise such as baskets and mats. Non-textile
weaving industry in the archipelago was a result of the
proliferation of organic materials such as bamboo, rattan, vines,
and rotio reeds.
To the mountain people of Cordillera, a basket was a functional
household or agricultural container. This light bushel was essential
in carrying clothes and vegetables especially in a rugged terrain.
The multipurpose backpack was the best known Cordillera basket.
The Ilocanos had produced baskets for storing valuables and their
clothes, the tampipi. The Hanunuo of Mindoro had embellished
baskets to hold betel nut chewing ingredients, beads or money.
Mat-making was also popular in the islands. Various palms
were the sources for this flourishing Industry. The natives made
distinctively large mats for sleeping. Mats were also fashioned as
home furnishings to sit on and receive distinguished guests. Sulu
mats were the most intricately woven. They colorfully dyed
pandanus mats and occasionally incorporated sy inbols and
geometric designs.
The early natives also knew mathematics. They could count up
to 100,000,000 (bahala) and could add, subtract, multiply, and
divide. The terms for numericals were as follows: isa (one), puo
(ten), daan (hundred), libo (thousand), yuta (one hundred thousand),

angao (one million), kati (ten million), and bahala (one hundred
million).
They also learned how to calculate time and identify seasons by
reading the signs of nature. The early or late flowering of certain
plants could indicate a long dry season or early rains.
The Ifugaos, on the other hand, devised a calendar, which
contains 13 months in a year, each month having 28 days. Some
members of this ethnic group still utilize this calendar method.
They had a tribal calendar recorder called tumunoh, who kept 13
strings representing the 13 months of the year. At the end of each
day, the tumunoh tied a knot per string to show that a day had
passed. A string with 28 knots represents one month. The Ifugao
calendar has a total of 364 days a year.
The early inhabitants also had some knowledge of medicine.
Folk healers applied certain roots and leaves, flowers and fruits,
branches and pistils of plants containing substances with curative
powers.
Long before the coming of the Spaniards, the natives of the
islands were already wearing clothes. Men wore collarless, shortsleeved coat called kangan and a strip of cloth called bahag, wrapped
around the waist and between the legs. Usually, they wore putong,
a piece of cloth worn around the head. Though they had no
footwear, they wore jewels such as gold necklaces, gold armlets
called kalombigas, and gold anklets filled with agates, carnelians,
and other colored glass.
The women's upper garment was a wide-sleeved blouse called
baro. Their skirt was called patadycmg or saya with a strip of cloth
over it called tapis. Their personal trimmings consisted of necklaces,
bracelets, earrings, and rings made of gold at times filled with
pearls, carnelian beads, and other precious gems. Numerous types
of glass and stone beads have been unearthed in Philippine

86

archaeological sites, providing substantial proof of early trade

relations of the archipelago with foreign lands.
One personal garb in the islands was the salakot (native hat),
worn as protection from heat or sudden rain. Generally made of
anahaw (a forest palm), the salakot was widely used in Central
Luzon and the Visayas. The llonggots used leather (from animals
they hunt) in making shallow hats, while neighboring Bontoks used
coiled rattan. The Ifugaos, on the other hand, wore perfectly fitted
carved bowl-like hats, while the Maranaos and
the Bagobos (Davao) made wooden hats as shields for combat.
When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16th century, they were
surprised to see the early Filipinos living in these well-organized
and independent villages, the barangays. The native dwellers lived
in houses made of wood and bamboo, roofed by nipa palm leaves
called bahay kubo (nipa hut). Other materials used include yantok
(rattan), cogon grass, stone, and clay.
These houses were elevated three to four meters from the
ground and usually supported by four or more posts made of wood
or bamboo. The space beneath the house called silong, served as
workspace, storage space, a granary or pen for livestock. A hagdan
(ladder), which could be drawn up at night or when the owners of
the house went out, was used to enter the nipa hut.
The roof of the bahay kubo may be constructed on the ground,
then completed over the house frame. The wall was built from nipa
shingles or bamboo. The tinilad na kawayan (bamboo slats), which
served as the floor of the house, were set slightly apart to induce
ventilation. The doors, as well as the stairs, were made of bamboo.
The windows of the house differ in size, with a tukod (mast) to prop
the swinging cover open during the day.
The principal space inside the bahay kubo, called the bulwagan,
about 10 square meters in area or larger, could be used for receiving
guests, dining, and sleeping. Furniture in the bahay kubo is minimal,

commonly with a low table for meals called dulang and a built-in
seat called papag. A small silid (room) served as a dressing room
and closet for clothes, pillows, and mats.
There were houses with an open porch called batalan, an
unroofed platform, where water jars are placed. Sometimes the
cooking was done in an open hearth or on a clay kalan (stove) or
tungkong kalan (three stones) in a space in front of the ladder of the
batalan.
The structure and design of the native houses resulted from
various factors that may be dictated by the natural setting, available
resources, customs, beliefs, and needs of the occupants. The
seafaring Samal built their houses over the water, along the
seashore. Their domiciles were on stilts, high enough to let their
boats dock under them even at high tide. Footbridges made of
planks were connected to these clustered dwellings. The Badjao
lived in houseboats. The Bagobos of Davao del Sur and the Kalinga
of the Mountain Province built houses on trees for protection from
enemies and wild animals on the ground.
Cats were kept in most houses to get rid of rats. There were also
dogs and pet monkeys to warn the household members of
approaching strangers.
Study Guides
Terms/Concepts to Understand Mainland Origin Hypothesis
Island Origin Hypothesis Nusantao Umma Shahada Eid ul-Fitr
Burnay Questions to Answer
1.
How did the peopling of the Philippine archipelago come
about?
2.
What were the cultural influences brought about by the Asian
traders to the ancient Filipinos?

88

3.
4.

5.

6.

How did the teachings of Islam influence the Filipino society?

How was a chieftain selected in a barangay? Should he be
considered a tyrant? Why?
Discuss how the early Filipino communities live and interact
with other islanders.
Which among the ancient Filipino traditions still exist at
present?

Chapter IV
The Spanish Era
1. In Search of New Lands
The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought an era of
worldwide exploration and expansion that resulted from the
desire to gain new lands, power, and wealth for the explorers and
their countries. In the last two centuries of the Middle Ages (13001500), the Europeans, while regaining the Holy Land from the
Muslims, were able to establish commerce with the Orient
through trade routes. Spices like pepper, ginger, nutmeg, onions,
and garlic were the most important items of trade from the East,
owing to the desire of the Europeans to enhance the taste of food
and to preserve meat during winter time.
The fall of Constantinople (1453) and the emergence of the
Ottoman Turks closed the former trade routes to the East, causing
the monarch s and navigators of Europe to find new routes across
the seas. The Portuguese were a few years ahead of the Spaniards
in the discovery of new trade routes. Inspired by Prince Henry,

the Navigator (1394-1460), Portuguese navigators sailed down

the African coast to reach the East. In 1487, led by Bartolome
Dias, the Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope. A few
years later, in 1498, Vasco de Gama reached Calicut, India, by
sailing eastward from the cape.
The end of the reconquistas (wars against the Moors) in 1492,
paved the way for great voyages including the discovery of the
New World (America) for Spain. Christopher Columbus, who
had failed to convince the King of Portugal that he could reach
the East by sailing westward, was able to get the support of the
Spanish Crown.
After these remarkable voyages, Portugal and Spain became
keen rivals in colonizing new lands because of gold, spices, and
other merchandise found in the Orient, as well as their religious
zeal to proselytize the natives. European adventurers made
daring voyages and sought new lands and riches. Great explorers
were able to discover various routes for their expeditions, which
marked the Age of Exploration (1492-1682).
On May 3,1493, Pope Alexander VI, attempting to settle the
rivalry, issued a papal bull known as the Inter caetera. The Pope
decreed that the Spanish zone of exploration should be west of
the imaginary line drawn north to south, 100 leagues west of the
Azores and Cape Verde Islands. All lands east of the demarcation
line should belong to Portugal. The demarcation line was drawn
to identify Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration and
conquest. The following year, the two kingdoms agreed
in the Treaty ofTordesilU* to move the demarcation line 170
leagues (about 1,100 miles) west of Cape Verde islands and still be
guided by the provisions of the papal bull. The revised treaty
allowed Portugal to claim what is now Brazil while Spain was
given the rest of the Americas (Perry et al., 1988: 353).

90

In 1505, Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521), a member of the

nobility of Portugal sailed with a fleet carrying the first Portuguese
viccroy to the I last Indies in 1506 and from there, was sent to
Malacca (Melaka) in the Malay Peninsula and the spice markets of
Ambon and Banda in Western Indonesia. He was promoted to the
rank of captain in 1510. He returned to Portugal in 1512. During
those days, all explorations were done by latitude sailing by means
of an astrolabe. Through observing wind directions and ocean
tides, Magellan later conceived the idea of a passage to the west or
around South America to reach the Moluccas or Spice Islands
(islands of present-day Indonesia). While finding the chance to
present his plan to King Manuel of Portugal, he fought against the
Moors in Morocco in 1513. There he received his wounds that left
him lame for life. After his return to Portugal, Magellan proposed
to the king his plan to travel a westward route to the Moluccas. The
king refused and even canceled his promotion probably because of
charges of financial irregularities while he was in Morocco.
Disgusted by the king's response, he renounced his Portuguese
citizenship. He went to Spain in 1517. In his new found home,
Magellan met influential persons who helped him get support for
his plan to find a new route to the Spice Islands from King Charles I
(later Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). One of them was Bishop
Juan de Fonseca, the head of the Royal Council of the Indies
(division in charge of overseas expeditions).
Spurred by the competition to win against Portugal in obtaining
high- priced spices, Spain commissioned Magellan to find a route to
Moluccas by sailing west. Such passage would be beneficial to
Spain for Portugal controlled the eastward route to the East Indies
around Africa's Cape of Good Hope. The contract for the expedition
was signed on March 28,1518. Magellan was named captain general
of the expedition.

2. Magellan's New Route to the East

Magellan left the port of San Lucar de Barrameda, Spain, on
September 20,1519 with five ships namely: Trinidad, Conception,
Santiago, San Antonio, and Victoria together with about 250 men. The
expedition intended to circumnavigate the earth in the service of
Spain. Accompanying him were Fr. Pedro de Valderrama (fleet
chaplain), Antonio Pigafetta (chronicler of the expedition), Duarte
Barbosa (Magellan's brother-in-law), and his Malay slave Enrique
of Malacca (acting as interpreter).
The fleet sailed through familiar waters along the westcoast of
Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the
Atlantic, they landed on the South American coast, now
Pernambuco, Brazil, on November
29. Magellan continued the voyage, reaching Rio de Janeiro on
December 13. He named it Santa Lucia, because he landed there on
the saint's feast day. There they traded with the native Americans
for provisions.
The voyage continued at Rio de Plata. By the time they were at
the tip of the South American continent, it was already winter. The
snowstorms were in a headstrong. The men became apprehensive
and asked Magellan that they all return to Spain. Magellan
declined. Instead, he asked them to take courage. The ships took
shelter from storms in Port San Julian (now in Argentina) in March
1520.
Unknown to Magellan, some officers took into command the
maneuvering of three ships, the San Antonio, the Conception, and the
Victoria. The next day, Gaspar de Quesada, captain of the
Conception, wrote to Magellan that he and others would not
recognize his authority unless they return immediately to Spain.
Still, Magellan refused to heed their petition.

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Juan de Cartagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian del Cano

(called Elcano), and Gaspar de Quesada were found guilty of
treason but pardoned. But Cartagena continued to plot again, this
time with one of the priests, Pero Sanchez de Reina. They were
probably jealous because the captain-general of this Spanish
expedition was a Portuguese. Magellan had the two left off the
coast of an unnamed island.
With the first signs of spring, the exploratory voyage continued
in search of a route to the Southern Sea (now Pacific Ocean). A
strong typhoon had driven ashore and destroyed the smallest ship,
Santiago. In August, the four ships went farther south and
eventually, they came upon a strait, which Magellan called "Strait
of All Saints" (now Strait of Magellan).
Magellan sent the San Antonio to explore the southeast opening
of the strait. Trinidad entered the southwest. Secretly, San Antonio,
piloted by Esteban Gomez (a Portuguese), deserted on the night of
November 20 and sailed back for Spain.
The fleet reached the Southern Sea, which Magellan named
Ocean Pacific because it was calm. Unfortunately, Magellan had
underestimated the ocean's size. In the next five months, the ship
was running out of supplies. Instead of biscuits, the men ate
sawdust. They also started to eat leather rope guards and even rats.
Many got sick with scurvy (a gum disease). A number of his men
died.
But Magellan and his men bravely sailed on and by March 6,
1521 they had reached an island in the Western Pacific. He called it
Islas Ladrones (or Islands of Thieves, later to be named Marianas, in
honor of Maria Ana of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain) because
some of the native Chamorros had stolen a boat from the flagship.
To stop them, Magellan ordered his men to fire their guns.

1. Voyage to the Philippines

From Ladrones Islands, Magellan's fleet went on their journey
westward. At the dawn of Saturday, on March 16, 1521, they saw
the towering heights of Samar and named the island Islas de San
Lazaro, for it was the feast day of St. Lazarus. They stayed overnight
off Suluan Island. I he following day, they landed on the small
uninhabited islet of Humunu (Homonhon) found at the mouth of
Leyte Gulf and built two tents for the sick.
On the third day after their arrival on March 18, they met nine
natives from the neighboring island of Suluan who arrived in a
boat. Seeing them .1 friendly people, Magellan gave them red caps,
mirrors, combs, small I ells, ivory, fine linen cloth, and other trifles.
In return, the islanders gave them their cargo of bananas, fish,
coconuts, and palm wine (tuba).
On Holy Thursday, March 28, the fleet landed in another island
called Mazaua, which could be Limasawa in Leyte or Masao in
Butuan. Rajah kolambu was rowed to where the Europeans were.
At first, he refused to board Magellan's big ship. Finally, the rajah
welcomed Magellan and visited him aboard his ship. He gave
Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, while Magellan gave a red cap
and a red-and-yellow robe.
Subsequently, Magellan's men held a mock fight. The soldier in
a suit of armor remained unhurt even after he was struck. Rajah
Kolambu was fascinated and noted that one man in such attire was
worth 100 fighters. These newcomers could help them win their
battles. Thus, the rajah decided to seal their new friendship.
Afterwards, he performed the kasi kasi or blood compact ceremony
with Magellan on March 29, Good Friday.
Pursuant to Republic Act No. 2733 dated June 19, 1960
Barangay Magallanes, Limasawa, Southern Leyte is the site of the
first Christian mass in the Philippines. In 1980 the National

94

Historical Institute (NHI) sponsored a workshop for historians to

determine the site of the first mass in the Philippines. They
concluded it was Limasawa. They based their findings from the
evidence presented in 1800 by Carlo Amoretti, a conservator in
Ambrosiana Library in Milan. Amoretti said that Mazaua where
Magellan landed in 1521 and the island of Limasawa in the book
written by Father Francisco Combes are one and the same. This
idea was supported by known writers in history, which include
Father Pablo Pastells, S.J., Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Jaime de
Veyra, and James Robertson.
Noted historian Dr. Sonia M. Zaide presented the evidence for
Masao rather than Limasawa as the site of the first recorded mass in
the Philippines. First, in all primary sources including the diary of
Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Magellan's voyage, the name of
the place was Mazaua. Limasawa has four syllables and begins
with another letter. Second, according to primary records, the
expedition traveled 20 to 25 leagues from
I lomonhon, iht* first landing point. If they had been to
Limasawa Island, the distance is only 14.6 leagues or one-half of
that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from Mazaua according to
Pigafetta was 35 leagues (140 miles). The distance from Limasawa
to Cebu is only 80 miles. Fourth, it was mentioned that the king
came to their ship in a balanghai. Butuan is now the site of at least
nine excavated balanghai relics; by contrast, Limasawa has no
significant archaeological relics or balanghai tradition. Fifth, the
Western explorers got excited at the abundance of gold in Mazaua,
for that was the main currency at that time. Both archaeological
relics and the gold mines today attested to the abundance of gold in
the Agusan Valley.
The site of the first mass in the Philippines was first mentioned
by Maximilian Transylvanus in his De Moluccis... in 1523. He
interviewed the survivors of the Magellan expedition and noted

that they landed in Messana (at times written as Massana), where

the mass was first officiated. Due to numerous copies of De
Moluccis in Europe, the Italian manuscript of Antonio Pigafetta (the
chronicler of the expedition) was deferred in printing.
In 1536, Gian Battista Ramusio also wrote a chronicle about the
voyage of Magellan based on the Pigafetta manuscript. He pointed
out that it was in Butuan where the first mass in the Philippines
took place. When Father Francisco Colin, S.J. wrote a book about
the spread of Christianity in the Philippines, he could not exactly
determine the site of the first mass in the archipelago. From the
Ramusio version it was in Butuan, while from the writings of
Antonio de Herrera (based from accounts of Andres de San Martin)
it was in Mazaua.-Finally, Father Colin wrote that it was in
Limasawa where the first mass in the Philippines was officiated.
In 1667, Father Francisco Combes mentioned in his Historia de
Mindanao... description of the voyage of Magellan and his Armada
de Molucca. He mentioned the word Limasaua, which never
existed in any primary source about the Magellan expedition.
It was William Henry Scott who was able to identify that it was
the Ramusio version that first mentioned Mazaua in Butuan. From
the findings of Scott and Vicente C. de Jesus, they had come into
conclusion that the inclusion of Limasawa in the voyage of
Magellan may be attributed to Colin (with his Dimasaua) and
Combes (with his Limasawa). For Scott, de Jesus and the NHI, the
eyewitness account of Gines de Mafra, the Spanish mariner should
be considered in determining the location of Mazaua. Mafra was
the only navigator who reached Mazaua twice, first in 1521 in the
Magellan's expedition and in 1543 in the Villalobos expedition.
Andres de San Martin gave Mafra some important documents
before he was killed by the warriors of Rajah Humabon in Cebu
after the Battle of Mactan. Martin was an astrologer and one of the
finest mariners during the Renaissance. He died in the Cebu

96

massacre that took place on May 1, 1521. Mafra held the documents
given to him by Martin for five years.
I hrse documents were confix ii'd by the Portuguese and were
kept in the Lisbon archives. Finally, the documents were
transferred to Madrid at the lime when Portugal became part of
Spain (1580-1640).
Based on the Mafra accounts, from Homonhon, Magellan and
his men iiaveled westward, southwest to the tip of Seilani (Panaon)
to avoid the Northeast monsoon. (From Panaon, Limasawa is in the
northwest direction). According to Mafra, Mazaua has a
circumference of 3-4 leagues, equivalent t:o 9-12 n.m., while
Limasawa has a circumference of 2.0313 n.m.
Mafra mentioned that Magellan and his men were able to reach
Mindanao. Mazaua is 45 n.m. south of Surigao. The western part of
the i .land is a perfect harbor during the Northeast monsoon.
Mazaua has two hilly areas, Pinamangculan at Dalindingan, as
drawn in the map of Pigafetta. Planted near the foot of the hills
were rice, coconut, and fruits. There was gold in the area. Houses
were described as stilted.
On Easter Sunday, March 31, 1521, a mass was held on
Mazaua's shore with Reverend Father Pedro de Valderrama
officiating. At sundown, Magellan, in the presence of Spaniards and
Filipinos, planted a large wooden cross on the summit of a hill
overlooking the sea. He named the country the Islas de San Lazaro.
On April 7, 1521, Magellan together with King Kolambu and
the Spanish and native fleets landed on Sugbu (now Cebu). On the
same day, Humabon made a blood compact with Magellan after the
latter had won his trust and friendship.
Asked who would succeed him, Rajah Humabon told Magellan
that he had no sons, only daughters. His nephew who had married
his daughter was therefore the crown prince. Rajah Humabon
added that parents were no longer honored in their old age and

instead their children commanded them. Magellan explained to the

Cebuano chieftain the Christian teaching about honoring one's
parents. This confounded Rajah Humabon. Soon, he sought to be
baptized as a Christian.
On Sunday, April 14,1521, a mass on the shore of Cebu was
held with Rajah Humabon and his people attending the ceremony.
After the mass, Magellan planted a huge wooden cross and gave
Queen juana, wife of Rajah Humabon, an image of the Child Jesus
as a gift. There were about 800 Filipinos who participated in the
mass and underwent ritual baptism. As for Humabon (renamed
Carlos), Magellan made him the king's representative in Cebu and
promised to unite the local chieftains under his authority. Magellan
likewise tried to impose Christianity and Spanish sovereignty on
local chieftains.
Rajah Humabon and Datu Zula of Mactan welcomed the
Spaniards, but not Lapulapu, another chieftain of Mactan.
Lapulapu's real name was Cali Pulacu as written by Carlos Calao, a
Chinese-Spanish poet in the 17th c< ntwry 111 his poem, Que Dios Le
Perdone (That God May Forgive Him). I his was a result of the
research of Prof. Guillermo Gomez-Rivera, a 1975 Zobel Prize
awardee.
Lapulapu refused to accept the new political system and pay
tribute. He decided to break away from Rajah Humabon. To teach
him a lesson, Magellan invaded Mactan on April 27, 1521. He led
an army of 60 steel- clad Spaniards in three vessels and 1,000
Cebuano warriors in 30 boats. He told Rajah Humabon and his men
to stay on their boats, watch how the Europeans fight.
Magellan had misjudged the fighting skill of Lapulapu and his
men. The Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish force with their
spears and bamboo stakes. They aimed their spears at the
unshielded legs of the Europeans. The Spaniards were forced to go
back to their boats.

98

Magellan was wounded in the battle. A poisoned arrow hit his

right leg and then a bamboo spear struck his face. Lapulapu and his
fighters pounced and killed him. The remaining Europeans
retreated and left the body of their captain behind.
The Battle of Mactan was a scandalous defeat for the Spaniards
for they were not able to prove themselves better in combats. On
May 1; the natives of Cebu carried out the plan to massacre them.
While the Europeans were attending a banquet prepared for them
by Rajah Humabon, the warriors attacked them. Duarte Barbosa,
Juan Serrano, and 27 other Spaniards were killed.
The remaining members of the expedition were forced to flee
the islands before the Cebuanos could kill them all. They burned
the ship Conception for lack of men to operate the vessel. With two
ships left - Trinidad and Victoria, they continued their voyage to
Moluccas.
On November 8, 1521, they finally landed in Tidore, an island
in Moluccas. They were able to secure a rich cargo of spices. The
survivors decided that the Trinidad, led by Gomez de Espinosa,
would sail back to Spain by crossing the Pacific to Panama, while
the Victoria, under Juan Sebastian del Cano's command would sail
via Cape of Good Hope, but on lower latitudes to avoid the
Portuguese.
The Victoria crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of
Good Hope and finally reached San Lucar, Spain on September
6,1522, with only 18 survivors. The voyage around the world lasted
2 years, 11 months, and 16 days. As for the crew of the San Antonio
(the ship that had deserted the expedition), they had been
imprisoned until Elcano's return. They were tried and convicted.
Pigafetta's story of the expedition spread. Shortly thereafter, the
geographers adopted new dimensions of the earth and the wider
scope of the Southern Sea (Pacific Ocean). The voyage enhanced
their knowledge about the existence of othet inlands in the Pacific

and the Philippines. It also confirmed that the earth is round and
that it is really possible to sail around the world since the world's
oceans are connected. The cargo of cloves sold for such a high price
that it was more than sufficient to pay for the expenses of
Magellan's expedition. As a reward, the Spanish Crown granted
Elcano a proud motto for his shield, Primus (. ircumdedisti Me (you
circumnavigated me first).
In unwritten history, it was really an Asian who first
circumnavigated the world ahead of the Europeans. He is no other
than Enrique of Malacca who acted as interpreter for Magellan.
From Malacca, he was able to join the voyage of the Portuguese
after he was taken by Magellan to be his aide, cruising across the
Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean and reached Portugal. When
he became part of the Magellan's expedition, he was able to sail
from Spain via Atlantic Ocean, reached the tip of South America
iind across the Pacific Ocean then finally returned to Asia,
particularly the Philippines.
Magellan's expedition paved the way for Spain's expansion to
the Orient. Driven by the thrill of adventure and the reward of gold
and spiritual dispensation, the conquistadores took the risks of the
journey.
The first post-Magellan expedition (1525), led by Captain Garcia
Jofre de Loaysa sailed with seven ships and 450 men. After crossing
the Strait of Magellan, the vessels were dispersed by a storm.
Unfortunately, Loaysa got ill. They served him broiled rat, the
traditional treatment for constipation. He did not recover.
Eventually he died. His men failed to reach the Philippines.
Sebastian Cabot, son of Venetian explorer John Cabot, headed
the second expedition in 1526 with four ships and 250 men. They
failed to find the Strait of Magellan.
In 1527, A1 varo Saavedra Ceron, cousin of Hernando Cortes of
Mexico, together with 110 men constituted the first expedition to

100

the Philippines from the Viceroyalty in Mexico (New Spain). Three

ships were set out to investigate what had happened to the two
earlier expeditions and rescue any survivors. Only one ship, the
Florida, reached Surigao in Northeastern Mindanao but failed to
colonize.
They were able to rescue several survivors from the first two
expeditions in Tidore, Moluccas. Loaded with spices, the Florida
attempted to return to Spain but strong winds drove her back.
Saavedra Ceron tried the second and third time to sail against
strong winds. He fell ill and died. His successor also failed to make
a return trip. Finally, they decided to surrender to the Portuguese.
In 1542, King Charles I sent another expedition. This was to
reassert the claims of Spain to the islands, which is part of the
Eastern Hemisphere. Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, the
Eastern Hemisphere was reserved to Portuguese colonization.
However, with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, <i new demarcation
line was fixed .it 297 1/2 leagues east of Moluccas. Portugal gained
the rights of ownership over all the lands on the west of the line,
while Spain gained the right of ownership over all the lands found
on the east of the line. Spain sold the Moluccas to Portugal for
350,000 gold ducats ($630,000), which lay within the Portuguese
sphere ot influence and claimed ownership over the Philippines
then known as Islas del Poniente (the Sunset Islands). He instructed
Ruy Lopez de Villalobos to command a fleet of six ships and
around 400 men. He exhorted Villalobos to avoid any of the Spice
Islands in their voyage to Islas del Poniente.
Villalobos reached Baganga Bay in Eastern Mindanao on
February 2,1543 after three months of sailing. He named Mindanao
Caesarea Caroli, or the imperial island of Charles. Searching for food,
they reached the southern island of Sarangani, which Villalobos
renamed Antonia in honor of Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza of
Mexico. Some of his men went as far as Leyte, which they renamed

Felipina, in honor of the future king Philip II of Spain. Later, the

name Felipinas was given to all the islands. Villalobos also failed to
colonize Mindanao. He died in the Moluccas, consoled by St.
Francis Xavier, acclaimed as the Apostle of the Indies.
King Charles T of Spain abdicated his royal crown after getting
weary of far ranging duties brought about by his scattered
dominion. His son Philip II succeeded as ruler of the Netherlands in
1555 and in Spain in 1556.
During the reign of King Philip II, Spain was at the height of its
power. He wrote to Mexican Viceroy Velasco ordering him to
prepare an expedition for the conquest of the Philippines. The
command of this expedition was given to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
(1505-1572), a soldier, lawyer, and administrator. Since the Mexican
government was then in the brink of bankruptcy, Legazpi spent his
own resources to finance the expedition.
Legazpi and his fleet, consisting of four ships with 380 men, left
Natividad, Mexico, on November 19, 1564 (some say November 20,
a Monday). Besides royal officials and crew, five Augustinian friars
joined the expedition. Legazpi was accompanied by Father Andres
de Urdaneta (survivor of the Loaysa expedition), and Captain
Felipe de Salcedo (Legazpi's grandson), Guido de Lavezaris
(survivor of the Villalobos expedition), and Melchor de Legazpi
(Legazpi's son). The fleet stopped in Guam, and there they obtained
fresh water and supplies.
On February 13,1565, Legazpi and his men anchored near the
island of Cebu. Due to Cebuano opposition, they sailed to the
neighboring islands and landed in Samar. Legazpi made a blood
compact with Urrao, a friendly chief, on February 22. They
proceeded to Limasawa and were received by a young chieftain
named Bankaw.
Later, Legazpi landed in Bohol and befriended two native
kings, Sikatuna and Sigala. On March 16, 1565, Legazpi and

102

Sikatuna made a blood compact. A few days later, Legazpi and

Gala did a similar pact.
On April 27, 156.5, I egnzpi .n rived in Cebu and hit the shore.
Rajah lupas and his Cebuano warriors challenged the enemy forces
but were overpowered by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned
their houses and if treated to the uplands.
The next day, April 28, one of Legazpi's men, a Greek sailor
named Mermeo (others say Juan de Camuz) discovered the image
of the Sto. Nino in one of the houses. Viewing it as a sign of God's
approval, Legazpi named I he f irst settlement Ciudad del Santissimo
Nombre de Jesus (City of the Most I loly Name of Jesus), in honor of
the sacred image. The statue can be found m the present
Augustinian Church of the Holy Child.
The earliest Spanish settlement was in the form of a triangle.
The i wo sides face the sea and the third fronts the land. The
settlement was urrounded by fences. Wells were dug for stable
water supply. A church lor the Augustinian Fathers was erected. In
this church, the historic image of the Child Jesus was kept.
One day, a soldier, Pedro de Arana, went out alone from the
camp. He was speared to death. Ln retaliation, a unit was sent to
grab captives, one of them a niece of Rajah Tupas of Cebu. Upon
learning this, Legazpi sent her nursemaid to inform Rajah Tupas
that the hostages were free to go home, on the condition that he had
to come for a talk.
Tupas did not heed the invitation of Legazpi, but Tamuyan the
girl's father came with six men. Tamuyan offered himself as a slave
in place of his daughter but Legazpi assured him the freedom of his
daughter without making him subservient to the Spaniards.
The father was stunned to see his daughter dressed as befitted
her rank. He knew that captives taken in war were not given noble
treatment. Moved by their kindheartedness, Tamuyan accepted
Legazpi's friendship. He promised to convince his brother Tupas to

accept Spanish good will. After a few more days, convinced that
Legazpi was sincere with his words, Rajah Tupas accepted
Legazpi's friendship.

4. The Spanish Conquest of the Islands

Legazpi tried to win Rajah Tupas and the people of Cebu
through the policy of attraction, inviting them to return, rebuild
their homes, and live in peace with them. With the help of Cid
Hamal (Sidamit), a Muslim Malay, Legazpi succeeded. The
Cebuanos paid yearly tribute to the king of Spain and recognized
him as their sovereign. Legazpi promised Spanish protection.
When Legazpi began on his conversion efforts, most Filipinos
were still practicing a form of polytheism, although some had
converted to Islam. The Augustinian missionaries were assiduously
spreading the Christian faith. The first Cebuano convert was
Jandulaman, a widowed niece of Tupas, later on named Isabel in
honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi's deceased wife. After her baptism,
she married Master Andres, a Greek member of Legazpi's
expedition. Fray Diego Herrera officiated the wedding, the first
Christian marriage on Philippine soil.
Rajah Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the
godfather. He was named Felipe, in honor of Philip II. His son,
Pinsuncan was likewise baptized and was named Carlos. The
natives followed the same.
In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food
provisions in Cebu. Meanwhile, he sent his grandson back to
Mexico with his first reports to the Spanish King. On the bank of
the Panay River, the second Spanish settlement was founded. Due
to the continuing apostolic work of Fr. Juan de Alba and other
Augustinian missionaries, the people became friendly to Legazpi.

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Two chiefs of Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong became

Christians.
In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo who
arrived in Cebu from Mexico in 1567, to Mindoro to punish the
Moro pirates who plundered upon Panay's villages. With 30
Spaniards and several hundreds of Visayans, Salcedo destroyed the
Moro forts in Ilin and Lubang (islets near Mindoro).
On May 8,1570, Marshal Martin de Goiti and his men left
Panay. With a force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans, they
explored the Pansipit River in Batangas. Native volunteers who had
already made friends with the Spaniards joined Goiti's men to
avenge the harm done to them by hostile neighboring villages.
From the bay, Goiti saw on the south bank of the Pasig River a
wall protecting a port. He sent his interpreter ashore to invite the
local chief to a conference, which Rajah Matanda and his nephew
Rajah Sulayman (or Soliman) accepted.
Rajah Sulayman led Goiti to a house and they sealed their new
alliance with the traditional kasi kasi. The Maynilad chief was
willing to befriend the Spaniards but would not submit to Spanish
sovereignty and pay tribute to the Spanish king. This lack of trust
led to an armed clash between them.
Goiti landed his 80 fighters against Sulayman's fort, (where Fort
Santiago stands today) and ordered his men to destroy the artillery.
Sulayman defended his kingdom from the Spaniards who took the
offensive. A bloody hand-to-hand battle ensued until the Manilans
turned their backs as flames began to engulf their houses.
Sulayman and his warriors retreated across the river. Goiti and his
men captured Maynilad on the 24th of May and seized some
cannons that Panday Pira had made for Sulayman.
After the battle, Goiti returned to Panay. He told Legazpi about
the rich kingdom of Maynilad, a trading center where Chinese,
Borneans, Siamese, and other foreign merchants engaged in. From

thereon, Legazpi decided to colonize Maynilad. He left Panay and

reached Manila Bay in the middle of April 1571, with a stronger
expedition consisting ot 27 vessels, 280 Spaniards, and 600 Visayan
allies.
Lakandula, king of Tondo and Sulayman's uncle, realized that it
was useless to resist the Spanish forces. He welcomed Legazpi and
persuaded his nephew Sulayman to make peace with Legazpi. On
May 19,1571, Legazpi took possession of Maynilad in the name of
King Philip II of Spain.
Bambalito, a Pampango warlord from Macabebe; wanted to
resist the Spanish forces in Maynilad. He conferred with Lakandula
and Sulayman to support his cause. The two former native rulers
did not want to join him since they had already made peace with
Legazpi. However, a son and two nephews of Lakandula and some
of Sulayman's warriors joined his war camp in Navotas.
On June 3, 1571, Bambalito's more than 2,000 fighters in 40
caracoas (boats) from Hagonoy, Macabebe, and other Pampanga
villages sailed into Bankusay's creek, off the north shore of Manila
Bay. They fought Marshal Goiti's forces in this furious naval battle.
Bambalito perished at the height of this bloody fight. His men were
routed. The rest paddled frantically away. Ten native boats were
captured.
On June 24, 1571, the Feast Day of St. John the Baptist, Legazpi
proclaimed Manila as the capital of the Philippines (celebrated as
the Manila's FoundationDay). He called the city Nueva Castilla,
because he had been told that there had been an old fort or castle on
the site. On the same day, the city government was established with
a cabildo or city council and a court.
Years later, King Philip II, by his Royal Decree of June 1,1574,
named Manila, Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad (Distinguished and
Ever Loyal City) and by his Royal Decree of March 20, 1596,
conferred a beautiful coat-of- arms on this city.

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On August 20,1572, Legazpi, the first Spanish governor and

adelantado (title given to those who personally funded their
expeditions) of the Philippines, died of heart attack. Guido de La
vezaris succeeded and stayed in post until 1575.
Captain Juan de Salcedo, grandson of Legazpi, subdued the
region along Laguna de Bay; discovered the gold mines of Paracale
across the mountains; and pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan in 1572.
He founded Villa Fernandina de Vigan in honor of Prince
Ferdinand, son of King Philip II who died at the age of four. Ln
recognition of Salcedo's military services, the Spanish Crown gave
him encomienda in llocos.
From Vigan, Salcedo explored the tip of Luzon. In 1573, he
conquered Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos
refused to yield to them. The natives used their arrows against the
Spanish forces, however they hurriedly withdrew for their safety
after Salcedo fired his guns.
I'he Philippines was a crown colony considering she was
under Spanish domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in
1565 to 1821, the Philippines was a dependency of Mexico. The
Mexican viceroy, in the name of the Spanish King, administered the
country. After the independence of Mexico from Spain in 1821, the
Philippines came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the
Overseas Ministry (Ministerio de Ultramar) took over the functions
of the Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias).
The colonial code titled Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las
Indias (Compilation of Laws on Royal Lands in the Indies)
popularly known as Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies) issued in
1680, was used by Spain to rule its extensive possessions.
It was on November 16,1568 when King Philip II issued
instructions to Legazpi to establish cities and towns and create
encomiendas to be distributed to deserving soldiers, in the first three
decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided into

encomiendas. With a cross in one hand and a sword in the other, the
Spanish conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feudal
system of administration. The word encomienda comes from the
verb encomendar meaning "to commend or to commit to one's care."
Originally, an encomienda was a feudal institution used, in Spain
to reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish wars
of recover}' of territory from the Moors. The earliest encomendergs in
the West Indies were delegated with the power to collect tribute
and to use the personal services of the inhabitants of their
encomiendas.
This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish Crown for the
combined purposes of rewarding deserving Spaniards and
attracting others to settle in the colonies. Permanent settlement of
the Spanish soldiers assured the defense of the colonies. This also
facilitated the conversion of the natives to the Catholic faith.
Encomienda in the Philippines was not a land grant. It was more
of an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tribute from
the natives and to use the personal services of the King's vassals in
the encomienda. The encomendero undertook ways to look after the
well-being of his people and to educate them with Spanish norms
of conduct. In the domain of relations, the encomienda had been
considered as a kind of benevolent paternalism. In reality, the
encomienda was looked upon by its beneficiaries as a pretense for
slavery.
Tributes were collected in cash or in kind. From the total
collection, not exceeding one-fourth of this went to the
encomendero and the rest to the friars as well as the government.
The cabeza de barangay (former datu) collected the tribute and gave it
to the encomendero.
The Laws of the Indies provided that the encomendero must
not own a house in the native settlements, within their
encomiendas to avoid the commission of abuses. C >ovenwr

108

Gomez Perez Dasmariftas, as commanded by King Philip 11, urged

the encomenderos to reside near their wards to promote the latter's
welfare. However, this arrangement became an opportunity for the
encomenderos to enrich themselves. The unlawful inaction of
numerous services coupled with greed and cruelty made the lives
of the natives miserable. The early Spanish friars took the side of
the exploited people because they saw that the colonizers had
failed to instruct their people in the Catholic religion.
The national economy, founded upon the medieval concept of
master cind slave, paved for the introduction of a class of landed
aristocracy, while the broad masses lived in distress.
Haciendas and encomiendas are not the same though both were
forms of colonial appropriation. The demands or exactions of an
encomendero were incidental to his position as representative of
the King, thus, he exacted tribute and drafted labor. The hacendero
on the other hand, under the fiction of partnership (with the tenant
as companion or kasama), had the right of inheritance and free
disposition of the land.
Because of the abuses perpetrated by the encomenderos, the
encomiendas were replaced by a system of provincial government.
There were two types of provincial administrations: the alcaldiamayor or the province, where peace had been established by the
Spanish government placed under a civil official called alcaldemayor; and the corregimientos or territories that had not been
completely pacified under the charge of corregidores or politicomilitary governors. Tomas de Comyn, a Spanish social scientist,
nevertheless described the office of the alcalde-mayor as a model of
graft, corruption, and inefficiency brought about by inexperienced
men being assigned to govern the provinces. Some of them had
little or no background at all to execute their varied responsibilities.
The province was divided into towns or pueblo, which were
administered by gobernadorcillos. The office of the gobernadorcillo

was open to Filipinos. This local position was at first occupied by

pre-colonial chieftains and their descendants and later elected by an
electoral board composed of the outgoing gobernadorcillo and twelve
members of the principalia. The principalia (social and political
aristocracy) referred to the prominent land-owning and propertied
citizens who could read, write, and speak Spanish.
Each town had several villages or barangays placed directly
under the cabezas de barangay. This position remained an appointive
office.
The king appointed the governor general and other colonial
officials administering the country. The governor general was the
chief executive as well as the commander-in-chief of the military
forces in the colony. Aside from this, he was also the vice-royal
patron wherein he has the power to recommend priests in parishes,
and the authority to intervene in controversies between religious
authorities. The governor general could also reject or suspend the
implementation of any royal decree or law from Spain with his
cumplase power, if in his opinion, the conditions in the colony did
not justify its implementation.
The office of the governor general was oftentimes bought or
granted as a favor. Since it generally involved a short tenure of
office, averaging two years and ten months, and in the 19th century
even shorter, the governor general oftentimes became eager in
accumulating wealth before his term of office expired.
However, checks to gubernatorial powers were made possible
through the following: first, the Audiencia Real or Royal Audiencia
established in 1583 to act as the Supreme Court of the colony also
served as advisory body to the governor and audited the
expenditures of the government; second, the residencia, which was a
judicial institution headed by the incoming governor general to
conduct a trial of an outgoing governor general and other Spanish
officials for the purpose of punishing those guilty of corruption, but

110

the case may be appealed to the King for clemency; third, the
visitador-general, who was the investigator sent by the King or an
official dispatched by the Council of Indies in Spain to check the
behavior of the high officials in the colony; fourth, the Archbishop
and clergy who were appointed by the Pope upon the
recommendation of the King; and fifth, subordinate public officials
and influential private citizens.
The counterbalance efforts of the aforementioned nevertheless
proved ineffectual in reprimanding corrupt administrators, for it
was quite easy for them to bribe the officials conducting the
investigation. They could even seek for the revocation of the
decisions given by the investigating officials through political
influence in the country or in Spain.
The local officials as well as the Spanish high officials became
the main instruments of "pacification." The subjugation of the
natives became complete after they have agreed to pay the tribute.
One tribute corresponds to one family, consisting of husband, wife,
and minor children. Half of the tribute has to be paid by an
unmarried man or woman. One tribute is equivalent to eight (8)
reales or one peso. It may be paid in money or in kind like rice,
honey, corn, and the like. In 1851, it was increased to 12 reales or
one peso and a half, in 1884, the cedula tax replaced the tribute.
Exempted from paying the tribute were as follows: incumbent
gobernadorcillos, cabezas and their families, government employees,
soldiers with distinguished service, descendants of Lakandula, a
few other native chieftains, choir members, sacristans, porters of the
churches, and government witnesses.
Encomenderos often had to send soldiers to collect the tribute
by force. Nonpayment of tribute meant torture or imprisonment.
Sometimes houses were burned or looted by them? soldiers as
punishment for the natives' defiance. Other natives |ust fled to the
mountains to escape punishment. The Filipinos hated the tribute for

it was a symbol of subjugation to Spain. Likewise, it resulted to

Spanish abuses especially by tribute collectors.
Opposition to colonial authority became quite difficult.
Although the Spaniards constituted a small number in the country,
they had conscripted natives from different regions to put down
revolts in other regions to remain in power.
Polo or forced labor instituted in 1580 was another form of
pacifying the natives. Male Filipinos between 16 to 60 years of age
rendered manual service for the country for the purpose of building
ships, churches, roads, and other forms of infrastructure.
The polista or worker has to work 40 days a year in the labor
pool. In 1884, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. To be
excluded from the polo, one has to payfalla (exemption fee), which
only a few Filipinos could actually pay. The chieftains and their
eldest sons were also excused from forced labor.
Polo led to the abandonment of the fields, separation from
families or homes, as well as illness and death for some. The alcaldes
often drafted hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for
woodcutting and then pocketed the money, which must be paid for
the polistas.
Bandala, which was instituted in the first half of the 17th century
by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera was another
way to overpower the Filipinos. This refers to the assignment of
annual quotas to each province for the compulsory sale of products
to the government. Due to lack of funds, the government issued
promissory notes in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the
part of the government meant seizure of products. The system
meant virtual confiscation of products for the government that was
usually out of money; promissory notes were first given in
exchange for the goods.
The political condition in the Philippines was worsened with
the union of Church and State. The friars, like the government

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officials, exercised political, economic, and other non-spiritual

powers. They controlled the educational system as well as the
collection of taxes and the conscription of natives into the army.
They even controlled municipal elections and censored plays and
reading materials. So extensive was the so-called friar interference
in the country that in the 19th century, Filipino propagandists
demanded their expulsion.

5. Towards the Hispanization of the Natives

The Spaniards integrated into the Filipino society their religion,
language, customs, arts, and sciences. The Church and State
inseparably carried out Spanish policy in the country. When the
Spaniards came into the country, they destroyed the carved idols
out of wood and stone because these artworks were regarded as
abominable to the faith.
To a great extent, the Spanish Catholic missionaries were able
to remodel Filipino culture and society. The Spanish authorities
clustered the Filipino population into village settlements where
they could more easily be instructed. Since most secular colonial
officials had no intention of living far from home, the friars took on
the roles as the King's representatives and interpreters of
government policies in the countryside. Spanish urbanization was
centered in the city of Manila, within a walled city called
Intramuros.
Infrastructure showing Spanish domination in the country,
such as massive colonial churches, convents, schools, roads,
bridges, and the bahay na bato at kahoy (Antillian stone and wood
houses) were constructed. Initially, buildings during the Spanish
era were of thatch and bamboo. After accidental fires that hit some
of them, stones, wood, bricks, and tiles were used for construction.

Structurally, the bahay na bato at kahoy also known as bahay na

mestiza (or mixed, because wood and stone were blended together),
perpetuated the features of the pre-Hispanic bahay na kubo. The
ground floor was used for storage and for parking vehicles.
Habitation took place upstairs with specific rooms for guests (azotea
and sala), dining (comedor), cooking (cocina), and sleeping (cuarto).
The Spaniards imposed the feudal system and created towns
and estates by converging the people through reduction, referring to
the resettlement of inhabitants in Spanish-style poblaciones - or at
least - bajo de las campanas (within hearing distance of the church
bells).
The Spanish model for a poblacion (town center) was organized
around a rectangular plaza, with the church (the most important
structure of the plaza complex) and convent on one side, bounded
by the tribunal or municipio, and by the houses of Spanish officials
and principales (elite). The presence of principalia residences in the
plaza complex reflected the existence of socioeconomic ascendancy.
Spanish society had always stressed "purity" of blood in
indicating societal rank. At the top of the social pyramid were the
espanoles, with both Spanish parents, which included the espanoles
peninsulares (born in the Spanish peninsula) and the espanoles
insulares or Filipinos (born in the colony).
Below the espanoles were the mestizos and mestizas - the children
of an espanol and an indio or india. The term mestizo referred to the
mestizos de sangley or Chinese mestizos, while Spanish mestizos
were called mestizos de espanol.
Constituting the majority of the population were the indios or
indios naturales, pertaining to the natives of the Philippines without
Spanish or
I hinese ancestry. Generally, the Spanish colonizers believed that
the indios k could not comprehend more than the basic knowledge.

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The ceremonial splendour of the Roman Catholic Church

aroused the admiration of the natives. More representatives of
various religious orders such as the Augustinians, Dominicans,
Franciscans, and Jesuits came to the Philippines after Legazpi's
expedition. The first bishop of Manila was Fray Domingo de
Salazar, a member of the Order of Preachers (OP). He was
succeeded by Fray Ignacio de Santibanez, a Franciscan priest who
became the first Archbishop of Manila.
The territory of the old Archdiocese of Manila covered the
civil provinces of Nueva Ecija, the Southern half of Tarlac,
Zambales, Pampanga, Bulacan, Rizal, Cavite, Batangas, Laguna,
and the islands of Mindoro and Marinduque. Pope Clement VIII
on August 26,1595, established the Diocese of Nueva Segovia in
Lal-lo, Cagayan. In the same year, the Diocese of Nueva : Caceres
in Camarines Sur and the Diocese of Cebu (cradle of Christianity '
in the Philippines) were also established. Consequently, the
missionaries learned local dialects and introduced the Roman
alphabet.
By the 16lh century, there were Filipinos like Tomas Pinpin
(the first Filipino printer), who became conversant with the
Spanish language. He wrote the first published Tagalog book
titled Librong Pag-aaralan nang manga Tagalog nang uicang Castila
(Book that the Tagalogs Should Study to Learn Spanish) for the benefit
of unlettered Filipinos in the Spanish language.
Basic education was rendered by parochial schools,
established primarily for religious instruction. The first one was
established in Cebu. In 1582, Archbishop Domingo de Salazar
ordered that every town was to have one school for boys and one
for girls. Attendance was made compulsory. Parents paid the
teachers' salaries. The subjects taught were catechism, reading
and writing in the dialect, music, the rudiments of arithmetic, and
trades and industries.

Education was still in the early stage of development during

the Spanish period. Even by the late 19th century, the Spanish
language was still unknown to a great majority. They were literate
in their own native dialects. The Spanish aristocracy tried to
distinguish themselves from the indios with the use of language
and level of education.
Higher education was established exclusively for the
Spaniards and Filipinos, referring to those born in the colony to
Spanish parents. Colleges and universities were closed to indios.
(The natives were only allowed in these institutions after 200
years of colonial rule).
The Jesuits in Manila founded the first college for boys in
1589. It was originally called College of Manila (for the
scholastics), and later changed to College of San Ignacio. In 1621,
it was elevated to the rank of a university by Pope Gregory XV
and was named University of San Ignacio. However, this
school was closed in I7h8 when the Jesuits were expelled from the
country. In 1601, the Colegio de San Jose also under the Jesuits, was
established.
In 1611, Fray Miguel de Benavides, the third archbishop of
Manila established the Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santissimo
Rosario, later renamed Universidad de Santo Tomas (in 1645 by
Pope Innocent X).
The Dominican order that administered Colegio de Santo
Tomas also established the Colegio de San Juan de Letran to take
care of orphaned Spanish boys.
The girls were also given special education. Schools were of two
kinds: the colegio, which is a regular school for girls; and the beaterio,
a combined school and nunnery. The first college for girls in the
Philippines was the College of Santa Potenciana (1594). After the
school ceased its operations, the students transferred to College of
Santa Isabel, now the oldest existing college for girls in the country.

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The institution was originally built to care for orphaned Spanish

girls. Eventually, it became an exclusive school for the daughters of
affluent Spaniards.
In 1621, the Franciscan nuns established the Real Monasterio de
Santa Clara (now St. Claire Convent of Manila), the first nunnery in
the Philippines. In 1694 the Beaterio de la Compania de Jesus,
which was directed under the Jesuits was founded by Mother
Tgnacia del Espiritu Santo, a Filipina nun. This was a school
established to accommodate Filipino girls, the indias. Mother
Ignacia's spirit of poverty, humility, penance, confidence in God
and charity became the distinguishing mark of the beatas (resident
pupils). The beatas had extended their apostolate to education. The
beaterio has developed into the Congregation of the Religious of
the Virgin Mary (R.V.M.) of the 20th century.
- Primary education consisted of courses in reading, writing,
arithmetic, religion; geography, the history of Spain, the Spanish
language, vocal music; and agriculture for boys and needlework for
girls. The girls were taught basic education, as well as religion,
needlework, painting, and music.
Academic reforms were later on implemented, after the Spanish
government conceded to its growing demand. The Educational
Decree, dated December 20, 1863 introduced a system of public
education that opened opportunities to Filipinos for higher
learning. It ordered the establishment of an educational system
consisting of elementary, secondary, and collegiate levels. It also
provided for the establishment of normal schools to train teachers.
The Board of Public Instruction was likewise created to supervise
the schools. The decree also provided for the use of Spanish as the
language of instruction, starting at the elementary level.
The Escuela Normal (Normal School) for the training of male
teachers for elementary instruction, was delegated to the Jesuits. It

was inaugurated in 1865. In 1893, it became the Normal Superior,

which trained teachers of secondary courses.
Schools for the arts were also built aside from these regular
schools. Archbishop Juan A. Rodriguez founded the Escuela de
Tiples in 1743. The institution was to provide elementary education
and offer courses in vocal and instrumental performance. In the late
19th century, the school was able to pattern its plan of study after
the Conservatory of Music in Madrid.
Damian Domingo founded the Academy of Fine Arts, the first
school in painting in Manila in 1820. With this, he was called the
"Father of Filipino Painting."
The Academia de Dibujo y Pintura (Academy of Drawing and
Painting) was founded in 1824. Some of its students were sent by
the government to pursue higher studies in Madrid, Rome, and
Paris.
In the 19th century, various technical schools were established
like the School of Mercantile Accounting and Modern Languages,
patterned after the Commercial School in Barcelona. Commerce was
introduced as a three-year vocational course, with the degree of
perito to be earned by the student after studying.
Mechanics and other vocational courses were offered in
secondary instruction leading to the bachillerato en artes. After
finishing the course, the students could take examinations for the
title of perito mecanico (mechanical expert). Surveying was also
introduced as a vocational course, which conferred the degree of
perito agrimensor to its graduates.
It was in 1860, that a nautical school was opened upon orders of
the queen. It was placed under the commander of the fleet. After
four years, the student was to board a ship. The degree of piloto de
marina mercante was to be given after the training.
The seeds of vocational education were sown by the early
Spanish missionaries who taught the natives better methods of

118

farming, the cultivation of foreign plants like indigo, corn, cotton

and wheat, and various crafts like printing, carpentry, masonry,
and dyeing.
The early missionaries were also the first to establish a printing
press in the Philippines. Books were being printed by xylographic
method, using engraved wood blocks. The earliest book printed
was the Doctrina Christiana en lengua espaiiola y tagala (1593), written
by Fray Juan de Oliver. This catechetical book sought to explain the
importance of Christ, chastity, and devotion to God in the
vernacular.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the pasion was the
prevalent form in print. Written in verse and chanted during Lent,
it depicted the life and passion of Jesus Christ. The first Tagalog
pasion was written by Caspar Aquino de Belen. It was published in
1704. The second written pasion titled Casaysayan ng Pasiong Mahal
ni Jesucristong Panginoon Natin na Sucat Ipag-alab ng Sinomang Babasa
(The Story of the Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ that Should
Inflame the Heart of the Reader, circa 1814) was preferred over the lirst
one. It was also known as Pasyong Genesis. This version was
edited by Father Mariano Pilapil (circa 1758-circa 1818) and
published by the Imprenta de Santo Tomas. It was later translated
into several native dialects.
During the first half of the 19,h century Jose de la Cruz was the
most prominent poet in the oral tradition. He was said to have
written many literary pieces in elegant Tagalog language. Among
them were: Doce Pares de Francia; Bernardo Carpio; and, Adela at
Florante. He was popularly known as Husefig Sisiw because
whenever zealous writers approached him for guidance in their
verses, he required them to bring sisiw (chick) as payment.
Pedro Bukaneg, the blind poet who wrote the popular Ilocano
epic, Lam-Ang, was hailed as the "Father of llocos Literature."
Among the Tagalogs, Francisco Balagtas (later dubbed as the Prince

of Tagalog Poets) became popular with his poetical pieces

particularly, Florante at Laura.
Momentous feasts and events like the arrival of a new Spanish
official also meant stage presentations. The first recorded drama
was staged in Cebu in 1598, a comedia written by Vicente Puche. It
was performed in honor of Msgr. Pedro de Agurto, Cebu's first
bishop. Christian victory over the Muslims was depicted with a
linambay (moro-moro in Tagalog) in 1637.
At the end of the 17th century, the first theater was established
in Intramuros, Manila, known as Teatro Comico. At the turn of the
19th century, the zarzuela, a Spanish one-act opera with satirical
theme became popular in the country. These stage plays were
performed at fiestas where townfolks eagerly watch so as not to
miss the gala presentation.
In the field of music, the Sampaguita composed by Dolores
Patemo became popular. The first music teacher to win distinction
in Philippine history was Geroriimo de Aguilar, a Franciscan
missionary.
In 1811, the first newspaper in the country appeared in Manila,
which was the Del Superior Govierno (Of the Supreme Government)
with Governor General Manuel Gonzalez de Aguilar as editor.
In the field of science, the first scientists in the Philippines were
the Spanish friars. Fr. Manuel Blanco, the "Prince of Botanists/"
wrote Flora de Filipinas, which was published in 1837. This book
identified 1,200 kinds of plants in the country. The first sundials in
the country were built in 1871 at Tagudin, llocos Sur by Fr. Juan
Sorolla, a Spanish Augustinian.
Father Marcial Funcia Ramos introduced the first iron printing
press in the Philippines in 1847. He also initiated the use of better
paper such as papel de kilo (linen paper), instead of rice paper and
Chinese paper. George Oppel, a German, introduced lithography in
the country in 1858.

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Transported through galleons (huge Spanish trading ships)

were plants like corn, cassava, sweet potato, cotton, maguey,
indigo, achuete, tobacco, cacao, peanut, tashew nut, pineapple,
avocado, pepper, squash, tomato, lima bean, turnip, and eggplant.
The Spaniards also brought to the Philippines some animals like
horses, cow, sheep, and goats.
The galleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes via Pacific
Ocean to Acapulco, Mexico were brought into the Philippines by
Asian traders from China, Japan, India, Siam (now Thailand),
Moluccas, and other nearby places. Manila became an important
port for the galleons. The galleon would be carrying minted coins
or silver bullion and products of Mexico on its return.
The galleon trade was a government monopoly, however, the
Chinese merchants outnumbered the Spanish and Filipino traders
in selling their goods mainly silk textiles and porcelain to Mexico.
The Chinese formed an economically important community in
Manila by the 1590s but years later were given restrictions. When
the galleon trade ended in 1815, Philippine trade was opened to the
world, but links to Latin America weakened.
The financing of the galleon trade was made possible primarily
through the Obras Pias, the earliest banking institution in the
country. The funds were donated by rich people for charitable
purposes. Later, the friars had the funds given as loans to
businessmen at various rates of interest. The friars were also able to
borrow from die government. Unfortunately, they were not able to
pay back the government resulting in the bankruptcy of the
national treasury.
In 1717, Governor General Fernando Manuel de Bustamante
compelled the friars to return the money they borrowed from the
government. This however, only resulted to his death in 1719 in the
hands of an angry mob, agitated by his stringent rules against the
members of the church.

The Spanish government also attempted to introduce economic

reforms in the country, through the efforts of some enlightened
officials like Governor General Jose Basco y Vargas. Governor
Basco implemented series of reforms not only to promote economic
development but also to make the country independent of subsidy
from Mexico. He envisioned large-scale production of silk, cotton,
tobacco, spices, and sugarcane; the application of scientific
knowledge to Philippine agriculture and industry and the growth
of foreign trade on the basis of Philippine natural resources.
Governor General Basco (1778-87) founded the Sociedad
Economica de los Amigos del Pais (Economic Society of the Friends of
the Country) in Manila on April 26, 1781. The society helped much
in the agricultural development of the country. In 1824, importation
of martines (birds) from China was made to fight the locusts that
were destroying Philippine crops. The society also offered prizes
for best agricultural projects and techniques developed. In 1853,
Candido Lopez Diaz, a Filipino, was awarded for his invention of a
machine cleaning hemp fibers.
In 1861, the society established the tirst .igi n ultural school in
Manila. It introduced the cultivation of tea, cotton, poppy, and
mulberry trees. Large tracts of land in Camarines were planted of
mulberry trees to feed
silkworms.
Upon Governor Basco's recommendation, King Charles III
issued a royaT decree in 1780 establishing a government monopoly
in the Philippines that took effect in 1782. Thus, the government
established monopolies on
tobacco, wine, gunpowder, playing cards, and among others.
The tobacco monopoly raised much money for the colonial
government but resulted to the abuses of some crooked Spanish
officials. They often cheated the farmers in the payment of their
produce. The farmers on the other hand cultivated more than what

122

was required and hid their excess tobacco to be sold in the black
market. In 1882, Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera
abolished the monopoly. Private firms took control of the tobacco
business.
Governor General Felix Berenguer de Marquina succeeded
Governor Basco. His first official act was the demolition of nipa
houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sight and
can even cause fire. He also ordered the abolition of indulto de
comercio (license to trade), which gave the alcalde mayor (provincial
governor) the privilege to control the prices of goods in his
province. Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine were
also abolished. He established the minting of money in the country
to prevent the outflow of gold.
In 1842, Don Sinibaldo de Mas, an economist, wTas sent by
Spain to the Philippines to make an economic survey of the
country. In his report, he made the following recommendations:
first, the opening of more Philippine ports to world trade; second,
the encouragement of Chinese immigration in the country to
stimulate agricultural development; and third, the abolition of the
tobacco monopoly.
The opening of the Philippines to world trade resulted to a
great demand for its products in the world market. This brought
about the need of machinery for massive production. The first
steam machine for hulling rice was introduced in 1836 by Eulogio
de Otaduy. Then a few years later, Nicholas Loney, a British
merchant, introduced the first steam machine for hulling sugar in
Negros.
The end of the galleon trade together with Spain's involvement
in the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1858), reduced the large-scale
importation of fabrics. This became beneficial to the local weaving
industry.

The most important materials used in weaving were cotton,

abaca, silk, and pina. Sinamay or pinukpok is made from beaten abaca
fibers, which were extensively woven in Camarines, Albay, Panay,
Bohol, and Samar. Finest of the fabrics were usually woven in
combination. Nipis (sheer) is from pure
Nllk in combination with cotton and abaca (trom the trunk of wild
banana). A particular type of riipis produced in lloilo came to be
called jusi (from the taw silk fibers brought in by i hinese traders).
Since weaving of the riipis requires a great amount of skill,
patience and time, the cloth was priced highly. Also popular during
the Spanish era was the pina fabric (from the Ir.ives of the wild
pineapple). Batangas was known for its kulambo (gauze mosquito
net). The Northern Luzon provinces produced a type of cloth
l.nown as abel lloco.
As early as in the 1700s the Spaniards brought in their dressy
shirt (tucked out) with standing collar. Woven embroidery of the
fabric is for display and for some, due to health reasons. With the
sinamay or pinukpok material, skin irritation at times developed
because of the material's fibers >md the country's warm
temperature. The trousers used with shirt were loose and required
the use of slippers or shoes.
In the early 19th century, the Augustinian missionaries
introduced spinning wheels and more sophisticated looms in Panay
Island, which greatly developed the local weaving industry of the
place.
In time, needlework developed in Ermita, Malate, and Sta. Ana,
Manila. Finished articles were expensive, primarily because of
embroidery. Elaborate works of embroidery were sewn on
hemlines, sleeves, scarves, handkerchiefs, and on children's clothes.
With skilled labor, this cottage industry gained popularity.
The Christianization of the Filipinos was the most lasting legacy
of the Spanish missionaries. The Spaniards converted much of the

124

Philippines to Christianity except Mindanao and Sulu. The use of

Philippine dialects by the early missionaries facilitated the teaching
of the Gospel. The striking resemblances between the pre-colonial
religion and Catholicism have made the latter acceptable to the
local inhabitants.
During the Spanish period, no building structure was allowed
to rise higher than the church's bell tower. The highest part inside
the church was the retablo. At the center and above the altar table
was the tabernacle for storing the sacred hosts.
Many holy images arid their corresponding devotions have
originated from New Spain (now Mexico). Some of the popular
images are the following: statue of Our Lady of Peace and Good
Voyage (also known as Our Lady of Antipolo); the Black Nazarene
venerated at the Quiapo Church, and Our Lady of Guadalupe.
Jesus Christ has been represented in various forms. As a child
he is depicted as the Santo Nifio, either placed on a manger or
standing as the Sovereign King with a globe and a scepter. On His
way to Calvary, he is presented as the Nazareno. While placed
inside a sepulcher, the image is called Santo Entierro. The image of
the resurrected Christ is known as Cristo
Hi in ituiio. Christ on the cross known as the Santo Cristo is regarded
as the most important symbol of the Church. It is to be placed at the
center of every altar. During the Spanish era, it occupied the central
pinnacle of the
church's retablo (decorated medieval altar).
Family life during the Spanish period focused on the Christian
way of life. The father although acknowledged as the head of the
family, considered the sentiments of his wife on family matters. The
mother was regarded as the custodian of the family. She usually
acted as the first teacher of the children.
Families became more considerately close since parents and
children did pray together, particularly during the Angelus, in

saying the rosary and before each meal. They went to church
together to hear the Sunday mass as well as other masses, marking
important religious events like Christmas, Holy Week, and the feast
day of the patron saint of the town.
Owing to the influence of Christianity, social welfare was also
promoted in the country. The sick and the needy were given care
through medical services, juan Clemente founded the first hospital
in Manila in 1578. Out of this hospital originated the present San
Juan de Dios Hospital and the San Lazaro Hospital.
In 1594, the Santa Hermandad y Cofradia de la Misericordia (Holy
Brotherhood and Confraternity of Mercy) was organized for
charitable works and services for the needy. The first regular
orphanage, Real Hospicio de San Jose, was established in 1810.
The religious calendar stemmed from celebrations in reverence
of Jesus Christ and Mother Mary and in the feasts of saints. Every
December 8, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, which
solemnizes the dogma of Mary being conceived without original sin
is celebrated through eucharistic rites and a grand procession.
The whole Christendom celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ on
December 25. The joyous celebration begins on December 16 with
the start of Misa de Aguinaldo (Mass of the gift), popularly known as
simbang gabi, a novena dawn mass to prepare for the midnight mass
on Christmas Eve called Misa de Callo (Mass of the Rooster). A
religious play called panunuluyan, which reenacts the search by
Joseph and Mary for an inn has also been observed in some
parishes prior to the midnight mass. After the mass, families gather
for the traditional noche buena, a feast usually of ham, cheese, and
other native delicacies.
The passion and death of Our Lord is solemnly remembered
during Lenten season, particularly during Holy Week from Palm
Sunday to Easter Sunday. People chant the pasion or attend the
cenaculo (religious play depicting the life, sufferings, and crucifixion

126

of Jesus Christ). In Easter Sunday, the traditional salubong

commemorates Christ's first meeting with His mother.
In Marinduque, the Moriones Festival is held during the Holy
Week. This glittering pageantry rei .ills the story of Longinus, the
Roman centurion who was converted to Christianity. In this
colorful parade, the participants wear masks and costumes
portraying the Roman era. A typical Moriones mask bears a
bearded Caucasian face with large arrogant eyes and an open
mouth.
The tradition of self-flagellation during the Lenten season was
introduced in the Philippines from Mexico. During those times,
public penance was practiced in Spain and the rest of Europe. But
in Mexico and i n the Philippines self-flagellation was primarily
done to carry out a promise (panata in Tagalog) to the Lord.
Every town established during the Spanish period has a patron
saint, whose fiesta is celebrated annually with masses, procession,
fireworks, feasting, music, and often, theatrical presentations.
Towns or barrios named after San Jose (St. Joseph) hold their fiesta
on March 19. Those named Sta. Monica celebrate every May 4.
Those named after Sta. Rita de Casia commemorate her feast day on
May 22. Those named San Juan (St. John the Baptist) observe his
feast on June 24.
Every May 15, the Pahiyas Festival in Lucban, Quezon is held in
honor of San lsidro Labrador, the patron saint of farmers. The word
"pahiyas" comes from the root word hiyas, which gives a notion of a
joyous shower of blessings or treasures. Elaborate decorations like
rice wafer, fruits, and vegetables are placed on houses, as an
outpouring of creativity and thanksgiving for good harvest.
In Pulilan, Bulacan, the Carabao Festival is also held in honor of
San lsidro ever)' May 15. Work animals mostly colorfully groomed
and shaved carabaos are led on parade on the streets of Pulilan to
genuflect or kneel in front of the church.

Also in Bulacan, the Obando Festival is in honor of the town's

patron saints - Nuestra Senora de Salambao, San Pascual Baylon,
and Santa Clara, which begins on the 17,h of May. It is a three-day
celebration. Pilgrims attending the festival usually wear straw hats
adorned with quills, flowers, ribbons or paper and join the dance to
appeal for heavenly intercession for a future spouse in the case of
singles or a child in the case of childless couples. Farmers also
attend to thank the Virgin of Salambao for bounteous harvests.
Bicol's grandest celebration is the annual Penafrancia Festival
where a fluvial procession is made in honor of Our Lady of
Penafrancia every 17th of September in Naga, Camarines Sur.
Culminating the final novena prayers is a Gregorian Mass, in
thanksgiving to God and in honor of Our Lady.
During the entire month of May, parishes annually hold the
Flores de Mayo (Flowers of May), where devotees offer flowers every
day at the church altar to honor the Blessed Mother. Before the
month ends, the Santa Cruz de Mayo or the Santacruzan procession is
held to commemorate the finding of the I loly Cross by Empress
Helena and Emperor Constantine. The participants called sagalas
play various characters found in Christian history, which include
the Reyna Elena. This festive celebration ends inside the church.
Solemn rites and celebrations were followed by dining and
merrymaking among families and friends. During these occasions,
Spanish culinary specialties like paella (a mixture of rice, chicken
and shellfish), arroz valenciana (rice and chicken cooked in coconut
milk), and lengua (sauteed ox-tongue) were usually served in feast
tables.

6. Chinese in the Philippines

During the Spanish times, the Chinese were called Sangleys,
derived from the terms xiang and ley meaning "traveling merchant."

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Since Legazpi and those who succeeded him favored SinoPhilippine trade, more trading junks from China came to the
Philippines annually, bringing their merchandise like silk, textiles,
and porcelain wares.
Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the Chinese had already
established their settlements in the country. The Chinese, who were
able to learn the styles and techniques from native craftsmen,
predominantly occupied the manufacturing of carriages, stone
masonry, printing, shoemaking, and tailoring.
In Manila, they were forced to live outside tine city walls. The
place was called Parian, erected in 1581 by Governor General
Gonzalo Ronquillo de Penalosa. Outside Manila, many Chinese
engaged in retail trade, while others invested in land. Many
Chinese settled in the Philippines after the Taiping Rebellion (18511864) in China. A number of them were converted to Catholicism
and married Filipina women. Their descendants, called Chinese
mestizos, were formed.
During the Spanish period, the Chinese mestizos were able to
acquire land from peasants through the pacto de retroventa. This was
also known as pacto de retro, which was a contract under which the
borrower who conveyed his land to the lender could repurchase it
for the same amount of money that he had received. Generally, the
borrower could no longer pay the sum of money; thus, the transfer
of land ownership to the lender has been completed.
The Chinese in the Philippines had given valuable services to
the community but still they were not given fair treatment by the
Spanish authorities, owing to their constructive role in the
economic development of the country. To discourage Chinese
immigration to the country, the Spanish authorities taxed them
heavily. They were also taxed twice the amount required of
Filipinos because they earned more. The Spanish government
encouraged the immigrants to become agricultural laborers. Soon,

the Chinese gained position in the cash-crop economy in the

provincial level.
The Chinese mestizo could legally change his classification
through the dhpcrtsaie ley, which involved the transfer of his
family to the tax register of Indios. The Chinese compound name
was combined into a single surname, g., Tan Hwang Co to
Tanjuangco. 1 le wore the camisa de chitio and the top li.it, a status
symbol of the native priticipalia.
I he first Chinese threat to Spanish rule in the Philippines was
the m\ .ision of Lim-Ah-Hong. He appeared in Manila Bay on
November 29, l'v I with 62 war junks and shiploads of farming and
household goods. M was in search of a kingdom.
In Paranaque beach, Lim-Ah-Hong landed a force of 600 men
under Sioco, his Japanese lieutenant. On November 30, 1574, Sioco
attacked H.n.umbayan, killed Marshal Martin de Goiti, and
assaulted the city of Manila. But the Spanish forces aided by
Filipinos, drove the invaders back to their ships.
Lim-Ah-Hong himself led the second attack in Manila. This
time, Juan Salcedo has already arrived from Vigan upon knowing
the previous attack in Manila. He succeeded Goiti as marshal.
Sioco died in action while Lim-Ah-Hong retreated with his
ships and men northward, to Pangasinan. He established a colony
at the mouth of Agno River. However, Lim-Ah-Hong's colony in
the Philippines did not last long. Marshal Salcedo with a fleet of
1,500 Filipinos and 250 Spaniards sailed from Manila to Pangasinan
and destroyed Lim-Ah-Hong's stronghold in Lingayen Gulf.
Lim-Ah-Hong evaded capture. He managed to escape through
a man-made canal and fled to the hills and mingled with the Igorots
and Tingguians. Then, he returned to China and reorganized his
forces but he was defeated by the Chinese viceroy in Fookien in a
naval battle of Palahoan. He fled to Thailand but was not permitted
to stay there. He went to other kingdoms, but for fear of China,

130

these kingdoms did not welcome him. He wandered from one place
to another, till his whereabouts could no longer be traced.
The first Chinese revolt was brought about by the deep-seated
suspicion of the Spaniards. On May 23, 1603, three Chinese
mandarins arrived in Manila. They wanted to see Chin-San
(Mountain of Gold), which was believed to be in Cavite. The
Spaniards looked at it as a plausible scheme. After the mandarins
had left, the Spaniards strengthened the city defenses, which
alarmed the Chinese residents.
In Parian, a secret plot to overthrow the Spaniards was planned
under the leadership of Eng-Kang, a rich Chinese merchant. They
attacked Tondo and Quiapo on October 3,1603 by setting the
buildings on fire and by killing the inhabitants. Don Luis
Dasmarinas (former governor general) and Captain Tomas Bravo
de Acuna (nephew of Governor General Acuiia) led the retaliatory
attacks but they were ambushed.
I lowever, the Chinese failed to capture the city walls because
of the Spanish, F ilipino and Japanese joint forces, including the
friars as well as the residents of the area. The Chinese rebels
retreated to the hills of San Pablo, Laguna, but they were defeated
by the forces led by Cristobal de Axqueta Monchaca.
In 1639, the Chinese revolted for the second time. This was
caused by Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera's
order forcing the Chinese to work in Calamba, Laguna. The
Chinese denounced the abuses committed by Spanish tribute
collectors. On November 19,1639, hostilities began in Calamba and
it spread to other towns killing several Spanish friars, including the
alcalde mayor of Laguna, Marcos Zapata.
In the early part of 1662, Koxinga (real name was Cheng
Chengkung) was able to take Taiwan from the Dutch. He sent Fr.
Victorio Ricci to Manila, to extend his directive for tribute from the
Spanish authorities. This infuriated Governor General Manrique de

Lara and thus, he prepared to drive out all Chinese residents in the
country.
The Chinese retaliated by burning the district of Santa Cruz.
Many Filipinos and Spaniards were killed. An army of 4,000
Pampanguenos under Francisco Laksamana came to the rescue and
defeated the rebels who had fled to the mountains of Taytay and
Antipolo.
The fourth Chinese revolt (1686) was planned by Tingco, a
Chinese ex-convict. He was desperate to raise money to return to
China. He tried to burn the city of Manila and to loot the churches.
His group of rebels attacked in August, starting at the Parian, in the
house of Don Diego Vivien, the alcalde mayor. The government
forces arrived and routed them. Tingco was caught and executed.
To put an end to possible Chinese insurrection in the country,
the governor in 1729 ordered that all unbaptized Chinese in Manila
were to reside in the Parian. The baptized ones had to reside in
Binondo and Sta. Cruz.
However, when the British came and occupied Manila in 1762
the Chinese collaborated with them to fight the Spaniards. The
Chinese in Manila as well as the Chinese in Guagua, Pampanga
secretly plotted to massacre the Spaniards on Christmas Eve of
December 24,1762. One of the plotters happened to reveal the plot
to his Filipina sweetheart. The latter relayed the news to Fr. Jose
Salas, the parish priest of Mexico, Pampanga.
Governor General Simon de Anda who was informed of this
plot, led his forces to Guagua on December 20 and crushed the
Chinese rebels. This bloody confrontation was considered in
Philippine history as the "Red Christmas."

7. More Europeans In the Islands

132

Towards the end of the I6,h century, some European nations

began the attempts to establish settlements in the Philippines. In
1579, English mariners including Sir Francis Drake started to harass
Spanish shipping. I he Dutch also began to raid some islands in the
Philippines. They likewise assaulted Chinese, Portuguese, and
Japanese trading vessels.
In 1602, the Dutch trading companies sent fleets capable of
seizing control of the spice trade from the Portuguese. As
Portugal's ally, Spain committed its forces in the Philippines to help
avert Dutch assaults. Thus, the Dutch were drawn to the
Philippines to weaken the Spanish fleet stationed in the colony.
Their base of operations was Formosa (Taiwan). Dutch naval
squadron attacked various places in the Philippines from 1600-1747,
which discouraged Chinese and Japanese traders from entering the
colony.
In February of 1646, a Dutch fleet arrived in the Philippine Sea.
As the Spanish officers and crew prepared for battle, the Dominican
friars advised the people to do penance and pray for the
intercession of Nuestra Sefiora del Santissimo Rosario (Our Lady of the
Most Holy Rosary).
After five naval skirmishes between March 15 and October
4,1646, the Filipinos and Spaniards won the eight-month naval
battle of Manila against the Dutch. This naval victory, until now is
being celebrated as Festival La Naval de Manila in honor of Our
Lady, the patroness of the Spanish fleet. This is truly a
manifestation of divine intervention for people to reflect on the
social and moral pressures that threaten the Filipino society.
The first successful foreign invasion of the Philippines, after the
Spanish conquest was the one staged by the British. It happened
when Spain became involved in the Seven Years War (1756-1763)
on the side of France and Austria against Britain and Prussia for the
control of Germany and for supremacy in North America and

India. In counterstrike, Britain laid claim to most of the Spanish

colonies in the Americas and the Orient, including the Philippines.
On the evening of September 22, 1762 (Manila time), the British
fleet consisting of 13 ships (with around 2,000 men) entered Manila
Bay. The commander of the fleet was Rear Admiral Samuel
Cornish, while Brigadier General William Draper was in command
of the troops. The following morning, September 23, two British
officers sent ashore under a white flag, a truce carrying an
ultimatum to the Spanish officials, demanding the surrender of
Manila. Upon the advice of the council of war, Archbishop Manuel
Antonio Rojo, the interim governor general rejected the ultimatum.
Thousands of Filipino warriors from Pampanga, Bulacan, and
Laguna reinforced the military army in Manila, then with only 556
regular troops.
I heir leader was Manalastas, .1 Pampanguefto. Still, they were
outnumbered and out armed. Knives and spears were no match
against British rifles. Draper's cannons tore down the southwest
corner of the city walls. Finally, they were forced to retreat.
Although unsuccessful, this battle was significant for the Filipinos,
for it proved their loyalty to Spain and to Catholicism.
Manila fell into British hands on October 5, 1762 after a white
flag was hoisted at Fort Santiago. This was to stop the horrible
slaughter of city defenders and residents. Terms of surrender were
discussed.
Simon de Anda, the youngest oidor of the Audencia Real had
escaped in a boat on the eve of the fall of Manila. He was
dispatched by Archbishop Rojo to Bulacan to ensure the loyalty of
the rest of the provinces to Spain. He established his headquarters
in Bacolor, Pampanga. He continued the government with himself
as the governor general.
Archbishop Rojo had also sent messengers to Palapag, Samar
where the galleon Filipino docked. The ship had brought back from

134

Mexico the situado (subsidy) of over a million silver pesos. The

government wanted to keep this fund from the British. Under
Rojo's instructions, the ship was burned after the silver coins were
taken out safely. Learning about it, Cornish sent his frigates to
Samar but the money had already been placed under Anda's care.
During the brief occupation of the British in Manila, the country
had three governors: Archbishop Rojo, Oidor Simon de Anda, and
Honorable Dawsonne Drake, who established a civil government in
Manila. He was appointed by the East [ndia Company to govern
the Philippines.
The brief occupation of Manila by the British resulted to
different reactions. When the British took Pasig, Alimud Din sought
refuge and was later restored to his sultanate in the south. In return,
he signed a treaty permitting the British to establish a trading center
in Jolo.
The people of Paranaque stood loyal to the Spaniards.
Pampanga and Bulacan rallied behind Anda. However, in North
and Central Luzon, some people roused in action against the
Spanish government. In Pangasinan, a revolt was instigated by Juan
de la Cruz Palaris. In the Ilocos region, Diego Silang accepted the
British bid of support for his cause in fighting against the
Spaniards.
The Seven Years War in Europe came to an end with the Treaty
of Paris signed on February 10, 1763. Among the terms settled was
the acquisition of almost entire French Empire in North America by
Britain. The British also acquired Florida from Spain. England has
to restore the Philippines to Spain. The news reached Manila in a
much later date. On May 31,1764, Anda and his troops went back to
Manila amidst the jubilation of the populace in conformity with the
treaty, which formally ended the war.

Study Guides
"Terms/Concepts to Understand
Inter caetera bull
Vassalage
Reduccion
Plaza complex
Retablo
Pacto de retroventa
Questions to Answer
1.
What prompted the Europeans to search new lands in the 14 th .
century to the 16th century?
2.
Explain the efforts of the westerners to conquer the Philippines.
3.
What made some historians believed that it was in Masao,
Butuan and not in Limasawa, Leyte where the first recorded
Christian mass took place?
4.
Did the Spaniards succeed in promoting Hispanic culture
among the early Filipinos?
5.
Describe the general condition of the Filipino-Chinese during
the Spanish period. What caused them to revolt against the
colonial government?
6.
When the British forces occupied Manila in 1762, what
happened as a result to the Philippine political scenario?

Chapter V
Struggle for Rights and Freedom
Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayman
(1574)
1.

Cause: Lavezaris's Reversal of Legazpi's Policy

136

After the death of Legazpi on August 20, 1572, Governor Guido

de Lavezaris no longer exempted the native rulers and their
descendants from paying tribute. He ordered the confiscation of
their patrimonial land properties.
Because of the new policy, Lakandula and Sulayman decided to
rise in arms. Taking advantage of Lim-Ah-Hong's attack in Manila
in 1574, the two chieftains proclaimed their revolt and gathered
their warriors in Navotas.
Juan de Salcedo and Fr. Geronimo Marin were sent by
Lavezaris to persuade them not to carry out their plan. They were
given an assurance that all their grievances would be remedied and
those who took arms would be pardoned. Governor Lavezaris did
this gesture to ask help from Filipino natives in driving away LimAh-Hong from the country.
2.

First Pampanga Revolt (1585)

Cause: Abuses of Encomenderos

Disgruntled by the way the encomenderos administered, some
brave Pampangueno leaders connived with the people of Manila
and the Borneans to rise in revolt.
According to their plan, they would secretly enter the city of
Manila one dark night and massacre the Spaniards. A native
woman who was married to a Spanish soldier happened to learn of
it and warned the Spanish authorities about it. The leaders were
arrested and executed without any fair trial.
3.

The Tondo Conspiracy (1587-88)

Cause: Regain Lost Freedom

Attempting to restore freedom and local leadership being
enjoyed during the pre-colonial years, Agustin de Legazpi (nephew
of Lakandula), together with other leaders like Martin Pangan

(gobernadorcillo of Tondo), Magat Salamat (son of Lakandula), Juan

Banal (another Tondo chief), Esteban Taes (chief of Bulacan), Pedro
Balinguit (chief of Pandacan), Pitonggatan (chief of Tondo), Felipe
Salonga (chief of Polo), and Geronimo Basi (brother of Agustin de
Legazpi) planned to overthrow the Spanish rulers in the country.
***
Through a Japanese I luisli.m, Dionisio Fernandez, Agustin de
Legazpi, and his fellow conspirator contacted a Japanese sea
captain, Juan Gayo, to get amis and Japanese warriors to fight the
Spaniards. In exchange, he and his Japanese warriors would be
given one-half of the tribute collected in the Philippines. Aside
from this, help would also be secured from Borneo, l.aguna, and
Batangas. The conspirators with their warriors would then assault
the city of Manila and start killing the Spaniards.
Magat Salamat innocently revealed the plan to Antonio
Surabao, i Cuyo native who was pretending to be a supporter.
Surabao later recounted this to his master, Pedro Sarmiento (the
Spanish encomendero of Calamianes). Immediately, Captain
Sarmiento rushed to Manila and informed Governor General
Santiago de Vera on October 26, 1588, the existence of a conspiracy
against the Spanish government.
Eventually, the governor ordered the arrest of all persons
implicated in the revolutionary plot, including Dionisio Fernandez,
a Japanese interpreter. All these suspects were investigated and
tried in court. They were given harsh penalties. Agustin de Legazpi
and Martin Pangan were brutally hanged. Their heads were cut off
and placed in iron cages. The government seized their properties.
The sites of their homes were plowed and sown with salt to remain
barren.

138

Dionisio Fernandez was hanged and his property, confiscated.

Also executed were Magat Salamat, Geronimo Basi, and Esteban
Taes. The rest were given lighter punishments - heavy fines and
some years of exile from their town. Five of the leading members of
the conspiracy were exiled to Mexico - Pedro Balinguit,
Pitonggatan, Felipe Salonga, Calao, and Agustin Manuguit.

4. Magalat's Revolt, Cagayan (1596)

Cause: Tribute
During the rule of Governor Francisco Tello, two brothers
instigated the people of Cagayan to rise in arms against the colonial
government because of the latter's arbitrary levy collection. One of
the brothers was called Magalat. The uprising was suppressed by
the authorities. He and his men were kept in Manila as exiles.
The Dominican missionaries of Cagayan persuaded Governor
Tello to pardon them, after knowing the plight of the two brothers.
The favor was subsequently granted. After Magalat was released,
he went back to Cagayan and incited the people to continue the
fight. Many Spaniards and loyal natives were killed by the rebels.
Governor Tello sent Captain Pedro de Chavez to quell the revolt.
Magalat, however, remained undefeated in open battle. Later, the
Spaniards decided to hire native assassins. Magalat was murdered
in his own house.
5.

Revolt of the Igorots (1601)

Cause: Refusal to Accept New Religion

The Spaniards were determined to convert the Igorots to
Christianity. They launched a crusade to proselytize the highland
natives of Luzon and to place them under Spanish authorities. A
strong expedition was sent to the Igorot land to stop the natives

from resisting colonial subjugation. However, the Spaniards were

only able to gain nominal political and military control over them.
6.

Revolt of the Irrayas, Northern Isabela

in the Cagayan Valley (1621)

Cause: Oppression of Spanish Officials

Fray Pedro de Santo Tomas, a Dominican missionary, tried to
convince the rebels to avoid an uprising against the abusive
Spanish officials. The rebels led by Gabriel Dayag and Felix
Cutabay refused to heed the priest's words of peace. However, they
treated Fr. Santo Tomas and his missionary companions with
respect. They allowed the friars to leave unmolested, with all their
ornaments and jewels of the churches.
After the missionaries had left, the Irrayas began their fight by
killing the oppressive encomenderos and burning their houses.
After this bloody incident, the rebels went up to the Basili River
and built their fortification on a rocky hill.
Fr. Santo Tomas returned and exhorted the leaders to lay down
their arms and promised them that the government would pardon
them and remedy their grievances. The revolt ended without a
fight.
7.

The Revolt of Tamblot, Bohol (1621-22)

Cause: Return to Native Religion

In 1621, Tamblot, a babaylan (native priest), reported the
appearance of a diwata who promised the people a life of
abundance, without the burden of paying tribute to the government
or dues to the church. He persuaded the natives to abandon the
Catholic religion and rise against the Spaniards. Around 2,000
Boholanos responded to Tamblot's call.

140

They began the uprising at the time when most of the Jesuit
fathers, the spiritual administrators of the island, were in Cebu
celebrating the feast of the beatification of St. Francis Xavier. They
burned the villages being supervised by the Jesuits, as well as their
churches. They threw away all rosaries and crosses they could find.
News of the revolt reached Cebu. Don Juan de Alcarazo, the
alcalde mayor, sent immediately an expedition to Bohol, consisting
of 50 Spaniards and more than 1,000 natives from Cebu and
Pampanga. In the midst of a heavy downpour, Tamblot and his
followers were crushed.
8.

Hankow's Revolt Leyte (1622)

Cause: Return to Native Religion

The leader of this rebellion was the aged chieftain of

Limasawa, Bankaw, who was one of the first local leaders who
received Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565. He had been previously
converted to Christianity and became loyal to Spain. But in his old
age, Bankaw together with his sons and a native priest named
Pagali, led the people of Carigara, Leyte to rise i n arms in defense
of their old religion. Soon they had the whole island into armed
resistance.
Fr. Melchor de Vera, a Jesuit, went to Cebu and warned the
Spanish authorities of the uprising. Alcalde Mayor Alcarazo sent a
fleet of 40 vessels, manned by hundreds of Cebuanos and some
Spanish arquebusiers to Leyte. The rebels were offered peace but
they turned it down.
The Spanish-Filipino forces pursued them in the hills and
defeated them. Bankaw, together with his son and Pagali perished
in the battle. Soon his second son was beheaded as a traitor. His
daughter was taken as captive. Bankaw's head was placed on a
stake as a public warning, to generate fear among the natives.

9.

The Revolt of Ladia (1643)

Cause: Spanish Oppression

Pedro Ladia, a native of Borneo, who claimed to be a
descendant of Rajah Matanda, instigated the people of Malolos,
Bulacan to rise in arms against the Spanish government. He was
able to recruit a number of followers but before he could carry out
his plan, Fr. Cristobal Enriquez had already entreated the people to
remain loyal to Spain. Ladia was later on arrested and sent to
Manila to be executed.
10.

The Revolt of Dabao (1650s)

Cause: Controversial Decree to Send Carpenters to the Cavite

Shipyard
To move freely among fellow Christians, Dabao, a Manobo
chieftain in Northern Mindanao allowed himself to be baptized to
the Catholic faith. He convinced some new converts to join him in
his plan to kill the religious and all the Spanish soldiers in the fort.
Dabao's opportunity to carry out his plot came as natives who
stole a quantity of maize and rice were being hunted down. He
offered himself to catch them. He took his men to act as prisoners.
Just when the men were going to be set in the stocks for their
punishment, Dabao attacked the captain and the supposed
prisoners joined him by taking out their concealed weapons. All
Spaniards in the garrison were killed. Governor Diego Fajardo
offered amnesty to the rebels to end the Northern Mindanao unrest.
However, the rebels who surrendered were either hanged or
enslaved or taken to Manila, where they were sold to Spanish
household.

142

11.

Sumuroy's Revolt, Samar (1649-50)

Cause: Forced Labor

Under Juan Sumuroy's leadership, the people of Palapag,
Samar rose in arms against the government. They resented
Governor Diego Fajardo's order, which involved the sending of
men to Cavite shipyards. Hostilities began on June 1,1649, with the
killing of the curate of the town.
The revolt spread to Albay and Camarines, Cebu, Masbate,
Camiguin, and as far as Northern Mindanao. Sumuroy won several
victories over the Spanish-Filipino forces. At one time, the Spanish
commander offered a large sum of money in exchange of
Sumuroy's head. The rebels sent him the head of a pig instead.
In July 1650, under cover of darkness and rainfall, the
government forces staged an assault on the natives' fort. The rebels
were caught by surprise. Sumuroy's mother perished in the battle.
The revolt ended with individual surrenders. The rebels themselves
killed Sumuroy and brought his head to the Spanish commander.
12.

Maniago's Revolt, Pampanga (1660)

Causes: Frequent Recruitment of Men to Cut Timber in the

Mountains and Bandala
Pampanga's rice production suffered exceedingly from the
disruptive effects of polo. One thousand Pampanguenos had been
working for eight months as timber cutters. To show their
sentiments against the government, the workers mutinied and set
their campsite on fire. They chose Don Francisco Maniago, a chief
from the village of Mexico to be their leader.
The armed rebels gathered in Lubao under Maniago and
another group made preparations in Bacolor. They closed the
mouths of rivers with stakes. Letters to other chiefs in Pangasinan,

Ilocos, and Cagayan were sent, asking them to join the uprising
against the Spaniards and later elect a king of their own.
By the time the province of Pampanga revolted, the
government owed the local inhabitants more than 200,000 pesos
due to unpaid rice purchases from the bandala system.
The Spaniards tried to end the rebellion immediately because
they knew that the Pampanguenos had been trained in military art.
Governor Manrique de Lara began his maneuver with a show of
force, by bringing with him 300 men in Macabebe. Seeing the wellarmed Spaniards, the Pampanguenos showed cordiality. This
caused other rebels to waver and distrust one another.
Governor Lara called for Juan Macapagal, chief of Arayat, to a
discussion. De Lara treated him well and assured him rewards if he
would
Mcle with the government. Mai apagal consequently accepted Ihr
offer. He went back to Arayat and organized a force to repress the
rebels. His defection discouraged other chiefs. Parish priests as well
as mercenary soldiers were also employed to demoralize the rebels.
The governor general moreover, I imposed a partial payment of
14,000 pesos on the total amount of 200,000 pesos that the
government owed to the Pampanguenos.
The Spaniards concluded an agreement with Maniago, which
brought about peace in Pampanga. For fear that the Pangasinenses
would strike back, the Pampanguenos themselves demanded two
Spanish garrisons in the province, one in Lubao and another in
Arayat. From then on, they never revolted against the colonial
government.

144

Andres Malong's
(1660-61)
13.

Revolt,

Pangasinan

Causes: Spanish Oppression and the Desire to Replace the

Spaniards as Personal Rulers of the People
Spurred by the Pampangueno rebellion, the natives of
Pangasinan also rose in arms against the Spanish government in
Lingayen on December 15, 1660. Several Spaniards were killed,
including an alcalde mayor. Inspired by the growing number of
their followers and their early successes, Malong proclaimed
himself a king and directed his military leaders to place the
province under rebel control with his defenses at the capital town
of Binalatongan. He appointed Pedro Gumapos as count, Francisco
Pacadua as judge, and Jacinto Macasiag, and Melchor de Vera as
army generals.
Letters were sent to the people of Tlocos, Zambales, Pampanga
and Cagayan, inviting them to rise against the Spaniards. The
Pampanguenos under Maniago did not join because they had
already made their peace with the Spaniards.
To extend his sovereignty, Malong sent 6,000 men to Pampanga
and 3,000 men to llocos and Cagayan, leaving 2,000 men with him
in Pangasinan. But this depleted his forces. The government troops
led by Don Felipe de Ugalde and Don Francisco Esteban outmaneu
vered his army in Pangasinan. He was pursued into the mountains
and was caught alive. He was executed together with Vera,
Pacadua, and Macasiag in 1661 in Binalatongan.
14.

The Revolt of Gumapos (1661)

Cause: Continue Andres Malong's Revolt

Pedro Gumapos and his army of Zambals killed many
Spaniards in llocos. The Ilocanos did not join them; for their loyalty

was to their property. During the Zambal invasion, they hid their
valuables in the Bishop's house and buried other properties.
The bishop assembled the Zambals and threatened them with
excommunication the moment they get anything from the churches
or from his house. But the bishop's words fell on deaf ears.
Gumapos's campaign ended after an encounter with the
Spanish forces. Four hundred rebels were slain and Gumapos
himself was taken prisoner and was later hanged in Vigan.
15.

The Revolt of filmazan (1660s)

Cause: Personal Ambitions

The flames of rebellion soon spread in Ilocos with Pedro
Almazan as the defiant leader. Almazan, a rich chief of San Nicolas,
crowned himself King of Ilocos during the wedding ceremony of
his son to the daughter of another chief. He wore the crown of the
Queen of Angels taken from the church, which the rebels sacked.
The rebels were gaining some headway at the start but the
Spaniards eventually suppressed them.
16.

Tapar's Revolt, Panay (1663)

Cause: Found a New Religion Under Native Supervision

The prevalent misdemeanor of Spanish friars alienated
countless natives from the Catholic faith. Tapar, a native of Panay,
wanted to establish a religious cult in Oton. He attracted many
followers with his stories about his frequent conversations with a
demon.
Tapar and his men were killed in a bloody fight against the
Spaniards, along with native volunteer soldiers. Their corpses were
impaled on stakes.

146

17.

Dagohoy's Revolt, Bohol (1744-1829)

Cause: Refusal to Give His Brother a Christian Burial

Father Gaspar Morales denied Francisco Dagohoy's brother a
Christian burial because the latter died in a duel. Dagohoy argued
that his brother's burial was the responsibility of the Jesuit priest
because he had died carrying out the missionary's order, to arrest
an apostate. The priest refused to bury Dagohoy's brother unless
the proper limosnas, or church offerings were given. The body was
left decomposing for three days.
Humiliated by this tragic incident, Dagohoy got mad and
incited the natives of Bohol to revolt. He took around 3,000 men
and women to the uplands of Talibon and lnabangan. He set up a
self-sustaining community far from the Spanish authorities.
Dagohoy's community grew in number as more people fled to the
hills to avoid being recruited by the government to join its
expeditions in Northern Mindanao as well as to avoid the harsh
impositions of the government.
Dagohoy and his men raided the Jesuit estate of San Javier.
Then they killed the Italian Jesuit curate in Jagna, Father Guiseppe
Lamberti in 1744. Because of the killing, the Spanish authorities
tortured and killed Dagohoy's future father-in-law and the porter of
the church of the slain priest.
II* death of the innocent ^nuter drove more people to join
Dagohoy's ^roup. Shortly afterwards, l ather Morales was killed
in cold blood. Bishop Miguel Lino de Kspeleta of Cebu tried to
pacify the rebels through negotiations. The plan to send secular
priests to Bohol was not carried out. A 20-year deadlock set in. The
community continued to subsist without outward sign of rebellion.
Twenty Spanish governors from Caspar de la Torre (1739-45) to
Juan Antonio Martinez (1822-25) tried to stop the rebellion but

failed. In the 1740s and the 1750s, the Spanish government was
preoccupied with the Muslim raids.
In 1829, the rebellion finally ended when Governor Mariano
Ricafort pardoned 19,420 survivors and permitted them to live in
the new villages. Nothing has been heard on how Dagohoy died.
His autonomous community lasted for 85 years.

18. Silong's Revolt (1762-63)

I . Causes: His Imprisonment, Abusive Government Officials,
Heavy Taxation
The Ilocanos had already been complaining about the
anomalous collection of tribute and the abuses of the alcaldes
max/ores in the exercise of indulto de comercio. Diego Silang appealed
to Don Antonio Zabala, the provincial governor of llocos to
consider the demands of the natives. Regarding him an agitator,
Zabala had Silang incarcerated.
Silang's followers and friends successfully worked for his
release. Taking advantage of the Spanish preoccupation with the
British in Manila, Silang led the revolt of the Ilocanos and made
Vigan the capital of his independent government. His defiance of
the Spaniards lost him support of many principals. He ordered that
those principals who were opposing him be arrested and brought to
him. Should they resist, they were to be slain. He also imposed a
fine of 100 pesos on each priest but lowered it to 80 pesos on their
petition. Property of the church was also taken.
Bishop Bernardo Ustariz of Vigan issued an interdict against
Silang and his followers. He exhorted the Ilocanos to withdraw
support for the rebels' cause. In retaliation, Silang imprisoned all of
the latter's followers.
Finally, Spanish Governor Simon de Anda sent Silang an
ultimatum. Fearing that Anda was planning to march to llocos,

148

Silang decided to seek the protection of the British. Shortly

thereafter, he accepted the Bri tish offer of friendship to fight
against the Spaniards.
However, Silang's leadership ended with an assassin's bullet.
Miguel Vicos, a Spanish mestizo who wished to take revenge on
Silang and Pedro Becbec, a trusted aide of Silang conspired to kill
the rebel leader in exchange of a large monetary reward. Vicos shot
Silang in the latter's house.
Gabriela Silang, Diego's wife, continued the fight. Nicolas
Carino, Silang's uncle, temporarily took command of the forces. He
and Gabriela attacked the town of Santa in Ilocos Sur and won over
the government forces. After the battle, Gabriela went to the forests
of Abra and recruited the Tingguians (Itnegs).
Another battle was fought at Cabugao, but this time the rebels
were beaten. Carino perished in action. Gabriela and her warriors
fled to Abra and organized a new army of Ilocanos and Tingguians.
With her newly reorganized battalion, Gabriela marched
towards Vigan. She rode on a fast horse and led her troops into the
combat. The loyal archers of the Spanish government repulsed her
attack. Once more, she went back to the mountains of Abra with
her followers. Don Manuel de Arza, lieutenant governor of
Northern Luzon and his Cagayan warriors followed her trail. With
the aid of Apayaos and Kalingas, they captured her and her
surviving followers. On September 20,1763, Gabriela and her
companions were executed in Vigan, Ilocos Sur.
19.

Polaris'* Revolt (1762-65)

Causes: Tribute, Spain's Loss of Prestige Due to the British

Occupation of Manila
Simultaneous with the Silang revolt was an uprising in
Pangasinan. The local inhabitants wanted the abolition of the

tribute and the removal of loaquin Gamboa, alcalde mayor of the

province for irregularities in tax collection.
The rebellion began on November 3,1762 at the town of
Binalatongan under the leadership of Juan de la Cruz Palaris. From
Binalatongan, the spirit of insurrection spread to other towns of the
province. Palaris urged the people to fight since the Spaniards were
very weak because of their defeat at the hands of the British in
Manila. For over a year, he succeeded in driving the Spaniards and
friars out of the rebel towns. The Dominican friars tried to pacify
the rebels, but failed.
In March 1764, Don Mariano de Arza together with 3,000 loyal
Ilocano soldiers suppressed the Revolt of Palaris in Pangasinan.
Palaris was publicly hanged.
20.

Basi Revolt (1807)

Cause: Wine Monopoly of 1786

Due to the wine monopoly of the government, the Ilocanos
were prohibited to drink homemade basi (wine fermented from
sugarcane). They were compelled to buy wine from government
stores.
On September 16, 1807, the Ilocanos of Piddig, Ilocos Norte,
rose in arms in defense of their favorite wine, basi. The rebellion
spread to the neighboring towns, Badoc and Santo Domingo.
The Spanish alcaldc muyot, who was residing in Vigan, sent a
force ot 36 soldiers and two column* of civilian guards with a
cannon to attack Badoc. However, on September 28, 1807, the
alcalde mayor together with a strong force of regular troops
attacked them at San lldefonso and quelled the revolt.

150

Revolt in Defense
Constitution (1815)
21.

of

the

Spanish

Cause: Abolition of the Liberal Spanish Constitution

The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was very much influenced by
the ideals of the French Revolution - Liberty, Equality, and
Fraternity. This democratic constitution granted human rights to
both Spaniards and Filipinos. It was promulgated by the Spanish
Cortes (Parliament) and approved and signed by 184 delegates of
Spain and her colonies (including the Philippines). One of its
signatories was Ventura de los Reyes, a Filipino.
Upon knowing that this constitution was abolished on May 4,
1814 by the despotic ruler King Ferdinand VII, an explosion of
violence in the country against the principales took place. The
masses suspected that the principales were behind this, since they
had been presumed aiding the Spanish authorities to perpetuate in
power.
On March 3, 1815, more than 1,500 Ilocanos of Sarrat, Ilocos
Norte, under the leadership of Simon Tomas rose in arms in
defense of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The Ilocanos
plundered the houses of rich Spaniards and pro-Spanish natives.
They also looted the churches and killed some friars and officials.
The Spanish government rushed infantry and cavalry forces to the
rebellious towns in the Ilocandia. The revolt ended on March 6,
with the surviving leaders of the rebellion severely punished.
22.

Revolt of the Bayot Brothers (1822)

Cause: Feeling of Distrust between the Peninsulares and the

Creoles
The insulares in the Philippines, as well as the Creoles in other
colonies of Spain resented the extra privileges given to the

peninsulares. The feeling of distrust and antagonism between the

peninsulares and the Creoles became intense in the early decades of
the 19th century.
Inspired by the achievements of the Creole liberators in Latin
America from 1808 to 1826 and influenced by the ideals of the
French Revolution (1789-1799), the three Bayot brothers - Manuel,
Jose, and Joaquin - sons of Colonel Francisco Bayot, a prominent
creole of Manila, conspired with other Creole officers of the
Battalion Real Principe, to overthrow the government, which was
dominated by the peninsulares. The plot was to be carried out on
April 17,1822 at dawn.
A few days before April 17, the plan of the Bayot conspiracy
was discovered. Governor Mariano de Folgueras alerted the
Queen's Regiment and surrounded the barracks of suspected rebels
with loyal troops and 15 cannons. The Bayot brothers were
imprisoned after a trial.

11 ktfllglout Revolt of Mermano Pule

(1840-41)
***
.uittiN K'li);ius Freedom
In 18 W, Apolinario de la Cruz went to Manila to pursue
priestly vocation under the Dominican order. He was not accepted
on the ground that he was an itidio (native). At that time, all
religious orders were closed to indios.
In June 1840, Apolinario, better known as Hermano Pule
returned to Lucban, Tayabas Province (now Quezon Province), and
founded the Cofradia de San Jose (Confraternity of St. Joseph), a
nationalist fellowship, which fostered the practice of Christian
virtues.

152

Hermano Pule sought the recognition of his religious

brotherhood. However, Governor General Marcelino Oraa and
Archbishop Jose Segui, upon the recommendation of the Spanish
friars, banned his confraternity. Undaunted by the intolerance of
the government authorities, he carried on his religious movement
at Barrio Isabang of Mount Banahaw, then later moved his camp at
Alitao, at the foot of Mount Cristobal. His brotherhood attracted
thousands of followers in Tayabas, Laguna, and Batangas.
On November 1,1841, Lt. Col. Joaquin Huet, a veteran Spanish
combat commander, launched a massive assault in Alitao, killing
hundreds of defenseless old men, women, and children. Hermano
Pule was captured the following evening at Barrio Ibanga and was
executed on November 4, 1841. The Spanish soldiers paraded his
chopped body from Tayabas to nearby Lucban, his birthplace.
Enraged by the merciless killing in Alitao, the noncommissioned officers and soldiers of the Tayabas Regiment
secretly planned to rise in arms under the leadership of Sergeant
Irineo Samaniego. After a few hours of fighting at Fort Santiago,
Samaniego and his men were routed, captured and shot to death at
Bagumbayan at sundown of January 21,1843.

24. Muslim Wars (1578-1898)

The Spaniards made attempts to subdue the inhabitants of
Mindanao by deploying its military forces in the South. The
Muslims on the other hand, valiantly resisted and repulsed the
colonizers. They retaliated by raiding territories under Spanish rule
with varying degrees of intensity. The war between the Muslim
Filipinos and the Spaniards (aided by Christian Filipinos) lasted for
more than 300 years.

The Muslim wars were brought about by the following reasons:

the Spanish invasion of Mindanao and Sulu, preservation of Islam,
and the love of adventure arising from the spoils of wars.
In 1597, the Spanish colonizers tried to seize Jolo and force the
sultanate into submission. After his victorious battle in Borneo for
the Spanish Crown, Governor Francisco de Sande sent forces to
Jolo, under the command of
Captain Esteban Rodriguez Ue I igueroa. He ordered the
pacification of the place and the payment ot tribute by the
inhabitants to the colonial government. Sultan Pangiran Budiman
(Muhammad ul-Halim) resisted the ittack. However, Sulu fell into
Spanish hands. Pearls were given as tribute to the Spaniards.
The Muslims, haughtily referred to by the Spaniards as Mows,
avenged by plundering coastal towns under Spanish dominion.
Sirungan and Salikala prepared a stronger force of 70 vessels and
4,000 warriors, a year .liter their first successful raid in the Visayas
in 1599. This time, they were repulsed with heavy losses at Arevalo,
lloilo province by 1,000 Visayan warriors and 70 Spanish
arquebusiers under the command of Don Juan Garcia de Sierra, a
Spanish alcalde mayor who died in the fight.
To embark its operations over Muslim Mindanao, the Spaniards
built fortified stations in particular areas. On June 23, 1635, Father
Melchor de Vera along with 1,000 Visayans began the building of
the stone fort in the province. This fort was named Fort Pilar (in
honor of Nuestra Senora del Pilar, the patroness of Zamboanga),
which helped the government forces in their campaign against the
belligerent natives.
The Spaniards tried to conquer Maguindanao but were
thwarted by native resistance. From 1600-1650, the sultan of
Maguindanao, Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat (Corralat in
Spanish records) held power in regions from the Gulf of Davao all
the way to Dapitan.

154

On March 13, 1637, Governor Corcuera with his SpanishFilipino troops landed at the mouth of Rio de Grande de Mindanao.
The next day, Lamitan, Sultan Kudarat's capital in Cotabato fell into
the hands of the Spaniards. Kudarat retreated to a hill called Ilihan.
Corcuera's troops assaulted the place and finally captured it after a
bloody encounter. Defeated by the Spaniards, Kudarat was able to
escape together with his brave wife, carrying a baby.
On May 24, Governor Corcuera returned to Manila and was
given a conqueror's welcome - with music, religious festivals, and a
moro-moro performance (a stage play about the contending
Christians and Muslims with the former emerging as victors).
The fighting Moros intensified their efforts to continue the
battle against the Spaniards. After nursing his bullet wound in one
arm, Sultan Kudarat later mounted raids on Spanish settlements in
Luzon and the Visayas and inspired fellow Muslims never to
submit to the Spanish colonizers. The Muslims also assaulted the
Spanish outposts in Mindanao and Sulu. In 1645, the Tausugs
finally liberated Jolo from the Spanish forces.
In 1749, Sultan Alimud Din I was deposed by his brother
Bantilan because of his friendship with the Spaniards. On January
2,1750, he and his family, together with some faithful followers
arrived in Manila. The sultan was royally received by Bishop Juan
de Arrechedera, the acting governor general. On April 28 of the
same year, he was baptized by the Dominican fathers at Paniqui,
Tarlac. He was named Don Fernando Alimud Din I, the first
Christian sultan of Jolo. His son, Israel, and his daughter Fatima
were likewise converted to Christianity and given education in
Manila.
In 1751, Governor General Jose Francisco de Obando wanted
Alimud Din I to regain his throne in Jolo. The sultan left Manila for
Jolo and stopped at Zamboanga. The Spanish commander in
Zamboanga claimed to have intercepted a letter from Alimud Din I

to a sultan in Mindanao, which was allegedly treasonable. Alimud

Din I was shipped back to Manila and later imprisoned at Fort
Santiago.
Governor General Pedro Manuel de Arandia, Obando's
successor, released Alimud Din I and granted him royal privileges.
In 1762, the British troops rescued Alimud Din I at Pasig and later
restored to him his throne in Jolo.
The Spanish forces, plunged in its conflict with the British and
the local rebels, were unable to control the Mow (plunderer) raids
on Christian pueblos in the Visayas and Luzon. The height of Moro
wars occurred in the second half of the 18th century. In 1769, the
Moros landed at Malate and plundered the place.
According to Spanish records, an average of 500 Christians
were captured and sold annually as slaves in Betavia, Sandakan,
and in other slave markets in the East Indies. The Spanish
government spent huge sum of money for military operations
against the marauding troops of the South.
In the closing decades of the 19th century, the Moro power
declined. In 1848, Governor General Narciso Claveria, using new
steamships, attacked the Samals at Balanguingui. They brought 350
Samal prisoners to Manila.
On December 11,1850, Governor General Antonio de
Urbiztondo left Manila for Zamboanga in command of a force
consisting of 100 troops of artillery and 500 infantry to subjugate
the Muslims of Sulu. Upon his arrival in the last week of the month,
he desisted from fighting, realizing that his force was not enough to
capture Jolo. He sailed again to Jolo in January 1851. Sulu warriors
fired upon his ships. The Spanish force retaliated and burned down
1,000 houses and around 100 bancas (boats) in Tungkil before
sailing back to Zamboanga. The following month, after a
reinforcement of his troops, Urbiztondo attacked Jolo. The natives
of Sulu lost over 100 men, and were forced into the interior.

156

In 1861, after more expeditions by the Spaniards in

Maguindanao, the sultan finally recognized Spanish sovereignty.
However, resistance continued under Datu Ugto in upper Pulangi.
Superior Spanish arms allowed the colonizers to remain in
Maguindanao until 1899.
In 1874, Admiral Joni? M.iU.impo became the Spanish
governor general in the Philippines. I le prepared a mighty armada
for the invasion of Jolo. This would put an end to the devastating
raids of the Tausugs on the Christian pueblos. The attack lasted for
24 hours. On March 1, 1876, Sultan Jamalul A'lam worked for peace
with the Spaniards.
Sultan Jamalul A'lam of Jolo transferred his capital to
Maimbung. The Sultanate of Sulu, being a sovereign government
was able to lease Sabah (North Borneo) to a British company. On
January 22,1878, Sultan Jamalul A' lam leased Sabah to Mr. Alfred
Dent, an Englishman and Baron Gustavus Von Overbeck, an
Austrian of British North Borneo Company for an annual rental of
5,000 Malayan dollars. The contract in 1878 used the Tausug word
"padjack," which means lease. (The rental was increased to 5,300
Malayan dollars in 1903 to 1963).
The sultan of Jolo, a direct descendant of Sultan Kudarat,
acquired sovereignty over North Borneo (Sabah) the second half of
the 17th century. When the sultan of Brunei sought help to the
sultan of Jolo to suppress a rebellion in 1704, the Sabah territory
was ceded to the latter in 1715 out of gratitude.
In 1886, Governor General Emilio Terrero led the invasion to
Cotabato to subdue the Moro Maguindanaoans. Terrero's forces
destroyed some kutas (forts) of Datu Utto but failed to crush Utto's
fighters. After suffering heavy losses, Governor Terrero decided to
return to Manila.

In 1891, Governor General Valeriano Weyler, known as the

"Butcher" for his ruthless suppression of early revolts in Cuba,
invaded Lanao. On August 21, 1891, he won the First Battle of
Marawi in Lanao Lake. Datu Amai Pakpak, the defender of
Marawi, was able to escape. He recruited more warriors to fight
against the Spanish invaders. Failing to conquer Lanao, Weyler
assaulted Cotabato. However, he was overpowered by Datu Ali
Jimbangan and his fierce krismen (warriors).
In 1895, Governor General Ramon Blanco invaded the Lanao
Lake region. Blanco's troops attacked Marawi on March 10,1895. In
this second battle of Marawi, the heroic Datu Amai Pakpak died in
action. Blanco won his battle, but he failed to conquer Lanao like
Terrero and Weyler. To avenge the fall of Marawi and the death of
Datu Amai Pakpak, the Muslim warriors declared a jihad (holy
war), forcing Blanco to halt the campaign and return to Manila.
The bitter warfare between the Spaniards and the Muslims
ended in 1898, after the signing of the Peace Treaty of Paris on
December 10, 1898, which ended the Spanish domination in the
Philippines.

25. The Rise of Filipino Nationalism

Nationalism was said to have rooted from a strong feeling
among populace that they belong to the same race. Such sentiment
has not yet existed in the Philippines prior to the 19th century.
Although the cultural traits of the early Filipinos had striking
similarities, their linguistic differences as well as the local
autonomy of each political unit in the archipelago barely yielded to
the development of this national sentiment. The absence of
adequate means of transportation and communication made the
situation even more dismal.

158

The transition of the country's traditional societal structure to

colonial bureaucracy brought about the awareness of the local
inhabitants as to their common source of anxiety and suffering.
Unknowingly, the Spanish government planted the seeds of
nationalism by perpetuating poverty and injustice among the lower
classes of society. The following have been regarded in history as
factors that gave rise to Filipino nationalism:
1.

Spread of liberalism. When Spain gradually exposed the

Philippines to international commerce in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries, liberal ideas from Europe filtered in.
The thoughts of Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Locke,
Jefferson, and other political philosophers were made
known through books and periodicals brought into the
country by men from foreign ports.
The transformation of the Philippine economy into a
raw material market for Europe unconsciously increased
their contact with the intellectual tradition of the West. The
improvement in transportation and communication
facilities required by increased foreign trade also brought
the Filipinos closer, and made them realize their common
predicament.
When Spain opened the Philippine ports in 1834 to free
trade, commercialization of Philippine agriculture and
economic expansion greatly benefited the principalia in the
country. They were able to send their children to schools
and even to educational institutions in Spain, thereupon
giving them exposure to libertarian ideals.
The dissipation of European and American liberalism in
the country was even facilitated with the opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869. In like manner, the ideas of masonry
(i.e., freethinking, anticlerical, and humanitarian) also made

3.

4.

the new middle class aware of the repressive policy of the

Spanish authorities in the colony thus, making themselves
more outspoken on the excesses of the friars and
government officials.
2.
Sentiment against the principales. There was a mounting
dissatisfaction against the principales (or the political and
social aristocracy, which includes the prominent landowning and propertied citizens), accommodated as
intermediaries of the Spanish government from the
inception of its colonial rule.
The manse* Iwul Nfen skeptical about the local aristocracy
due to their proportion of influence in the society. The Ilocano
insurrection in 1815 was a manifestation of the people's cry to
mass movement.
Racial prejudice. The Spaniards commonly regarded the
Filipino natives as belonging to the "inferior race" and haughtily
called them as indios. The preconceived notion of the Spanish
colonizers that the natives could not rise beyond their "limited
intelligence" instigated the enlightened Filipinos to struggle for
equality. Jose Rizal's annotation of Antonio de Morga's Sucesos
de las Islas Filipinas denounced the allegations of the Spaniards
that the Filipinos were savages and had no culture prior to the
coming of the Western colonizers.
Cultural changes. The educational reforms of 1863 dramatically
improved the standards of education in the primary level. With
the implementation of a new educational system, qualified
Filipinos were able to pursue higher education. Young men
from prosperous Chinese mestizo and native families were able
to take up law, medicine, and pharmacy. They were able to see
the repressive colonial policies of Spain after being enlightened
with liberal ideas; thus, giving birth to a new breed of Filipinos
- the ilustrados (enlightened ones).

160

5.

The ilustrados got the chance to manifest their political will

when Carlos Maria de la Torre became governor general in
1869. This benevolent governor was able to show his liberal
disposition in administering the government after he invoked
reforms in the government like the revocation of press
censorship and the abolition of flogging as a form of
punishment. He even lived simply within his means. Governor
de la Torre as a result, inspired the Filipino middle class to
sustain their campaign for reforms in the country.
Secularization controversy. The mandatory provision of the
Council of Trent (1545-1563) affirmed that secular priests be
appointed to administer the parishes in the colony. Due to lack
of secular priests, Pope Pius V issued in 1567, upon the request
of King Philip II, the Exponi Nobis, which allowed the regular
clergy (those belonging to monastic orders) to serve as parish
priests without diocesan authorization and be exempted from
bishop's authority.
However, the appointment of regular clergy to Philippine
parishes brought about dissension among members of the
Church. The regular orders at the outset resisted diocesan
visitation on the ground that this would place them under two
superiors, the head of their religious order and the bishop as
well.

This caused the expulsion of priests who refused the visitation of

parishes by representatives of the bishop. The members of the
Society of Jesus, SJ (Jesuits) were expelled from the country for this
reason.
The parishes vacated by the Jesuits (expelled in the country in
1768) were given to the native seculars. In the 18th century,
Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa accepted the resignation of regular
priests and appointed native secular priests to the parishes.

The royal decree, which was promulgated on November 9, 1774

ordering the secularization of the parishes (or the turnover of
parishes supervised by regular clergy to the seculars), became the
basis for the appointment of native secular clergy. However, this
royal decree was suspended in 1776 owing to friar opposition, as
well as the unpreparedness of the native priests.
The return of the Jesuits in 1859 as well as the policy of
desecularization directly affected the native seculars. In the 1870s,
overt opposition against the abuses of Spanish officials and
agitation for reforms became evident among Filipino clergy.
The secularization controversy transformed into a Filipinization
issue since the secular priests were mostly Filipinos. The effort to
secularize the parishes in a way heightened the nationalist feeling
of the people.
Some of the strong proponents of the secularization movement
of parishes were Archbishop Gregorio Meliton Martinez and Father
Jose Burgos (both from the Archdiocese of Manila).
In December 1870, Archbishop Martinez wrote to the Spanish
Regent
advocating
secularization
and
mentioned
that
discrimination against Filipino priests would encourage antiSpanish sentiments.
Cavite Mutiny of 1872. In 1868, a revolution led by the liberals in
Spain deposed Queen Isabella II and gave rise to the Provisional
Republic of Spain. With the victory of the Spanish revolution, many
colonial officials with democratic ideals were sent to Manila, which
included Governor General Carlos Maria de la Torre in 1869.
The republican government was overruled with the restoration
of monarchy. Amadeo, son of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy
accepted the invitation to assume the Spanish Crown in December
1870. With the alteration of the system of government in Spain, the
political atmosphere in the Philippines likewise changed. When
Rafael de l/quierdo replaced Governor de la Torre in he promptly

162

d i.scarded the liberal measures. The privileges of the arsenal

workers and engineer corps regarding exemption from tribute and
forced labor were also abolished.
As an expression of protest, on the night of January 20, about
200 Filipino soldiers and dock workers in the province of Cavite
mutinied and killed their Spanish officers under the leadership of
Sergeant Lamadrid (others write La Madrid). The rebellion was
quickly suppressed. Two days after the mutiny, Lamadrid was
executed together with 41 mutineers in Bagumbayan.
The mutiny became an opportunity for the Spanish officials to
implicate the liberal critics of the government. The governor general
asserted that a secret faction existed in Manila to overthrow Spanish
rule. Accused of alleged conspiracy in the rebellion were Fathers
Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora. They were
sentenced to death by garrote on February 17,1872.
Some were thrown into jail while the rest were exiled to the
Marianas Islands on March 14,1872. Among those who left on board
in the Flores de Maria were Father Jose Maria Guevarra, Father
Pedro Dandan, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, Antonio Maria Regidor,
Maximo Patemo, Jose Maria Basa, Balbino Mauricio, and Pio Maria
Basa.
The Spaniards succeeded in uniting the Filipinos in a common
spirit to oppose colonial authority. Between 1872 and 1892, national
consciousness was growing among Filipinos who had settled in
Europe. The execution of GOM-BUR-ZA eventually hastened the
growth of Filipino nationalism.
The concept of nationhood coincided with the development of
the concept of Filipinos. Before, Filipinos would only refer to the

espafioles insulares. Later, they had included the mestizos de sangley

and the native elite who had Hispanized themselves. The
propagandists tried to infuse the term Filipino with national
meaning, which later included the entire people in the archipelago.

26. Propaganda Movement

Many Filipinos took refuge in Europe and initiated in Spain a
crusade for reforms in the Philippines. The emergence of more
Filipino ilustrados gave birth to a unified nationalist movement. This
campaign was known in our history as the Propaganda Movement.
The aim of the Propaganda Movement was peaceful
assimilation, referring to the transition of the Philippines from
being a colony to a province of Spain. The propagandists believed
that it would be better if the Filipinos would become Spanish
citizens, since they would be enjoying the same rights and
privileges of the latter. Its adherents did not seek independence
from Spain but reforms.
These reforms were as follows: equality of Filipinos and
Spaniards before the laws; restoration of the Philippine
representation in the Spanish Cortes; secularization of Philippine
parishes and the expulsion of the friars; and human rights for
Filipinos, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and
freedom to meet and petition for redress of grievances.
Those who joined this peaceful campaign were the Filipino
exiles of 1872, the patriots who left the islands to escape
persecution, and those who had been to Spain for their studies.
Although not all of the propagandists were sons of wealthy
Filipinos, they were scions of good families. One of the greatest was
Marcelo H. del Pilar, a lawyer and journalist from the town of
Bulacan. His eldest brother Toribio, a priest, was implicated in the
Cavite Mutiny and exiled. From then on, he joined in dupluhan and

164

dalitan or literary jousts during fiestas. During a pintakasi

(cockfighting day), he spoke out to the crowd by satirizing corrupt
officials and friars.
Del Pilar also sought to reach out to people through his pen. He
wrote his anti-friar pamphlets in simple yet forceful Tagalog. In
1882, he helped establish the first bilingual (in Spanish and
Tagalog) newspaper, the Diariong Tagalog. He became the editor of
the Tagalog section.
Between 1887-1888, when anonymous manifestos against the
friars were distributed to the public, he released Dasalan at Tocsohan
(Prayers and Mockeries), a manual of anticlerical commentary in
the format of novena. He parodied the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, the
Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Act of Contrition, and the
catechism. With these anticlerical protests, Del Pilar's stay in the
country became dangerous. His house was burned mysteriously.
He left the Philippines in October 1888 to escape the prosecution of
the friars.
Like Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena parodied religious
literature in his satires. In lloilo, he saw the misery of rural
communities and the abuses perpetrated by civil and religious
authorities. He wrote Fray Botod or "Friar Potbelly" (circa 1874)
where he ridiculed a cleric named Fray Botod, who arrived looking
like a hungry mosquito and soon became stout because of the
stocks taken from the people. Because of his anticlerical literature,
he moved to Madrid where he joined other Filipino expatriates into
journalism.
Among those who had gone to Spain to study was Jose Rizal,
born to a well-to-do family in Calamba, Laguna. In 1882, he went to
Spain and studied medicine at the Universidad Central de Madrid.
His prestige was greatly enhanced by the publication of his sociohistorical novel Noll Mi' lungere (Touch Me Not) in 1887.

The Noli reflected the defects of the Spanish rule in the

Philippines, particularly the abuses of the friars. The impact of the
story on the Spaniards in the Philippines was so intense, that later
the reading of it was forbidden in the country.
Rizal may have been the first Filipino political cartoonist. In his
Ketchbook, he drew lampoons of Chinese merchants and the cover
design lor the Noli included the hairy calf and the slippered foot of
a Spanish friar.
Other great Filipino propagandists were Pedro A. Paterno,
lawyer; Antonio Luna, pharmacist and essayist; Pedro Serrano
Laktaw, teacher- tutor of Prince Alfonso de Bourbon (later King
Alfonso XIII of Spain); and I abelo de los Reyes, folklorist and
newspaperman. Juan Luna, known lor his monumental painting
Spoliarium, and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, acclaimed for his
masterpiece, Virgenes Cristianas Expuestas al Populacho (Christian
Virgins Exposed to the Rabble), also joined the movement for
reforms.
The Filipino propagandists were also supported by a number of
Spanish friends. In 1882, Juan Atayde, a Spaniard born in Manila
founded the Circulo Hispano-Filipino. Unfortunately, the society did
not stay long due to shortage of funds and also because of the lack
of confidence of the members in Atayde.
Professor Miguel Morayta, Rizal's professor at Central
University of Madrid, tried to form the Asociacion Hispano-Filipino in
1889. This association was concerned with instituting reforms in the
Philippines. The association lobbied successfully for the passage of
some laws, which included the law pertaining to the compulsory
teaching of Spanish and the laws providing reforms in the
judiciary. However, these laws were not fully implemented
considering the return to power of the reactionary group in Spain.
Since the membership of the association was composed mostly
of Spaniards, it failed to secure the support of many Filipinos,

166

including Dr. Jose Rizal and Antonio Luna. The young Filipinos felt
that the Spaniards and the Creoles were too moderate in dealing
with their clamor for reforms.
Finally, the La Solidaridad (Solidarity), a purely Filipino
organization was established in Barcelona on December 31, 1888.
This took place at a traditional New Year's Eve banquet with
Galicano Apacible as president and Graciano Lopez Jaena as vicepresident. Rizal, who was in London during that time, was named
as the honorary president.
To make known the objectives of the Propaganda, Graciano
Lopez Jaena founded a fortnightly newspaper, La Solidaridad in
Barcelona on February 15,1889. Marcelo H. del Pilar recently
arrived from the Philippines. He joined the group and helped
prepare the issues.
hi Solidaridad was printed in Barcelona from February 15 to
October 31, 1889, then in Madrid, where it was printed from
November 15, 1889 until its last issue on November 15,1895. From
December 15,1889 until its last issue, M. H. del Pilar became the
editor, replacing Lopez Jaena.
The contributors of La Solidaridad were mostly Filipinos like M.
H. del Pilar (Plaridel), Dr. Jose Rizal (Dimas Alang, Laong Loan),
Mariano Ponce (Naning, Kalipulako, or Tigbalang), and Antonio Luna
(Taga-Ilog). Some foreigners also contributed their articles, like
Professor Ferdinand Blumentritt and Dr. Morayta.
Many Filipino propagandists turned masons, including Dr.
Rizal and M. H. del Pilar because they needed the help of the
masons in Spain and in other countries in their fight for reforms.
This organization called Freemasonry, consisted of fraternal lodges,
which later evolved into social societies subsequently opened to
non-masons.

In the Philippines, the first masonic lodge was established in

Manila in 1856. As a rule, masonic lodges, were not opened to
Filipinos. It was in Spain where Filipino expatriates, students, and
intellectuals found themselves attracted to the ideals of equality,
religious tolerance, fraternity, and liberty espoused by the free and
accepted masons.
The first Filipino Masonic Lodge called Revolution was founded
by Lopez Jaena in Barcelona. This lodge was recognized by the
Grande Oriental Espanol headed by Morayta in April 1889. The
Revolution did not last long. It ended after Lopez Jaena resigned as
Worshipful Master on November 29,1889.
The following month, M. H. del Pilar, with the help of Julio
Llorente, organized Lodge Solidaridad in Madrid, with the latter as
the first Worshipful Master. Grande Oriente Espanol recognized it
in May 1890. Lodge Solidaridad eventually prospered that other
Filipinos joined it, including Dr. Rizal, Pedro Serrano Laktaw,
Baldomero Roxas, Galicano Apacible, and others.
Towards the end of 1891, M. H. del Pilar sent Pedro Serrano
Laktaw to the Philippines to establish the first masonic lodge in
Manila. Thus, the Lodge Nilad was founded on January 6,1892. In
one of their meetings, the masons set forth their platform. They
wanted a dignified, free and prosperous country with a democratic
regime and a genuine and effective autonomy, and a good
government. They were asking for reforms. They wanted
representation in the Cortes as well as the declaration of the
country as a Spanish province, with all the rights and obligations.
As of May 1893, the masonic lodges in the country numbered
thirty- five, nine of which were in the city of Manila. They also
accepted women members. The first woman to be admitted was
Rosario Villaruel, who was initiated as a member of the Lodge
Walana on July 18, 1893. Other female members were Trinidad

168

Rizal, Romualda Lanuza, Josefa Rizal, Marina Dizon, Sixta Fajardo,

Valeriana Legazpi, and Purificacion Leyva.
Almost simultaneously with the introduction of masonry in
the Philippines, Rizal wrote the constitution of La Liga Filipina
(The Philippine League) while living in Hong Kong with the help
of Jose Ma. Basa.
In Hong Kong, Rizal drafted a proposal to Governor General
Eulogio Despujol to establish a Filipino colony in Sabah, Borneo,
but the latter refused. Rizal's scheme was meant to help resolve
the plight of ejected tenants from Calamba, Laguna.
After arriving in Manila on June 26, 1892, Rizal conferred
with Governor General Eulogio Despujol to obtain pardon for his
family. He met with some Filipinos around the city, then took the
train to Malolos, Bulacan; San Fernando and Bacolor, Pampanga;
and Tarlac.
On the night of July 3, 1892, Rizal founded La Liga Filipina at
the residence of Doroteo Ongjunco in llaya St., Tondo, Manila
with Ambrosio Salvador as president; Deodato Arellano,
secretary; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and Agustin dela Rosa,
fiscal. Among those present in the meeting were Pedro Serrano
Laktaw (Panday Pira), Domingo Franco (Felipe Leal), Jose A.
Ramos (Socorro), Moises Salvador (Araw), Faustino Villaruel
(Haw), Numeriano Adriano (Ipil), Apolinario Mabini (Katabay),
and Andres Bonifacio {May Pag-asa).
La Liga was to be a sort of mutual aid and self-help society,
dispensing scholarship funds and legal aid, loaning capital and
setting up cooperatives. The league's motto Unus Instar Omnium
(one like all) served as an avowal of their ideals. Based in its
constitution, the objectives of the Liga were: the unification of the
whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogeneous
body; protection in cases of want and necessity; defense against

violence and injustice; encouragement of instruction, agriculture,

and commerce; and the study and implementation of reforms.
The goals of La Liga were to be carried out by the Supreme
Council, the Provincial Council, and the Popular Council. Each
member of the league had to pay 10 centavos as monthly dues.
The members ought to choose a symbolic name.
The members became quite active. Bonifacio for one, exerted
great efforts to organize chapters in various districts in Manila.
Rizal himself caused the circulation of a handbill, Ang Karapatan
ng Tao, printed in both Tagalog and Spanish. This was his
translation of the French, Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789.
This situation alarmed the Spanish authorities. On July 6,
1892, Rizal was secretly arrested by order of Governor General
Despujol and subsequently imprisoned at Fort Santiago. The
following day, the governor general ordered the deportation of
Rizal to Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte as punishment for his
allegedly subversive materials.

27. The Katipunan

Some of the members of the La Liga Filipina found out that
peaceful agitation for reforms was not enough. This time, they
opted for thr country's freedom more than anything else. Andres
Bonifacio was one of them. He did not join the Los Compromisarios
or Cuerpo de Compromisarios led by Domingo Franco. This faction
pledged to continue supporting the Propaganda Movement in
Spain.
The radical ones led by Bonifacio believed that the welfare of
the people could' not be achieved by requests for reforms but by an
armed revolution. Their goal was transformed from assimilation to
separation and then independence.

170

On the night of July 7, 1892, Bonifacio and his friends met

secretly at Deodato Arellano's house at No. 72 Azcarraga Street
(now Claro M. Recto) near Elcano Street in Tondo, Manila. They
decided to form a secret revolutionary society, modeled in part on
Masonic Order called Kataastaasan Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng
mga Anak ng Bayan (Highest and Respected Society of the Sons of
the People), otherwise known as K.K.K. or Katipunan, dedicated to
national independence through armed revolution.
The men, gathered around a flickering table lamp, signed their
membership papers with their own blood. It was agreed that the
members be recruited by means of the triangle method in which an
original member would recruit two members who did not know
each other but only knew the original member who took them in.
They also decided during the meeting, the payment of an entrance
fee of one real fuerte (twenty-five centavos) and a monthly due of
medio real (about twelve centavos).
The triangle method was abolished in December 1892 after it
was found out to be too cumbersome. New converts were initiated
into the secret society using rites borrowed from the masonry. The
neophyte was made to swear to guard the secrets of the society.
More than a secret society, the Katipunan was a government
itself with a constitution promulgated in 1892, and another
constitution replacing the first one in 1894. The central government
of the Katipunan was vested in a Kataastaasang Sanggunian
(Supreme Council) with the officials aforementioned.
In each province, there was a Sangguniang Bayan (Provincial
Council), and in each town, a Sangguniang Balangay (Popular
Council). The judicial power resided in a secret chamber called
Sangguniang Hukuman (Judicial Council).
There were three grades of membership in the Katipunan. The
first grade called a katipun (associate), wore a black mask at the
Katipunan meetings. His password was Anak ng Bayan (Sons of the

People). The second grade called kawal (soldier), wore a green

mask. His password was GOM'BUR-ZA. The third gi.ulr tailed
bui/um (patriot), wore a red mask. I Us password was Rizal, the
honorary president of the Katipunan.
During the first election, the following officers of the Supreme
Council were chosen:
Deodato Arellano President
Andres Bonifacio Comptroller
Ladislao Diwa - Fiscal
Teodoro Plata - Secretary
Valentin Diaz - Treasurer
There were also women members of the Katipunan, but they
were not required to sign with their own blood. To be admitted in
the women's section, one had to be a wife, daughter, or sister of a
Katipunero (male member) to ensure the secrecy of the movement.
Among the women members were Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's
wife, who was called the Likambini of the Katipunan; Benita
Rodriguez, the wife of Katipunero Restituto Javier; and Josefa and
Trinidad Rizal, sisters of Dr. Jose Rizal.
The women guarded the secret papers and documents of the
society. When the Katipunan held a meeting in a certain house, they
made it appear that a real social party was going on. Likewise, they
were also helping the society by recruiting more members. The
women's chapter of the Katipunan was born during the presidency
of Roman Basa (second president) in July 1893. Josefa Rizal was
elected President of the women's chapter called La Semilla.
Bonifacio deposed Arellano as president in a meeting in
February 1893 because of the latter's inaction. However, early in
1895, Bonifacio realized that Roman Basa was as ineffective as
Deodato Arellano, that he called a meeting of the society and
readily deposed Basa. Bonifacio himself was elected Supremo
(President).

172

With the Katipunan's organizational setup, Bonifacio turned his

attention to the symbol of its authority. Upon his request, Benita
Rodriguez, with the help of Gregoria de Jesus, made a flag, which
consisted of a red rectangular piece of cloth with three white K's
arranged horizontally at the center. This was the first official flag of
the society; however, some members had their flag with three K's
arranged in the form of a triangle. Others had one K at the center of
the red flag. Some generals of the revolution, likewise, adopted
their own designs.
Knowing the importance of a primer to teach the members of
the society its ideals, Emilio Jacinto prepared one, which he called
Kartilla, a word adopted from the Spanish cartilla, which at that time
meant a primer for grade school students. (Former UP President
Rafael Palma, a revolutionary patriot, noted that Apolinario Mabini
wrote the original statutes of the Katipunan's Kartilht .hkI Emilio
Jacinto translated it into Tagalog for the benefit of the unschooled
members of the Katipunan).
The Kartilla consisted of 13 teachings, which the members of the
society were expected to observe. The primer constituted the
following:
I.
Life which is not consecrated to a lofty and sacred cause is
like a tree without a shadow, if not a poisonous weed.
II.
A good deed that springs from a desire for personal profit
and not from a desire to do good is not kindness.
III. True greatness consists in being charitable, in loving one's
fellowmen and in adjusting every movement, deed and
word to true Reason.
IV. All men arc equal, be the color of their skin black or white.
One may be superior to another in knowledge, wealth, and
beauty, but cannot be superior in being.

V.

VI.
VII.

VIII.
IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

He who is noble prefers honor to personal gains; he who is

mean prefers personal profit to honor.
To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate.
Don't fritter away time; lost riches may be recovered, but
time lost will never come again.
Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
An intelligent man is he who is cautious in speech and
knows how to keep the secrets that must be guarded.
In the thorny path of life, man is the guide of his wife and
children; if he who guides moves toward evil, they who are
guided likewise move toward evil.
Think not of woman as a thing merely to while away with
time, but as a helper and partner in the hardships of life.
Respect her in her weakness, and remember the mother
who brought you into this world and who cared for you in
your childhood.
What you do not want done in your wife, daughter and
sister, do not do to the wife, daughter and sister of another.
The nobility of a man does not consist in being a king, nor in
the highness of the nose and the whiteness of the skin, nor
in being a priest representing God, nor in the exalted
position on this earth, but pure and truly noble is he who,
though born in the woods, is possessed of an upright
character; who is true to his word; who has dignity and
honor; who does not oppress and does not help those who
oppress; who knows how to look after and love the land of
his birth. When these doctrines spread and the Sun of
beloved liberty shines with brilliant effulgence on these
unhappy isles anil hinds its null rays upon the united
people and brothers in everlasting happiness, the lives,
labors, and sufferings of those who are gone shall be more

174

than recompensed. (Teodoro Agoncillo, History of the

Filipino People, Quezon City: Malaya Books, 1970, p. 181).
Bonifacio wrote a decalogue or 10 commandments titled
Katungkulang (iagawin tig mga Anak tig Bayan (Duties to be Observed
by the Sons of the Country) to lay down the guidelines for good
citizenship. This document in manuscript form still exists. The rules
include love of God; love of country and one's fellowmen; diligence
in work; sharing of one's means with the poor; punishment of
scoundrels and traitors; and the guarding of the mandates and aims
of the K.K.K.
Another step taken by the Katipunan to propagate its teachings
was the establishment of a printing press. In 1894, the Katipunan
bought an old hand press with the money donated by two patriotic
Filipinos from Visayas - Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban.
These two Katipuneros, who came back from Australia in 1895, had
one thousand pesos between them for having won in the lottery.
The types used in printing were purchased from Isabelo de los
Reyes, and many were stolen from the press of the Diario de Manila
(Manila Daily) by Filipino employees who were members of the
Katipunan.
Under Emilio Jacinto's supervision, two patriotic printers,
Faustino Duque and Ulpiano Fernandez, printed the Kalayaan, the
organ of the Katipunan, to disseminate the ideals of the society.
Kalayaan had its first and only issue in January 1896, which carried
a false masthead stating that it was being printed in Yokohama
with Marcelo H. del Pilar as editor. This was to deceive the Spanish
authorities and evade arrest.
Published in the Kalayaan was an essay titled "Ang Dapat
Mabatid ng mga Tagalog" (What the Filipinos Should Know)
attributed to Bonifacio. This composition dealt with the three
questions asked of Katipunan applicants: "What were the
conditions in the Philippines before Spanish conquest? What is the

condition of the country today? What will the Philippines be

tomorrow?"
Copies of the Kalayaan reached members and possible recruits
through the efforts of Macario Sakay and Pio del Pilar as
distributors. The Katipuneros were tirelessly recruiting members in
Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, and Cavite. The society grew and began to
spread into the non-Tagalog provinces. By August 1896, there were
thousands of Katipunan members in the arrabales of Manila and
some 18,000 in other towns.
During the Holy Week of 1895, Bonifacio and some Katipuneros
went to the mountains of Montalban in search of a good hideout
where they could hold their secret meetings. On April 10, 1895,
Bonifacio and his companions including Emilio Jacinto, Restituto
Javier, and Guillermo Masangkay entered the Pamitinan Cave
(Cave of Bernardo Carpio) on Mount Tapusi in the mountain
ranges of San Mateo and Montalban. There they held a secret
session leading to the initiation rites of new recruits. After the
session, Aurelio Tolentino picked up a piece of charcoal and wrote
on the cave wall in Spanish, "Viva La Independencia Filipina!"
In the early part of 1895, Bonifacio became the Supremo (head of
the Supreme Council). He also occupied this position in the fourth
and fifth elections of the Supreme Council, in December 1895 and
August 1896, respectively.
On June 15, 1896, Dr. Pio Valenzuela, acting as Bonifacio's
emissary, sailed for Dapitan to get Rizal's support for the armed
revolution. To cover his real mission from Spanish authorities, he
brought with him a blind man named Raymundo Mata, who was in
need of Dr. Rizal's medical services. Rizal did not agree to the
Katipunan's plans of an armed uprising since the people were not
ready for it.

176

28. The Revolution of 1896

By the middle of 1896, as the Katipunan was busy preparing for
a revolution, hints about its existence reached the Spanish
authorities. On July 5,1896, Manuel Sityar, the Spanish lieutenant of
the Civil Guards stationed at Pasig, reported the questionable
activities of some Filipinos.
On August 13, 1896, Father Agustin Fernandez, Augustinian
curate of San Pedro, Makati, wrote to Don Manuel Luengo, the civil
governor of Manila, about the evening gatherings in his parish,
apparently by men plotting against the Spaniards.
The Katipunan was finally discovered on August 19. Teodoro
Patino, a member of the Katipunan betrayed the secrecy of it to
Father Mariano Gil, an Augustinian parish curate. On the basis of
Patino's information, the Spanish authorities acted immediately.
The Spanish cazadores (civil guards) began making hundreds of
arrests. Many of them died of suffocation while detained at the
overcrowded Fort Santiago. Two Katipuneros acting as spies for the
governor of Manila told Bonifacio about the discovery.
On August 21-22, Bonifacio called for a meeting at the house of
Vidal Acab, then to the residence of Apolonio Samson in
Kangkong, Caloocan to issue the call to arms. Emilio Jacinto
summoned the heads of Katipunan Councils to Kangkong to
discuss their measures against the Spanish forces.
The next day, August 23, Bonifacio, Jacinto, and other
Katipuneros met at Bahay Toro, Pugadlawin, Balintawak, north of
Manila and gathered at the residence of Melchora Aquino, known
as Tandang Sora.
In the mass meeting held in the yard of a son of Melchora
Aquino, fhe Katipuneros tore their ccdulus personates (certificates),
the symbol of the Filipino vassalage to Spain .it the same time
shouting, "Long live the Philippines! Long live the Katipunan!" This

event is recorded in history .is the Cry of Pugadlawin or Cry of

Balintawak, which proclaimed their defiance to the Spanish
government.
At Hagdang Bato, Mandaluyong, Bonifacio gave his last
manifesto Katipunang Mararahas ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Society of
Enraged Sons of the Country) regarding the revolution that would
take place in Manila.
Bonifacio led his army to attack the polverin (powder depot) in
San Juan .it the dawn of Sunday, August 30,1896. This is now
known as the Battle of Pinaglabanan. The Spaniards outnumbered
the revolutionaries who were not fully armed. Due to heavy
casualties, Bonifacio and his surviving men were forced to retreat to
Balara.
A day earlier, August 29, Melchora Aquino, was arrested by the
Guardia Civil at Pasong Putik, Novaliches, and jailed at Bilibid
(prison) for giving aid to the Katipuneros.
In the afternoon of August 30, Governor General Ramon Blanco,
in trying to quell the Philippine Revolution, issued a decree
declaring a state of war in Manila and seven Luzon provinces Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, and
Tarlac and placed them under martial law. The decree also
provided that those who would surrender within 48 hours after the
publication of the decree would be pardoned except the leaders of
the Katipunan.
s - Taking advantage of the amnesty provision, some Katipuneros
surrendered like Valenzuela. However, the Spanish authorities only
subjected them to torture to make them squeal matters about the
revolution.
After the San Juan del Monte Battle, Bonifacio, Jacinto, and
other leaders like Macario Sakay, Apolonio Samson, Faustino
Guillermo and General Lucino (alias Payat) set up camp in the hills

178

near Mariquina (now Marikina), San Mateo, and Montalban. More

Filipinos joined them.
Series of executions by the government began after the
proclamation of a state of war. Blanco inaugurated a reign of terror
in the belief that this would stop the rebellion. On September 4, four
members of the Katipunan were executed at Bagumbayan. On
September 12, thirteen were put to death at Plaza de Armas, near
the Fort of San Felipe in Cavite and are now remembered as "Los
Trece Martires" (The Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite). They were
Maximo Inocencio, Luis Aguado, Victoriano Luciano, Hugo Perez,
Jose Lallana, Antonio San Agustin, Agapito Conchu, Feliciano
Cabuco, Maximo Gregorio, Eugenio Cabezas, Severino Lapidario,
Alfonso de Ocampo, and Francisco Osorio.
On September 16, 22 prominent residents of Manila were
imprisoned
at Fort Santiago for alleged involvement in the insurrection. Among
them wereTelesforoChuidian, Ambrosio Salvador, Ambrosio
Rianzares Bautr i t Juan Luna, Antonio Luna, and Mariano Limjap.
The following month, around 150 Filipino citizens were loaded
on S.S. Manila bound for Cartagena, Spain. From there, they were
taken Fernando Po in Africa to serve as exiles for their alleged
involvement in the rebellion.
Meanwhile, Rizal was arrested while on his way to Cuba to
serve an a doctor for the Spanish army. On November 20, Dr. Jose
Rizal appear* I before Colonel Francisco Garcia Olive to answer the
charges filed again t him. By December 26, the litigation of Rizal
took place before a military court. Two days after, Governor Camilo
Polavieja approved the verdii I Convicted of sedition, rebellion, and
illicit associations, Rizal was executed by a firing squad at
Bagumbayan Field (now Luneta) on December 30,1896, at 7:03 a.m.
Eight Filipino soldiers, with eight Spanish soldiers behind them
carried out the execution.

Such incidents involving detention, deportation, and execution

only made the Filipinos more unrelenting to the Spanish
government. The more they became determined to continue the
struggle.
The Katipuneros in Cavite rose in arms on August 31, 1896.
They assaulted the tribunal (municipal building) of San Francisco de
Malabon. At Cavite el Viejo (now Kawit), the Magdalo troops led
by Candido Tria Tirona attacked the enemy garrison. The
Magdiwang forces on the other hand, pounded the Spaniards in
Noveleta.
In the morning of September 5, Emilio Aguinaldo and his men
assailed the Spanish troops stationed at Imus under the command
of General Eusebio Aguirre. In this battle, the Spaniards lost
hundreds of men and 60 guns with ammunition. From that time on,
the Cavitenos recognized Aguinaldo as a man of distinguished
valor and called him Heneral Miong, no longer Capitan Miong.
The Spanish regular army were tremendously defeated at the
twin battles of Binakayan and Dalahican in Cavite, fought on
November 9-11. Both Magdiwang and Magdalo forces in their
respective trenches built by General Edilberto Evangelista (an
engineer trained in Belgium) fought furiously against the Spanish
army under the personal command of Governor General Blanco.
Unfortunately, Candido Tria Tirona, the secretary of war in the
Magdalo Council died in the Battle of Binakayan.
The citizens of Taal, Lemery, Calaca, and Bayungyungan in
Batangas also joined the revolution at the end of October 1896.
However, they were dispersed after the Spanish garrison in Taal
came to the aid of the besieged towns.
At the outbreak of the revolution, the number ot Katipuneros
grew, i in December 4, 18%, tin* katipunan members ot Balangay
Dimasalang met it Bigaa (now Pandi and IJalagtas) in the province
of Bulacan. They inted to reinforce their operation against the

180

Spaniards and to conduct an election of officials under their newly

founded Kakarong Republic. Led lv Cieneral Eusebio Roque (also
known asMaestrong Sebio and Dimabungo), i .uiuto Villanueva, and
Casimiro Galvez, around 6,000 men and women r-nlisted
themselves as members.
I he Spanish government had already known the existence of
the Katipunan at Kakarong Real (a.k.a. Kakarong de Sili) because of
the armed resistance it had begun against them since August of
1896.
On January 1, 1897, the government troops under General
Olaguer- Miu rushed to the fortifications of Kakarong and launched
a massive assault against the people, including civilians. The
revolutionaries, caught by surprise, resisted with ferocious courage
but they were overwhelmed by the superior armaments of the
enemy. Around 1,100 rebels were killed. I he government forces
captured six fortified positions, seven cannons, a ta rt ridge factory,
and a large number of firearms.
Maestrong Sebio managed to escape his persecutors at first. Ten
days later, he was captured and arrested at Bunga Mayor, Bustos.
On January
16, at 5:00 in the afternoon, Maestrong Sebio was executed.
With the objective of ending the revolution, Governor Polavieja
launched an all-out offensive on February 15,1897 in Cavite. On
February
17, a Spanish sniper killed General Evangelista in the Battle of
Zapote. Two days later, General Lachambre of the Spanish forces
captured the town of Silang. General Aguinaldo aided by Generals
Vito Belarmino and Artemio Ricarte, mounted a counteroffensive,
but failed to get Silang back.
On February 25, 1897, the town of Dasmarinas, Cavite, was
taken by the Spanish troops led by General Antonio Zabala who
also attacked Salitran (barrio of Dasmarinas), which was defended

by General Flaviano Yengko. Yengko was mortally wounded in

action and died on March 3, 1897 at Imus Military Hospital. Yengko
was the youngest general of the Philippine revolution, being
younger than General Gregorio del Pilar by one year, two months
and seven days. In the bloody battle of Salitran, General Zabala was
killed by Yengko's troops.
On May 17 of the same year, the Katipuneros led by Francisco
del Castillo attacked a Spanish garrison in Aklan. Unfortunately,
the leader died in action. His men decided to retreat into the
mountains.
The amnesty offer of government lured 20 Katipuneros to
accept it. Not true to its promise, the government killed 19 of them.
The martyrs of Aklan were Ramon Aguirre, Benito Iban, Maximo
Mationg, Tomas Briones, Candido Iban, Simplicio Reyes, Domingo
dela Cruz, Simeon Inocencio, Canuto Segovia, Valeriano Dalida,
Isidro Jimenez, Gabino Sucgang, Claro Delgado, Catalino Mangat,
Angelo Fernandez, Gabino Yorisal, Francisco Villorente, Lamberto
Mangat, and Valeriano Masinda.

29. Rivalry in the Katipunan

In Cavite, there were two Katipunan councils - the Magdalo
Council, headed by Baldomero Aguinaldo (Emilio Aguinaldo's
cousin), and the Magdiwang Council with Mariano Alvarez (uncle
of Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio's wife) as president.
The capital of Magdiwang Council was Noveleta, then later
transferred to San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias). The
other towns under its jurisdiction were Rosario, Tanza, Naic,
Ternate, Maragondon, Magallanes, Bailen, Alfonso, Indang, and
San Roque. The Magdalo Council had its capital in lmus. The other
towns under its jurisdiction were Kawit, Dasmarinas, Silang,
Amadeo, Mendez, Nunez, Bacoor, and Carmen.

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Emilio Aguinaldo first gained popularity after he had beaten a

sergeant of the Guardia Civil in a single combat. He even became
more renowned after his successful uprising in Kawit (his
hometown), then in the Battle of lmus and in the early part of
November 1896, he liberated the town of Talisay, Batangas, from
the Spanish soldiers.
Upon invitation of the Magdiwang Provincial in Cavite,
Bonifacio left his hideout in Morong. On December 1,1896, he and
his wife, together with his two brothers (Ciriaco and Procopio),
General Lucino, and 20 soldiers arrived in Cavite.
The Magdalo Council hosted a general assembly of both
factions in lmus on December 31, a day after Rizal's execution.
Bonifacio conducted the meeting. Among the issues discussed were
the establishment of a revolutionary government under the new
elected officials and uniting the Magdiwang and Magdalo forces
under a single command. The Magdalo faction believed that with
the outbreak of revolution, the Katipunan had ceased to be a secret
society and therefore should be replaced by a new one.
The Magdiwangs insisted that there was no need to create a
revolutionary government because the Katipunan was actually a
government with a constitution and bylaws recognized by
everyone. General Edilberto Evangelista tried to reconcile the two
groups by drafting a constitution establishing the Philippine
Republic. This constitution was reportedly discussed in the
assembly. Due to heated debates arising from the issues, the
assembly accomplished nothing definite. Its proceedings ended
with the arrival of Josephine Bracken (Dr. Jose Rizal's widow),
accompanied by Paciano Rizal. They later agreed to reschedule the
joint assembly at a different place.
The Second Convention of these two Katipunan factions was
held on March 22, 1897 at Tejeros, San Francisco de Malabon,
Cavite. The two factions met at an estate-house of the friars, which

the rebels had captured earlier. Majority of those who attended

were the Magdiwangs. General Aguinaldo and other Magdalo
officials were absent because they were defending the Magdalo
towns at that time.
The session, which started at about two o'clock in the afternoon
was presided by Jacinto Lumbreras, a Magdiwang. Severino de las
Alas, a Magdiwang, suggested that the convention assembled
should resolve whether there should be a new government to
replace the Katipunan. Lumbreras called for a recess after this issue
led to another heated discussion.
As it turned out, the convention upheld the views of the
Magdalo Council. The majority wanted a new revolutionary
government. This resulted to the election of new officials. Bonifacio
presided over the election. Before the casting of votes had taken
place, Bonifacio reminded that whoever should get elected in any
position should be respected. Elected were as follows:
President
- Emilio Aguinaldo
Vice-President - Mariano Trias
Captain General - Artemio Ricarte
Director of War - Emiliano Riego de Dios
Director of the Interior - Andres Bonifacio
Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo, protested Bonifacio's election saying
that his position should be occupied by a lawyer. He suggested a
Caviteno lawyer, Jose del Rosario, for the post. Bonifacio felt
insulted. He demanded Tirona to retract what he had said. But
Tirona, instead of offering an apology, tried to leave the scene. This
infuriated Bonifacio and made him drew his revolver to shoot
Tirona, but Ricarte and others intervened. The people began to
leave the hall. Bonifacio angrily declared the election null and void
and left the assembly room with his bodyguards.
From Pasong Santol, a barrio of Dasmarinas, Aguinaldo went to
Tejeros as informed by a special committee headed by Col. Vicente

184

Riego de Dios. Being the new president, he had to take his oath. He
was sworn into office inside the Catholic Church of Santa Cruz de
Malabon (Tanza) together with other newly elected officials.
A day after the Tejeros Assembly, March 23, Bonifacio gathered
his followers and drafted a document called Acta de Tejeros, signed
by Bonifacio and 44 other plotters.
This document rejected the revolutionary government of
Aguinaldo on the following grounds: first, the Tejeros Assembly
lacks legality; second, there was a Magdalo conspiracy to oust
Bonifacio from leadership; third, the election of officials was
fraudulent; and fourth, that actual pressure has been brought upon
the presidency.
Another secret meeting was held on April 19, 1897 at the friar
estate house in Naic. Bonifacio and his coconspirators drew up
another document called the Naic Military Pact, signed by 41 men,
including Bonifacio, Ricarte, Pio del Pilar, and Severino de las Alas.
An army corps under the command of General Pio del Pilar was
created.
While Bonifacio and his companions wen." busy conferring,
Major Lazaro Makapagal who was held prisoner downstairs
managed to escape and informed President Aguinaldo, who was in
bed suffering malaria, about the recent developments. Aguinaldo
rose from his sickbed and went to the friar-estate house to confront
his conspirators.
Seeing that Aguinaldo's soldiers had already surrounded the
estate house, Bonifacio and his Magdiwang followers left hurriedly
except General Pio del Pilar and General Mariano Noriel who
subsequently joined Aguinaldo's troops.
President Aguinaldo convoked a revolutionary assembly in
Naic. The following matters were taken up: adoption of a new red
flag with a white sun of eight rays at the center, a standard uniform
for the soldiers - the rayadillo and a set of new rules fixing military

ranks and their insignias; and, the reorganization of the

revolutionary army.
Bonifacio, with his wife Gregoria, his two brothers (Ciriaco and
Procopio) and loyal followers fled to Limbon (barrio of Indang).
Upon learning of Bonifacio's presence at Limbon and the alleged
crimes committed by his soldiers in Indang, Aguinaldo summoned
Colonels Agapito Bonzon, Felipe Topacio, and Jose lgnacio Paua to
go to Limbon with some troops and arrest Bonifacio and his men.
Bonifacio furiously resisted.
Ciriaco Bonifacio and two soldiers were killed, while Bonifacio
himself was wounded in the left arm and neck. Bonifacio (in a
hammock), Gregoria, and the surviving Bonifacio soldiers were
taken prisoners and brought to Naic.
The case of the Bonifacio brothers evolved quite rapidly after a
Council of War headed by General Mariano Noriel was created.
The trial begun on May 5, with Placido Martinez as defense
attorney for Bonifacio and Teodoro Gonzalez for Procopio.
Tragically, the Bonifacio brothers were given the penalty of death
the next day The charges were treason, conspiracy to assassinate
President Aguinaldo, and bribery.
Pio del Pilar testified in the trial of Bonifacio saying that the
latter had been forcing officers to join him. As for Severino de las
Alas, it was he who made the false charges that the friars bribed
Bonifacio to establish the Katipunan and made the Filipinos into
fighting a war for which they were poorly armed. He also said that
Bonifacio ordered the burning of the convent and church of Indang
and that his soldiers had taken by force from the people, carabaos
and other animals. He also accused Bonifacio and his men that they
were planning to surrender to the Spaniards.
Lieutenant Colonel Pedro Giron, turning as state witness, told
the Council that Bonifacio gave him an initial payment of 10 pesos
to assassinate Aguinaldo but he refused to follow the order.

186

On May 10, 1897, General Noriel ordered Major Lazaro

Makapagal to release the Bonifacio brothers from prison. He gave
Makapagal a sealed letter with orders to read its details after
reaching their destination.
Makapagal took four men with him and opened the letter upon
the request of Bonifacio. The letter ordered the execution of Andres
and his brother Procopio. Included in the letter was a warning that
failure to comply with the order would result to severe
punishment. Makapagal followed the order and executed them at
Mount Nagpatong, Maragondon (according to the National
Historical Institute). Makapagal placed a few twigs on the shallow
grave of the two brothers.
On the same day, the Spanish army attacked Maragondon.
Upon Makapagal's return, he found the Filipinos retreating. On
May 12, after two days of defending the town, Aguinaldo and his
men were compelled to leave. They crossed the mountains to
Batangas and aided General Miguel Malvar in a fight against the
Spaniards in Talisay. On June 10, they crossed the Pasig River and
bivouacked at Mount Puray, Montalban. Two days later, the
Morong freedom fighters under General Licerio Geronimo arrived
and joined them.
Tired of successive combats, General Camilo de Polavieja asked
for his relief as governor general. His request was given on April
15,1897, with Fernando Primo de Rivera succeeding his post on
April 23.
Governor General Rivera issued a decree granting pardon to
rebels who would give up their arms and surrender until May 17.
Most Filipinos simply ignored this decree. Thereafter, the governor
general launched a campaign against the rebels, forcing Aguinaldo
and his forces to seek refuge in Batangas.

On June 14, the Spanish troops led by Colonel Dujiols attacked

the rebel camp at Mount Puray. Aguinaldo and his men resisted.
After six hours of bloody fighting, they won over the Spaniards.
After the Battle of Mount Puray, President Aguinaldo
organized the Department of Central Luzon under the jurisdiction
of the revolutionary government. The Department Government
was headed by Father Pedro Dandan, canonist of the Manila
Cathedral as President with Dr. Anastacio Francisco, VicePresident; Paciano Rizal, Secretary of the Treasury; Cipriano
Pacheco, Secretary of War; Teodoro Gonzales, Secretary of the
Interior; and Feliciano Jocson as Secretary of Welfare.

30. The Biak-na-Bato Republic

President Emilio Aguinaldo and his men headed for Bulacan.
Finally on June 24, 1897, they arrived at Biak-na-Bato, San Miguel
de Mayumo. From this area, Aguinaldo and his men joined the
troops of General Mariano Llanera of Nueva Ecija in assaulting
Spaniards stationed in the Central Luzon provinces. With the
coming of the rainy season, Primo de Rivera's offensive attacks
temporarily ceased.
On November 1, the revolutionary leaders met and adopted a
constitution titled the Provisional Constitution of the Philippine
Republic. It was intended to be effective for two years. It declared
that the aim of the revolution was the separation of the Philippines
from Spanish monarchy and the formation of an independent state.
Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer wrote the provisional constitution,
which was based on the Cuban Constitution known as Jimaguayu
Constitution.
On the same day, the Biak-na-Bato Republic was also
inaugurated and the officials were: Emilio Aguinaldo, President;
Mariano Trias, Vice- President; Isabelo Artacho, Secretary of the

188

Interior; Antonio Montenegro, Secretary of Foreign Affairs;

Baldomero Aguinaldo, Secretary of the Treasury; and Emiliano
Riego de Dios, Secretary of War.
The struggle between the Spanish government and the Biak-naBato Republic had reached a deadlock. Governor General Primo de
Rivera sent Pedro Paterno to Biak-na-Bato for peaceful negotiations
with the revolutionaries, which began in August and was
concluded in December.
This agreement known as the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, resulted to
the voluntary exile of Aguinaldo and his men to Hong Kong. This
pact consisted of three documents. The first two were signed on
December 14, and the third on December 15,1897.
The first document, called Program, provided that Governor
Primo de Rivera would pay 800,000 pesos to those who rose in
arms and would let Aguinaldo and his men to retire in voluntary
exile to Hong Kong. The second document called Act of Agreement,
reiterated the granting of amnesty to those who would lay down
their arms and the privilege to move freely in the Philippines and
abroad.
The third document discussed the question.of indemnity,
wherein Spain would pay a total of 1,700,000 pesos, of which
800,000 pesos was to be paid to those who would lay down their
arms as mentioned in the first document. The remaining 900,000
pesos was to be distributed among the civilian population as
indemnity for the damages created by the war.
On December 25, 1897, Aguinaldo with Pedro Paterno and
others went to Lingayen, Pangasinan, from where a Spanish
merchant steamer was to take them to Hong Kong. Two days after,
Aguinaldo and 25 other leaders sailed for Hong Kong on board the
steamer Uranus, in compliance with the pact. General Artemio
Ricarte stayed behind at Biak-na-Bato to supervise the surrender of
arms by the revolutionaries.

The Spanish government announced the end of hostilities on

January 23, 1898. It proclaimed amnesty two days later; and it gave
part of the promised money to the rebels in Hong Kong. However,
after the peace pact, neither side fully complied with the terms of
the agreement. The government never instituted the expected
reforms. Likewise, the Filipinos continued their plan to overthrow
the government.
There were sporadic uprisings in different parts of the country.
On iMarch 7, 1898, the revolutionaries in /ambales besieged the
cable station at Bolinao and seized the telegraph line connected to
Manila. On March 25, Federico Isabelo Abaya and his men were
able to get Candon, llocos Sur, from the Spaniards.
Pantaleon Villegas, popularly known as Leon Kilat incited a
revolt in Cebu known as Tres de Abril in retaliation of the March 25
incident when the Spaniards massacred many Visayan sailors at
Camba Street, Manila.
In Central Luzon, General Francisco Makabulos of Tarlac
established a provincial revolutionary government with a
constitution written by him. The Makabulos Constitution adopted
on April 17, 1898, set up this provisional government in Central
Luzon to continue in force until a general government for the
Republic was established.
In Malolos, General Isidoro Torres established his camp to
continue the revolutionary spirit. Revolts were also experienced in
Bohol, Cebu, Panay, and other islands in the country. Feliciano
Jocson, a pharmacist, incited the patriots in Manila to continue the
fight against the Spaniards.
Aguinaldo and his officers went into exile but did not end the
fight to win independence from Spain. On a letter written in Hong
Kong dated February 19,1898, Mariano Ponce stated that General
Aguinaldo had signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato because under its

190

terms, the Filipino revolutionists could rest and regain their lost
strength and then return to combat with renewed vigor.

31. The Spanish-fimerican War (1898)

The Spanish-American war, which broke out on April 25,1898,
ended on August 12 of the same year. There were factors that
contributed to the United States' decision to open hostilities against
Spain. These included the Cuban struggle for independence, efforts
of the Americans to extend influence overseas, and the sinking of
the U.S. warship Maine.
Like the Filipinos, the Cubans were fighting against Spain to
obtain their independence. Under the leadership of Jose Marti, the
Cubans revolted in 1895. The Cuban rebels rejected Spain's offer of
autonomy, instead of complete independence. The brutalities
committed by the Spanish government in Cuba such as the
rounding up of peasant population and placing them in
concentration camps were made to suppress local rebellion.
Thousands died due to illnesses and limited food provisions. Such
cruelties infuriated the American public.
The New York Journal and the New York World were among the
American newspapers, which published the stories about the
alleged atrocities committed by the Spanish government in Cuba.
They called for the U.S. government to intervene on the side of the
Cubans. This idea won widespread support among American
citizens and politicians. This gave rise to the belief of Manifest
Destiny, where the United States has the divinely ordained duty to
help troubled countries.
America's open support for the Cuban revolution and her vast
investments in Cuba's sugar industry led her involvement in this
Spanish colony. Spain could not oppose the United States, a rising
powerful nation, in the face of the Cuban Revolution.

A letter of Spain's Ambassador to the United States (Dupuy de

Lome) to a friend in Havana, Cuba, was stolen and published in a
New York periodical. It stated that US President William McKinley
was a weakling and a low politician. This created a national feeling
among the Americans to support the war against Spain.
The replacement of the Spanish ambassador could not,
however, relieve the aggrieved American populace. The
provocation was heated up after the mysterious blowing up of the
U.S. battleship Maine in Havana, Cuba, which was sent by the U.S.
consul general in the city to protect American citizens and property.
This incident happened on the night of February 18, 1898. It
reportedly resulted in the death of 266 officers and men. (In 1976,
based on U.S. Navy Study, the findings suggested that the
explosion could have been caused by spontaneous combustion in
the ship's coal bunkers).
The American authorities viewed the assault in Havana as an
act of treachery. US newspapers blamed Spain for the tragedy and
evoked American sympathy with this cry, "Remember the Maine."
On April 19, the U.S. Congress passed several resolutions
demanding the pull out of Spanish forces in Cuba. To save her
honor, Spain declared war against the United States on April 24.
The next day, the U.S. Congress declared war on Spain and thus,
the Spanish-American war began.
Past noon of April 25, Commodore George Dewey, commander
of the Asiatic Squadron received a cable from the Secretary of Navy
stating that war has commenced between the United States and
Spain. Dewey was instructed to proceed against the Spanish fleet
anchored in Manila Bay.
An often-debated question in the U.S. during those times was
why a U.S. naval squadron should be sent to the Philippines in
order to end Spanish rule in Cuba. This has been ascribed to the
growing spirit of American imperialism induced by supporters of

192

Manifest Destiny, which in like manner encountered considerable

opposition in the United States.
The conclusion of the Spanish-American war, which resulted to
the victory of the Americans, paved the way to the end of the
Spanish colonial rule and the rise of the United States as a global
power.

32. Filipino-American Collaboration

At the time of the Spanish-American war, General Emilio
Aguinaldo was in Singapore where he had negotiations with the
American consul general, Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, regarding the
Americans' offer to support the Philippines in fighting the
Spaniards. The United States would then recognize Philippine
independence after the defeat of Spain. Pratt advised Aguinaldo to
meet with Commodore Dewey who was then based in Hong Kong,
if he were to join the latter should he sail for the Philippines.
General Aguinaldo rushed to Hong Kong but missed
Commodore Dewey who had already sailed to Manila to destroy
the Spanish fleet. Dewey proceeded at once to Manila with his fleet
consisting of four armored cruises - Olympia, Baltimore, Boston, and
Raleigh and two gunboats - Concord and Petrel
The Battle of Manila Bay began on May 1,1898 at 5:40 a.m. and
ended at noon. Admiral Patricio Montojo of the Spanish forces
incurred heavy casualties with 160 of his men killed and 210
wounded. The Spanish forces consisting of 12 ships, including the
flagship Reina Castilla were subdued. The U.S. naval squadron had
no fatal casualties. None of the ships was heavily damaged.
This battle made Dewey an instant hero. The Congress
promoted him to rear admiral and later admiral. However, the U.S.
naval squadron could not attempt to occupy Manila in the absence

of ground troops, which did not arrive until about three months
later.
On news of Dewey's victory, ships from Britain, France, Japan,
and Germany began to arrive in the Manila Bay area. They had
recently obtained concessions from China for naval bases and
designated commercial spheres of interest. At that time, Germany
had sent her warships to protect the interests of her nationals in the
Philippines.
The German fleet of eight warships led by Admiral Von
Diedrichs was especially aggressive. The fleet acted provocatively
by cutting in front of American ships. They supplied the city with
flour and other products, ignoring the American economic blockade
on the Spaniards in the city. This angered Dewey. He sent an
ultimatum to Von Diedrichs to stop it or else fight. Captain Edward
Chichester of the English fleet came to support Dewey. Von
Diedrichs, fearing to risk battle with the combined AngloAmerican fleets, ended his hostile activities.
Upon the advice of the Hong Kong junta, General Aguinaldo
left on board the McCulloch (others say McCullough), Dewey's
dispatch vessel, and arrived in Cavite on May 19, 1898. He
reassumed command of rebel forces. His first act upon his return
was his proclamation on May 21, urging the people to rise in arms
and join the Americans in a common struggle against the Spaniards.
On May 24, 1898, General Aguinaldo established a dictatorial
government, with him as the dictator, upon the advice of Ambrosio
Rianzares Bautista. Aguinaldo established a new government to
revoke the authority of the Biak-na-Bato Republic and unite the
revolutionary forces. At that time, a dictatorship was necessary to
carry out the war successfully. This government was temporary and
was to last only until a republic could have been established.
On May 28, the Consultative Assembly instituted by Governor
General Basilio Augustin met for the first time. But the Filipinos did

194

not like to settle for the projected reforms. They clamored for total
independence. On the same day, Aguinaldo's new army repulsed
the Spanish marines at Alapan, a barrio in Imus, Cavite. The
Philippine Flag (The Sun and Stars Flag) was first unfurled in the
Battle of Alapan.
This initial success inspired other people to relive the
revolutionary spirit. During the subsequent days, the Spanish forces
were routed in Bataan, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Laguna,
Batangas, Tayabas (now Quezon), and other provinces.
The capture of Manila was the principal objective of General
Aguinaldo. He and his troops commanded by General Gregorio del
Pilar, Pio del Pilar, Artemio Ricarte, and Mariano Noriel, among
others, surrounded the city.
Dewey's squadron dominated the bay and thus, the Spaniards
were trapped within the city walls. Aguinaldo's men had cut off the
supply of foodstuffs and potable water in the city. The populace
suffered terribly during the siege. Aguinaldo offered Governor
General Augustin terms for an honorable surrender but the latter
rejected him. Dewey demanded the surrender of Manila on August
7. Consequently, the Spanish governor general honorably conceded.

A.

B.

Study Guides
Terms/Concepts to Understand
Nationalism
Liberal ideas
Racial prejudice
Secularization
Manifest destiny
Questions to Answer
1.
What were the common grievances of the Filipinos against
the Spanish colonial administration?
2.
Why did the early Filipino revolts fail to liberate the country
from the Spaniards?

3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

What were the efforts of the Filipino propagandists to

achieve peaceful reforms?
When is a revolution justifiable?
Describe the organizational structure of the Katipunan.
Who could be a better revolutionary leader, Andres
Bonifacio or Emilio Aguinaldo?
What caused the Filipino-American collaboration against
the Spaniards?

196

Chapter VI
The Birth of a Nation
Proclamation
Independence
I.

of

the

Philippine

The struggle for independence against Spain continued in many

provinces, particularly after the news of General Emilio
Aguinaldo's return to the Philippines. In anticipation of the
ultimate triumph of rebel armies, on June 12,1898, between four
and five in the afternoon, General Aguinaldo before a huge crowd
proclaimed the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite.
Finally, after 333 years of Spanish domination, the Philippines
obtained her independence. General Aguinaldo guided the
Philippine revolution to its end.
The Sun and Stars flag was officially unfurled at the
Aguinaldo's mansion as the Philippine National March was played
in public. Dona Marcela Marino Agoncillo, assisted by her daughter
Lorenza and Mrs. Delfina Herbosa de Nati vidad (niece of Dr.
Rizal) had sewn the flag in Hong Kong. General Aguinaldo made
its design. The flag was made of silk with a white triangle at the left
containing a sunburst of eight rays at the center, a five-pointed star
at each angle of the triangle, an upper stripe of dark blue and lower
stripe of red.
The national anthem titled, Marcha National Filipina (formerly
Marcha Filipina Magdalo, named after Aguinaldo's nom de guerre and
his Katipunan faction) composed by Julian Felipe, was played by
the town band of San Francisco de Malabon (now General Trias)
whose members had learned the music just a day before the
occasion (at present, Republic Act 8491 provides the rules and

guidelines on the proper display and use of the Philippine flag, as

well as the singing of the National Anthem and the prohibited acts
on its use).
In 1896, Andres Bonifacio favored Julio Nakpil's Marangal na
Dalit ng Katagalugan to be the himno national (national hymn) of the
revolution. Since Bonifacio lost his leadership to Aguinaldo,
another hymn was preferred. It was on June 5,1898 when Julian
Felipe went to Aguinaldo, handling a letter of introduction from
Gen. Mariano Trias. Felipe was then asked to compose a march to
be played for the 1898 Declaration of Independence. On June
II, Felipe presented his draft to Aguinaldo and played the march
on the piano, in the presence of General Mariano Trias, Baldomero
Aguinaldo, and other revolutionary leaders. After some discussion
with his generals who were then attending a conference with him,
Aguinaldo agreed to accept it as the Marcha National Filipina. The
anthem remained without words until toward the end of 1899, the
poem in Spanish verses entitled, Filipinas by Jose Palma was
adopted as lyrics.
The Act of the / declaration of Philippine Independence was solemnly
read by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, which he himself wrote.
Included in this document was the explanation for the design and
color of the flag. The declaration was signed by 98 people with one
of them an American - L. M. Johnson, Colonel of Artillery.
After the proclamation of Philippine independence, Apolinario
Mabini became the adviser of General Aguinaldo. Upon Mabini's
advice, Gen. Aguinaldo changed the form of government from
dictatorial to revolutionary. Thus, Aguinaldo became the President
of the Revolutionary Government. By a decree of June 18,1898,
President Aguinaldo organized the municipal and provincial
governments. He directed the town chiefs in all provinces to elect
members to a Congress from among the residents in these

198

provinces who are noted for their education as well as social

position.
On August 1, 1898, the first convention of municipal presidents
was held in Bacoor, Cavite, capital of the Revolutionary
Government. The Declaration of Philippine Independence on June
12 was ratified in this convention. While President Aguinaldo was
laying down the foundations of an independent government,
troops were coming from the United States to reinforce Dewey's
forces. By the end of July 1898, nearly 12,000 American troops
under the overall command of Major General Wesley Meritt had
arrived from San Francisco.

2. The Incredulous Battle of Manila

General Fermin Jaudenes succeeded General Basilio Augustin
as governor general of the Philippines. The new governor
negotiated the surrender of Manila with an arranged show of
resistance to save the prestige of the Spanish government. Governor
General Jaudenes, through a Belgian consul, Edouard Andre,
secretly told Dewey and Meritt in early August 1898 concerning the
capture of Manila. With the end of hostilities, American forces
would be occupying the beleaguered city and its harbor.
It was a rainy morning on August 13, 1898 when the sham
Battle of Manila began after Dewey's naval gun bombarded Fort
San Antonio Abad near the Luneta. At about 11:20 a.m., the
Spaniards had already raised the flag of surrender. General Greene
only noticed the flag at around noontime. The American troops
entered the city gates after which they closed it. At around five in
the afternoon the terms of capitulation were resolved. The Spanish
authorities decided to surrender the Spanish troops and the Filipino
volunteers within the Walled City. The Americans agreed to secure
the city, including its inhabitants and churches.

Although some 12,000 Filipinos had taken part in the siege of

Manila, the Americans did not allow them to enter the city and its
suburbs, even if unarmed. The Filipino troops deeply resented this
American gesture. Many frankly voiced the apprehension that the
Americans wished to exercise colonial power in the country. On the
other hand, the Spaniards insisted on the exclusion of the Filipinos
in the capitulation area.
The Americans established a military government in the
Philippines, after the surrender of Manila. The Philippines was
ruled by the President of the United States in his capacity as
commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. On March
2,1901, the military government in the Philippines ended when the
United States Congress enacted the Army Appropriations Act. This
law carried the Spooner Amendment, which removed from the
United States President the final authority to govern the
Philippines, instead this power was to be exercised by the United
States Congress through the President.
After the fall of Manila, General Diego de los Rios became the
governor general. He became the last Spanish governor general of
the Philippines. On August 28, 1898, he transferred his
headquarters to Iloilo and took command of the Spanish forces. But
the Visayans led by General Martin Delgado forced Governor de
los Rios to leave Iloilo on December 24 for Zamboanga. The next
day after the Spanish forces evacuated Iloilo City, Visayan patriots
under General Martin Delgado occupied it. On May 19, 1899, the
American troops occupied jolo, displacing the Spanish garrison of
Governor General de los Rios in Zamboanga.
Meanwhile, in Baler (then part of Nueva Ecija, now Aurora), the
Spanish soldiers led by Lt. Martin Cerezo, continued to fight for
their country, unaware that Spain had lost its fight in the
Philippines. Suffering from scarcity of provisions and continuous
assaults, the soldiers held fort in the Church of Baler and refused to

200

surrender. Finally on June 2, 1899, 33 Spanish soldiers marched out

of tKe church, ending their 337 days of encirclement and siege by
superior Filipino forces. The siege of Baler, that highlighted the
gallantry of both Filipino and Spanish soldiers, ended on June
30,1899 (now Philippine-Spanish Friendship Day pursuant to
Republic Act No. 9187).
In November 1899, all Spanish forces were shipped to Spain.
The pull out of Spanish military in the Philippines was provided in
the Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10,1898. The treaty
negotiations were initiated by Spanish and American
representatives.
The treaty provided for the Spanish withdrawal from Cuba,
leaving the island temporarily to America. The Teller Amendment,
passed when the U.S. declared war against Spain, prevented the
United States from taking Cuba. Spain had to cede the Philippines,
Guam, and Puerto Rico to the United States, which in turn paid
Spain the sum of $20 million. The civil and political status of the
inhabitants in the ceded territories was to be determined by the U.S.
Congress. With their impending defeat from the United States,
Spain signed the treaty. US Secretary of State John Hay, in behalf of
the US government handed to Spanish commission member Jules
Cambon the $20 million sum as payment to Spain for the
Philippines.
Before the signing ol the Treaty of Paris, President McKinley
said he did not know what to do with the Philippines and added
that one night he prayed to God to give him guidance. At that time,
he was surrounded by men, which constituted pressure groups in
the field of business, the military and naval group, and the
religious.
General Aguinaldo tried to persuade foreign countries to
recognize Philippine independence. He sent Felipe Agoncillo, a
Filipino patriot- lawyer, together with Sixto Lopez to Paris to ask

for the recognition of the revolutionary government. However,

Agoncillo was not even permitted to attend the conference in Paris.
From there, he went to Washington, where he worked against the
ratification of the treaty by the United States Senate.
The treaty and the U.S. occupation of the Philippines prompted
opposition from among American citizens, including Mark Twain, a
writer and satirist; Andrew Carnegie, a business tycoon; and some
members of the U.S. Senate.
After a heated debate in the U.S. Senate, the treaty was finally
ratified on February 6,1899 by a margin of one vote. It was argued
that the Philippines would simply fall into the hands of Germany or
other countries if U.S. forces left the region since the Filipinos were
unprepared to govern themselves.

3. The Malolos Republic

Uncertain about the outcome of the forthcoming peace
conference in Paris, General Aguinaldo ordered on August 22, 1898
the transfer of the government's seat of power from Bacoor, Cavite,
to Malolos, Bulacan and used the convent of the Malolos Cathedral
(now Basilica Minore de la Immaculada Conception) as the Palacio
Presidential (presidential palace). Aguinaldo refused to
acknowledge American control in the country. He had already been
preparing the foundation of a republican state. He wanted a
government without foreign supervision. A number of Filipinos
had shown support for autonomy.
On September 15,1898, the Revolutionary Congress was
inaugurated at the Barasoain Church in Malolos amidst colorful
festivities. Outside the church Banda Pasig played the national
anthem. Spectators lined the streets as President Aguinaldo, his
advisers and members of the Congress walked to the church where
the ceremonies were to be held.

202

The altar of the church was draped for the assembly. General
Aguinaldo convoked the constituent assembly in the opening
session. He urged the delegates to promulgate a constitution that
would be the most glorious expression of the noble aspirations of
the Filipino people, a proof that the Filipinos already had the
capacity to govern.
President Aguinaldo sat with his cabinet facing delegates on
both sides of the aisle. The Congress adopted the parliamentary
rules of the Spanish Cortes.
In the afternoon, the Congress elected the following
officers: Pedro Paterno - President Benito Legarda Vice-President Gregorio Araneta - Secretary
Pablo Tecson - Secretary (who replaced Araneta) Pablo
Ocampo - Secretary
A total of 93 representatives took part in the Congress, 35 of
them were directly elected. Many of them were holders of academic
degrees from universities in Europe. The president of the Congress
himself, Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, was a holder of a bachelor's degree
in law from the University of Salamanca and a doctorate degree
from the Universidad Central de Madrid.
As the delegates converged at Malolos, they made it evident
that they wished to enact a constitution and establish a permanent
government for the country. The seat of the Revolutionary
Congress was fixed at the Barasoain Church.
Mabini argued that under the decree of its creation, the
Congress was a mere consultative body. It possessed no legislative
powers. It was essential for all powers to be vested in one person or
entity to ensure swift action. Felipe C. Calderon contended that it
was necessary to show that the Philippines was duly constituted as
a State in order to strengthen its claim to recognition of its
sovereign status.

President Aguinaldo upheld Calderon's views, evidently

considering Congress to be the authoritative spokesman for the
Filipino people and the true reflection of their dreams and
aspirations.
The committee to draft the constitution was composed of 19
members with Felipe Calderon as the chairman. It studied the three
constitutional drafts submitted - the Mabini Plan, the Paterno Plan,
and the Calderon Plan.
The Mabini Plan was the Constitutional Program of the
Philippine Republic. The Paterno Plan was based on the Spanish
Constitution of 1868. The Calderon Plan was a constitution based
on the constitutions of France, Belgium, Mexico, Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Brazil. After a thorough examination
and deliberation, the Committee chose the Calderon Plan and
submitted it to the Malolos Congress for approval.
According to Felipe Calderon, the Committee rejected the
Mabini draft because it was based on the Statutes of Universal
Masonry, abhorred by the majority of the delegates who were
Catholics. However, significantly written in Mabini's draft were the
provisions advocating women's rights like the exercise of public
office, education in any branch of science or of the arts in public
institutions, exercise of a profession or industry, right to vote, and
exemption from military service and from personal tax. Calderon
mentioned that the Paterno draft was also discarded because it was
patterned from the Spanish Constitution of 1868.
Other matters were also taken up in the Congress. On
September 29, 1898, the Declaration of Philippine Independence
made on June 12, 1898 in Kawit was confirmed in special
ceremonies. The declaration was not recognized by the United
States and Spain since the Spanish government ceded the
Philippines to the American government in the 1898 Treaty of Paris
in consideration for an indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets

204

lost. In the following month, the Congress authorized the Executive

to float a domestic loan of 20 million pesos redeemable in 40 years,
to support the new government.
Discussions on the draft constitution lasted until November
29,1898. Article 5, Title III of the draft became the most debatable.
This refers to religion and the separation of Church and State.
Tomas del Rosario, one of those who figured prominently in the
conference, spoke in favor of the principle of separation of Church
and State; while Felipe Calderon, on the contrary position wanted
to make Catholicism the state religion. After the members of the
Congress voted for it, the result was a tie.
The second voting resulted to the separation of Church and
State, winning by only one vote given by Pablo Tecson. On whether
or not Church and State should be united showed the democratic
orientation of the delegates. Though the Malolos Congress formally
separated church and state - by the narrowest vote possible - the
revolutionary experience did not establish a tradition barring
Filipino clergy from politics (Wurfel, 1988:8).
A few other amendments was placed in the draft constitution
before it was submitted to Aguinaldo for approval. The draft
constitution provided for an executive, legislative, and judicial
branch of government and the creation of a Permanent Commission
acting as a legislative body when the Assembly was not in session.
Finally, on January 21, 1899, President Aguinaldo proclaimed
the Malolos Constitution as the fundamental law of the land. Then
on January 23, the First Philippine Republic was inaugurated
amidst festive ceremonies at the Barasoain Church. It was
popularly known as the Malolos Republic.
Amidst the inaugural rites, President Aguinaldo issued a decree
granting pardon to all Spanish prisoners of war, except to members
of the Spanish regular army. He also gave the Spaniards as well as

other foreigners the right to engage in business within the limits of

the Republic.
To disseminate the ideals and aspirations of the Republic,
publications were made. The Casa Real (Royal House) in Malolos
(declared a National Shrine in 1965 by President Diosdado
Macapagal by virtue of Executive Act No. 173) became the National
Treasury and National Printing Press where the revolutionary
organsLa Independencia, El Heraldo de la Revolucion, Kalayaan at
Kaibigan ng Bayanwere printed.
The official organ of the Republic was El Heraldo de la Revolucion
(Herald of the Revolution), with its first issue on September
29,1898, about four months before the emergence of the Republic. In
a special issue of the newspaper was the poem 'A1 Heroes
Nacional' (To the National Hero), composed by poet laureate Don
Cecilio Apostol and the December 20,1898 decree of President
Aguinaldo declaring December 30 as Memorial Day to honor Jose
Rizal and many other Filipinos who suffered martyrdom. The name
of the newspaper was afterwards changed to Heraldo Filipino, then
to lndice Oficial, and finally to Gaceta de Filipinas, with its last issue
on October 14, 1899.
Some Filipinos who wrote articles using their nom de plume for
the newspaper were Rafael Palma (Dapit Hapon), Cecilio Apostol
(Catullo), Fernando Ma. Guerrero (Fulvio Gil), Epifanio de los Santos
(G. Solon), and Salvador V. del Rosario (Juan Tagalo).
In the provinces there were many revolutionary newspapers
published by patriotic individuals like El Nuevo Dia (The New Day),
founded and edited by Sergio Osmena. Its first issue appeared in
Cebu on April 16,1900.
In 1899 Jose Palma, the 23-year old brother of Rafael Palma and
member of La lndependencia, wrote the poem "Filipinas," which was
later adapted as the Spanish lyrics of the national anthem of the
Philippines, still at war against the Americans. (The English

206

translation of the lyrics were done by Camilo Osias and M. A. Lane,

while in 1951 the Tagalog translation was used).
For Mabini, true independence would not simply mean
liberation from Spain but also educating- the people for autonomy
and refraining from colonial mentality. Thus, the Malolos Congress
had set up educational institutions.
A system of free and compulsory elementary education was
provided for by the Malolos Constitution. A college for boys called
Burgos Institute was established in Malolos under Enrique
Mendiola, with a regular academic course leading to the degree of
Bachelor of Arts and special vocational courses in agriculture,
commerce, and surveying. The girls learned their lessons at home
under private tutors. They were conferred the degree of Bachelor of
Arts after passing the government examination.
The Universidad Literaria de Filipinas (at the convent of Barasoain
Church) was also established with Joaquin Gonzales as the first
president. Gonzales was subsequently, replaced in September 1899
by Dr. Leon Ma. Guerrero.
The university offered courses in law, medicine, pharmacy, and
notary public. However, its existence was short-lived due to
Filipino-American conflict, which resulted to the dispersion of its
faculty and students.
Military training for officers in the Army of the Republic was
offered in the Military Academy of Malolos whose director was
Major Manuel Sityar, a former Spanish lieutenant of the Spanish
Guardia Civil. Some of its instructors were graduates of the
Military Academy of Toledo, Spain like Major Jose Reyes and Major
Candido Reyes. President Aguinaldo made efforts to reconcile the
new government with the former enemies.
The Filipino army in Luzon included a battalion of Igorot
lancers and a company of Negrito archers. There were more
soldiers than rifles in the armed forces of the Republic. Those

without rifles were armed with bolos, bamboo spears, anting-an

tings (amulets), and bows and arrows.
The Republic has a relatively small navy. It consisted of eight
steam launchers captured from the Spaniards and several
interisland steamers donated by rich families in Batangas. Filipinas,
an inter-island steamer owned by Compania General de Tobaccos
became the army flagship.
In Mindanao, Spanish colonial rule particularly ended in
Butuan, Agusan del Norte with the hoisting of the Philippine flag.
Butuan was then the military capital of the province of Surigao.
Emissaries of the Revolutionary Government led by Wenceslao
Gonzales proclaimed a Philippine Republic in Butuan on January
17,1899.
Four flags were hoisted on that day: the tricolor flag of the
Philippine Revolution, the white flag of surrender, the national flag
of Spain, and the Pontifical flag. These flags were symbols of the
forces operating in the Philippines at that time.
The Malolos Republic is the first Republic in Asia. The new
government has empowered the people to choose their
representatives to create laws beneficial for the nation. The
decisions of the members of the Congress became the cornerstone
of democracy. It has manifested the capability of the Filipinos to
govern in the midst of turbulent times. At a time when most of Asia
was still under colonial power, the Philippines stood out as a beam
of hope.

Study Guides
Terms/Concepts to Understand
Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan Constituent Assembly
Dictatorial government
Separation of Church and State

208

El Heraldo de la Revolucion Pontifical flag

Questions to Answer
1.
What is the significance of the proclamation of Philippine
Independence in 1898?
2.
How was the transition of governance from the Spaniards to the
Americans made possible in the Philippines?
3.
What has transpired in the Malolos Congress, which brought
about the establishment of the First Philippine Republic?
4.
Explain, why is the Malolos Republic considered in history as
the First Philippine Republic and not the Kakarong Republic
nor the Biak-na-Bato Republic?

Chapter VII
The American Rule
1. War of Philippine Independence from
the United States
At first, President Aguinaldo regarded the United States an ally
in the Philippines' road towards independence. Filipino-American
relations deteriorated as the American military authorities took
over Manila in August 1898. The mandatory evacuation of the
Filipino troops in the captured districts of the city dismayed
Aguinaldo and his men who joined the battle, thinking that the
Americans were on their side. The signing of the Treaty of Paris
without consulting the Filipinos heightened the tension. Neither
Spain nor the US gave Felipe Agoncillo, Aguinaldo's special envoy,
a chance to join the Paris peace talks.

Previously in Hong Kong, the Americans offered assistance to

Aguinaldo in fighting the common adversary, the Spaniards.
However, the negotiations turned out to be tentative in nature. The
plan of the new colonizers was becoming more evident as the
Americans eventually controlled more areas in the country.
There was a popular belief among the supporters of Manifest
Destiny that the United States had the God-given right to help
oppressed countries and build democratic nations. When US
President William McKinley issued his so-called Benevolent
Assimilation Proclamation on December 21,1898, he expressly
indicated American policy regarding the Philippines, that the US
shall exercise sovereignty over the entire archipelago. He argued
that the Americans must educate and uplift the conditions of the
Filipinos. This ideology was used by the Americans to rationalize
their actions in the country.
On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation
and specified that his forces were prepared to fight any American
attempt to take over the country. The Filipinos waged a guerrilla
warfare. They were supported in their struggle by the local folks.
Even if the American flag was publicly displayed and the local elite
officials openly acknowledged support to the United States
government, the guerrillas continued to receive food supplies, and
shelter from the people. Local resistance showed that the Filipinos
did not want to be under American rule. Suspicion and bitter
feelings were growing between the American soldiers and the
Filipino dissidents.
Still, the Americans occupied the Philippines. On January 20,
1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine
Corrtmission to make recommendations in the administration of
the country. This commission headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman,
issued a proclamation on April 4, 1899, declaring the establishment

210

of American sovereignty in the Philippines in the midst of the

Philip pine-American war, which broke out months ago.
Hostilities began on the night of February 4, 1899 at about 9
p.m. An American soldier named Private Robert Willie Grayson of
the First Nebraska volunteers with two other members of the U.S.
sentry shot and killed a man who happens to be a Filipino soldier.
The man together with three other Filipino soldiers were already
entering into American lines on their way home. The American
soldiers tried to stop them and shouted, "Halt!" twice. Unfamiliar
with the word halt the Filipino shouted "Halto!"
Thinking that the Filipino soldier was making fun of them, the
American soldiers fired on the Filipino soldiers who were caught
unprepared. The site of the first shot of the Philippine-American
war, called Philippine Insurrection by the Americans is in Silencio
corner Sociego St. in Sta. Mesa, Manila. (This is pursuant to
National Historical Institute Board Resolution 07 s.2003,
'Authorizing the Transfer of the Historical Marker for the Site of the
First Shot of the Philippine-American War from San Juan Bridge to
Silencio Corner Sociego St., Sta. Mesa, Manila' after a thorough
deliberation on the position of Dr. Benito Legarda). News reached
the United States that the Filipinos were the ones who started
hostilities. The Americans viewed the fighting as an insurrection.
The next day, Sunday, General Arthur MacArthur issued his
order to advance against the Filipino troops without investigating
the shooting incident. Aguinaldo tried to avoid war. He sent an
emissary to inform Governor General Elwell Otis that the firing on
their side had been against his order.
Governor General Otis answered that since the fighting had
begun, it must go on to the grim end. On the same day, Aguinaldo
issued a declaration informing the Filipino people that they were
now at war. This turned out to be the seven-year PhilippineAmerican War (1899-1906). Because of their advanced preparations

and firearms, the American troops captured Rizal Province, La

Loma, and Kalookan (now Caloocan City).
The Muslims, uncertain of both Christian Filipinos and
Americans opted to remain neutral. They signified their noninvolvement in the Filipino-American war. The Americans knew
that the Filipino Muslims in Mindanao had not been completely
subjugated by the Spaniards. General John C. Bates tried to win the
friendship of the Muslims by negotiating with them on the basis of
equality. On August 20, 1899, John Bates and Sultan Jamalul Kiram
II of Sulu with three datus signed the Bates Treaty. This treaty
provided that the rights and dignities of the sultan and his datus
shall be respected. Likewise, the Muslims shall not be interfered
with on account of their religion.
Nevertheless, the Muslim province remained under American
military rule until 1914. Schools that taught non-Muslim curriculum
were established. The United States, seen as a challenge to Islam,
intensified armed resistance in the region. Panglima Hasan led a
rebellion against the American authorities. His fight for freedom
ended on March 4,1904.
In the suburbs of Manila, the American fleet started
bombarding the Filipino tort north of San Juan del Monte on
February 5, 1899. In the afternoon of that day, a fierce battle in La
Loma, near the Chinese cemetery ensued. Major Jose Torres
Bugallon, one of General Antonio Luna's gallant officers, fell
mortally wounded. After capturing La Loma, General Mac Arthur
headed for Caloocan.
In Caloocan, a fierce battle followed, with the Americans once
again victorious. Undismayed by his defeat, General Antonio Luna
(younger brother of Juan Luna) prepared for a plan for the
recapture of Manila by burning American occupied houses in
Tondo and Binondo. This took place on February 22, Washington's
birthday (an American national holiday). American fire brigades

212

rushed to the area and fought the flames. They repulsed Luna's
men with heavy losses. Luna then retreated to Polo where he
established his headquarters.
In late February, reinforcement arrived from the United States.
The American troops under General Mac Arthur began their
offensive north of the city. They wanted to capture Malolos, capital
of the Philippine Republic. Luna resumed his command by
building his position at the junction of Rio Grande and Bagbag
Rivers, just outside Calumpit.
The Filipinos fought with fierce valor near Malinta. Colonel
Harry O. Egbert of the 22nd U.S. Infantry died in action. Fighting as
they retreated, the Filipinos burned Polo and Meycauayan in order
to delay the enemy advance.
On March 30, the American army was already in Malolos. By
this time, the Aguinaldo government had evacuated Malolos and
established its headquarters in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. General
MacArthur wanted to pursue Aguinaldo but Governor General
Elwell Otis ordered him to rest in Malolos. On March 31, General
MacArthur captured Malolos.
The Filipino troops, although insufficiently armed and
inadequately fed continued fighting. In Quingua (now Plaridel), on
April 23, the American cavalry under Major Bell suffered heavy
losses under General Gregorio del Pilar. In this battle, Colonel John
Stotsenberg was killed.
General MacArthur continued his drive northward. The fierce
battle of Bagbag River in Calumpit ensued for three days. On April
25, Calumpit fell into American hands. General Gregorio del Pilar
and his troops were left to defend the Filipino lines since General
Luna and his men, had already left for Pampanga at the height of
the battle to see what had happened to the reinforcement troops
being asked from General Tomas Mascanit Whi n I una returned to

C'alumpit, the Americans had already succeeds in penetrating the

Filipino defensive lines.
It was on March 6, 1899 that Apolinario Mabini, in his capacity
ni head of the Cabinet and minister of foreign affairs met with the
Schurman Commission and requested for a temporary cease-fire
but was refused. I le issued a manifesto dated April 15,1899 in San
Isidro, Nueva Ecija urging his countrymen to continue the struggle
for independence. Unlike him, flu- members of the Filipino
Assembly (formerly Congress) like Pedro Paterno, Ambrosio
Rianzares Bautista, and Felipe Buencamino wanted the American
offer of autonomy rather than independence. Mabini made another
attempt on April 28 by seeking armistice but was again turned
down.
Since the Assembly knew that Mabini opposed to their views,
they persuaded Aguinaldo to remove him from office. A resolution
was passed by the Assembly asking Aguinaldo to reject Mabini's
stand and to removo him as President of the Cabinet. When Mabini
resigned from his post on May 7,1899, President Aguinaldo named
Pedro Paterno the head of the new Cabinet. Mabini spent his last
years writing articles against the Americans.
The Paterno Cabinet, known as the "P.eace Cabinet" created a
Committee headed by Felipe Buencamino to negotiate peace with
the Americans. When General Antonio Luna heard this, he blocked
the trip of the Committee to Manila and arrested the members. He
opposed any attempt to make peace with the colonizers and
strongly advocated a fight for independence. His dreadful temper
won him enemies. His plan to recapture Manila was supposed to be
carried out together with the Kawit Company, Aguinaldo's
bodyguards. Due to the latter's lack of cooperation, Luna
recommended to Aguinaldo that the Kawit Company be disarmed
for military insubordination.

214

General Luna met his tragic end in the hands of his fellow
patriots. Early in June 1899, he received a telegram from Aguinaldo
asking him to go to Cabanatuan. He left his command in
Bayambang, Pangasinan. On June 5 he went to a convent in
Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, which served as Aguinaldo's
headquarters. He got mad when he did not find Aguinaldo who
had already left for San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. After he had heard a
rifle shot, General Luna rushed downstairs and cursed the soldiers
and then slapped one of them. Pedrong Kastila, a captain from
Cavite drew his bolo and hacked him. Seeing him wounded, the
other soldiers stabbed him while others shot him. He received more
than forty wounds. His aide-de-camp Colonel Francisco Roman
was also killed. The next day, he was buried with full military
honors on Aguinaldo's orders. Severino de las Alas, the Secretary of
the Interior in his circular informed the provincial chiefs of Luna's
death and said that it was caused by Luna's insulting and
assaulting of the President's bodyguards and the
Hta of Luna to take over the presidency from Aguinaldo. After
Luna's ^Bith, some demoralization set in. Many officers began to
surrender to the Americans. Aguinaldo's army gradually broke up
with one defeat after Bpiotiicr on the battlefields. By November 12,
1899, the regular army was dissolved by Aguinaldo. He formed
guerrilla units instead, to carry on the War.
The capture of Aguinaldo was one of the priorities of the
Americans. They mounted a full-scale offensive on October
12,1899. From Cabanatuan, Aguinaldo moved his government to
Tarlac, then to Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya and then to
Bayambang, Pangasinan. With his wife, son, mother, Sister, and
some members of the Cabinet, he boarded the train on the night off
November 13 bound for Calasiao, with the Americans still finding
ways to trap him.

In order to elude the American forces, Aguinaldo and his

forces proceeded to the Cordillera mountain range. In Candon,
Ilocos Sur, Aguinaldo and his troops went east and crossed the
Ilocos range. This passageway to the Cordillera was Tirad Pass. Del
Pilar saw the advantageous terrain of the Tirad Pass. This could
shield the Filipino troops. From atop Mt. Tirad, which could
provide view of pursuing Americans, Del Pilar and with 60
riflemen were given the mission of defending the pass. They stood
as guards to intercept the American soldiers and to give Aguinaldo
sufficient time to escape.
In the morning of December 2, 1899, Major Peyton G. March
and about 300 American troopers stormed the Pass, but were
repulsed by Del Pilar's men. The Americans had not so far located
the exact position of the Filipinos. Tirad was 4,500 feet high.
Through Januario Galut, an Igorot guide of the Americans, the
secret trail to the top from the rear was known. In the midst of the
combat, General del Pilar, was hit with a bullet that passed through
his neck. Only eight men escaped alive to relate the tragic news to
Aguinaldo.
After the Battle of Tirad Pass, which took six hours, the
American authorities lost track of Aguinaldo until Cecilio
Segismundo, Aguinaldo's messenger fell into the hands of General
Frederick Funston, stationed in Nueva Ecija. He was carrying
important letters to Baldomero Aguinaldo, General Urbano
Lacuna, and other guerrilla leaders. The dispatch to Baldomero
Aguinaldo directed the sending of reinforcement to Palanan,
Isabela. This gave Funston a clue to the whereabouts of Aguinaldo.
The Americans perceived conquest of Filipinos as dependent
on the fall of the Aguinaldo government. With the approval of
General MacArthur, who had succeeded Otis as military governor,
Funston employed 80 Macabebe scouts, two former officers of
Aguinaldo (Lazaro Segovia and Hilario Tal Placido), three Tagalog

216

natives, and four other American officers for the capture of

Aguinaldo.
Pretending to be the reinforcement with five American
prisoners, tin Macabebe scouts were able to enter Aguinaldo's camp.
Aguinaldo and I us men met them and even gave them food. At a
given signal, the Macabebi"* 1 suddenly opened fire. Tal Placido, a
fat, powerful man grabbed Aguinaldo ] from behind. General
Funston and four other American officers entered the ; room and
arrested him in the name of the United States.
Aguinaldo was taken aboard the Vicksburg and brought to
Manila General Mac Arthur graciously received him at the
Malacariang Palace \ On April 19,1901, he took the oath of
allegiance to the United States and j appealed to all Filipinos to
accept the sovereignty of the United States.
At the time when some patriotic Filipinos were still fighting for
independence, some officials of the revolutionary government had
already decided to make peace with the colonizers. The Pacificados
(Pacifists) led by Pedro Paterno and Felipe Buencamino founded
Asociacioti de Paz. Among the organizers were Cayetano Arellano,
Tomas del Rosario, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Leon Ma. Guerrero,
Rafael Palma, Justo Lukban, and Pascual Poblete.
While Aguinaldo and some of his men were in the highlands of
Northern Luzon, the Pacificados (Pacifists) in a meeting on
December 23, 1900 renamed the league for peace the Partido Federal
(Feder.al Party), with Trinidad Pardo de Tavera as elected
president. The Federal Party wanted to make the Philippines a part
of the United States and be given rights and privileges extended by
the U.S. to other territories becoming eventually a state of the
union. The Federalistas were haughtily called Americanistas or proAmericans by the nationalists.
The Filipino civilians, caught between the Americans and the
Filipino revolutionaries suffered badly. More than 200,000 Filipinos

died during the war, most often by famine and disease. Some
Filipinos accepted the offer of amnesty. Notable exceptions were
Apolinario Mabini and Macario Sakay. On July 4,1902, President
Theodore Roosevelt declared that the Philippine- American War
was over. However, local resistance continued.

2. A Government Under America

Although the Philippine-American war was still in progress, on
March 16,1900 President McKinley appointed the Second
Philippine Commission (Taft Commission). He gave the
commission the legislative and executive authority to put up a
civilian government.
On July 4, 1901, the American civil government was proclaimed
with Judge William Howard Taft as the first civil governor.
Governor Taft exercised both executive and legislative functions
because he was the head of the Second Philippine Commission that
served as the lawmaking body. His policy, the Philippines for the
Filipinos, laid the foundation of a democratic government during
his administration. Subsequently, the Second Philippine
Commission passed a law establishing a high school system in the
country.
One of the achievements of the Taft administration was the
sale of huge i1 acts of friar lands (410,000 acres) to Filipinos on
easy installment terms. In I'>04, the US government paid the
Vatican US $7.2 million for these lands held by the religious orders.
However, this scheme did not really alleviate He plight of
Filipino tenants because estate owners bought most of these lands.
The first congressional law about the government of the
Philippines Kjfev.is the Cooper Act also known as the Philippine
Organic Act of 1902. It i n >vided for the extension of the United
States Bill of Rights to the Filipinos, i .i lso guaranteed the

218

establishment of an elective Philippine Assembly, after ilir

proclamation of complete peace and two years after the
publication of census.
Governor Taft proclaimed March 2,1903 as Census Day. It was
the first official census of the Philippines during the American
period. It reported n total Philippine population of 7,635,426.
Filipino nationalists organized political parties to counteract
the pro- American activities of the Partido Federal. Among these
parties were Partido Nacionalista (Nationalist Party), founded by
Pascual Poblete in August 1901; Partido Independista (Independence
Party), founded by Dr. Pedro A. Paterno; and the Partido Democrata
(Democratic Party) founded by Alberto Baretto, Leon Ma.
Guerrero, Justo Lukban, and Jose de la Vina in 1902. Partido
Democrata like Partido Nacionalista advocated the independence of
the country through peaceful means.
The Partido Conservador, composed of prominent members of
the Spanish community like Macario Adriatico, Francisco Ortigas,
and Gregorio Singian, was organized in February 1901. This group
recognized American sovereignty in the Philippines under the
Treaty of Paris. It advocated for autonomous representative
government after peace and order had been restored.
Though thousands of Filipinos surrendered as a result of the
American peace propaganda, some military commanders refused
to lay down their arms. In Samar, General Vicente Lukban resorted
to ambushing American soldiers. The brutality of the war was best
exemplified by the Balangiga Massacre. This happened in 1901, a
few weeks after a company of American soldiers arrived in
Balangiga, Samar, took over the affairs of the town and occupied
some local huts to protect the inhabitants from the Muslim rebels.
On September 28,1901, the American soldiers were attacked by the
townsfolk. At 6:30 a.m., the bells of Balangiga were rung, signaling
the attack of around 400 men.

Enraged at this tactic, General Jacob Smith ordered the

massacre of all men and children above ten years of age. He
wanted the province of Samar to be turned into a "howling
wilderness." Balangiga massacre took place in 1901 -1902. After the
end of the bloody campaign, Smith was court-martialed for the
cruelties inflicted by his troops and found guilty. They retired him
from service. The American forces took the two Balangiga church
bells ant I a rare 1557 cannon as war booty and transported them to
Wyoming (now being placed in a brick display museum in their
home base Fort Russell Wyoming).
The fearless General Miguel Malvar continued the fight for
Philippine independence. In a manifesto to the Filipino people
dated July 31,1901, he urged the continuation of resistance to the
American occupation. Gener.il Franklin Bell believed that the entire
population of his area of operations in Batangas and Laguna were
actively aiding the guerrilla forces of General Malvar. Accordingly,
he decided to employ tactics to cause so much general
apprehension. The principal measure he used was reconcentration.
On April 16,1902 General Malvar surrendered in Lipa, Batangas,
two months after the capture of General Lukban in Catubig, Samar.
Bell directed his commanders to set up the outer limits of an
area around each town chosen as a zone of reconcentration. Before
December 25,1901, the people must have moved into this zone with
all food supplies they could bring. All property found outside the
zone after said date would be confiscated or destroyed by the
Americans. Furthermore, after January 1,1902, any man found
outside the reconcentration area would be arrested and imprisoned
if he could not present a pass. He could either be shot if he
attempted to run away.
Several other Filipinos refused to conform to the American rule.
However, the American authorities were determined to assert
sovereignty in the Philippines, as manifested by the anti-nationalist

220

laws imposed on the local inhabitants. These included the Sedition

Law, Brigandage Act, Reconcentration Act, and the Flag Law.
Subsequently, these anti-nationalist laws were scrapped following
the policy of Filipinization in 1916 except the Flag Law, which was
repealed in 1919. Flag Law (1907) prohibited the display of the
Philippine flag and other symbols used by the resistance against the
United States.
It was on November 4,1901 when the Second Philippine
Commission or Taft Commission passed the Sedition Law, which
imposed death penalty or a long prison term on anyone who
advocated separation from the United States even by peaceful
means. Sedition was defined as action pro- independence, meant to
inculcate a spirit of hatred and enmity against the American people
and the Government of the United States in the Philippines and to
incite the people to open an armed resistance to the constituted
authorities. Within this precept, the display of the Philippine flag,
the singing of the national anthem, and plays advocating
independence were prohibited.
Juan Abad's Tanikalang Guinto (Gold Chains) was closed after
its jfatl.mgas performance on May 10, 1903. The author was
found guilty of wil it km i He was sentenced to two years
imprisonment and a fine of US
mooo.
Iiindi Aco Patay (I Am Not Dead) by Juan Matapang Cruz was
closed liin May 8, 1903 at the Teatro Nueva Luna in Malabon. The
red sun on a jl; fcatipunan flag that rose behind the stage caused the
riot inside the theater. A > i ninken American soldier climbed the
stage and tore the scenery apart. ^Hk month later Cruz was
arrested and later imprisoned, which he served in full.
Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow),
a play JSP written by Aurelio Tolentino was also regarded as

seditious. It had its last . .how on May 14,1903 at the Teatro

Libertad. There were different versions i)! the last scene. In the
uncensored version, Inangbayan's (mother country, iIn
Philippines) children rise in arms against Malaynatin (Who
knows? i eterring to the U.S. Insular government) and Bagong
Sibol (newcomer - the United States). In the censored version,
Bagong Sibol grants the children i heir freedom. The uncensored
version resulted to Tolentino's arrest. He was given life
imprisonment in 1905. In 1912, he was pardoned.
On November 12, 1902, Governor William H. Taft pushed
through the passage of the Brigandage Act or Ley de Bandolerismo,
which punished with death or with a prison term of not less than
20 years for members of an armed band. Persons aiding brigands
were to be given prison terms of not less than 10 years.
On June 1,1903, the Philippine Commission passed the
Reconcentration Act, which gave the governor general the power
to authorize any provincial governor to reconcentrate in the
towns all residents of outlying barrios if ladrones or outlaws
operated in these areas. This law was passed to facilitate the
arrest of guerrillas who were being protected by the people. The
Philippine Constabulary, Philippine Scouts, and members of the
United States Army combined to apprehend guerrillas.
In September of 1902, the resistance groups that had been
operating in Rizal and Bulacan merged into a consolidated
movement with General Luciano San Miguel as supreme
military commander. Starting with a force of around 150 men
armed with a few guns captured from municipal police
detachments, San Miguel's group soon attracted new recruits.
They raided towns to obtain more weapons. They also captured
some Filipino Scouts serving the U.S. Army.
The end for San Miguel came on March 28,1903, after some
Philippine Scouts discovered his headquarters between Caloocan

222

and Marikina. San Miguel and his force of two hundred men
defended themselves. Hit three times, San Miguel nevertheless
fought until his last breath.
With the death of San Miguel, Faustino Guillermo assumed the
leadership of the New Katipunan movement in Rizal and in
Bulacan. Soon after, Guillermo was captured. Two men pretended
to have defected from the Constabulary force under Captain
Keithley. While inside Guillermo's camp, they took Guillermo as
prisoner and turned him over to Keithley.
At the height of the rebellion in Samar in 1902, Macario Sakay,
Julian Montalan, and Cornelio Felizardo organized their resistance
forces in the Rizal-Cavite-Laguna-Batangas area by formally
establishing the Philippine Republic, or what Sakay referred to as
the Tagalog Republic. Sakay claimed that his republic was a
continuation of Bonifacio's Katipunan. He was chosen as president
with Montalan in charge of military operations. Francisco Carreon,
a former councilor of the Katipunan, as the vice-president.
Sakay exerted efforts to provide some amenities for the
movement. In April 1904, Sakay released a manifesto addressed to
all foreign consulates declaring that he and his men were real
revolutionaries and not mere brigands as the U.S. government
claimed because they had a flag, a government, and a constitution.
To obtain security of his followers, Sakay imposed sanctions to
uncooperative Filipinos. In one instance, they abducted the family
of Mariano Trias, a former general of Aguinaldo. This was a
retaliatory move for his collaborationist acts. Trias ordered the
arrest of four town presidents suspected of supporting the
guerrillas when he became the first civil governor of Cavite.
Thereafter the Philippine Constabulary rescued Mrs. Trias and her
children. The same way, the government forces nevertheless were
not able to suppress the Sakay rebellion.

In mid-1905, Governor General Henry C. Ide authorized Dr.

Dominador Gomez, a well-known labor leader, to conduct
negotiations for the surrender of Sakay and his men. Dr. Gomez
went to Tanay and told the rebel leader that his surrender would
help restore peace and order in the country, a condition provided
by the Cooper Act of 1902 for the establishment of a Philippine
Assembly. This assembly would serve as a training ground for selfgovernment, the first step toward independence.
Sakay agreed to end his resistance on condition that a general
amnesty be given to them, that they be permitted to carry firearms,
and that he and his men be allowed to leave the country assured of
personal safety. Gomez assured Sakay that his conditions were
acceptable to the American government. In July 1906, Sakay left his
headquarters in Tanay and went down to Manila. He viewed his
surrender as a genuine step towards independence. The people
honored him through receptions and banquets.
Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz, who had been handling the
negotiations with Dr. Gomez, invited Sakay, his principal
lieutenants and Dr. Gomez to a party in Cavite. While at the house
of Cavite Governor Van Schaik where the party was being held, the
Americans and the Philippine Constabulary arrested and disarmed
Sakay and his men. Sakay and his principal officers were charged
with ladronism or banditry and other crimes such as robbery, rape,
kidnapping, and murder.
In accordance with the provisions of the Brigandage Act, the
court sentenced General Macario L. Sakay and Colonel Lucio de
Vega to die by public hanging. The other officers were sentenced to
long prison terms. Julian Montalan and Leon Villafuerte were
eventually given executive clemency.
On September 13, 1907, Sakay and de Vega were taken out of
their Bilibid Prison cells. Standing on the death platform in the
prison plaza, General Sakay shouted saying that he was not a

224

brigand but a sincere patriot working for Philippine independence.

By calling Sakay a bandit, the Americans regarded him a mere
criminal. Sakay's resistance became the final chapter in the
Philippine-American War.
The last revolutionary general to surrender to the Americans
was General Simeon Ola, who surrendered to Colonel Bandholtz in
Guinobatan, Albay on September 25,1903. Like Malvar, Ola took
the oath of allegiance to the United States. They surrendered to the
Americans in order to save the people from brutality and hunger.
Artemio Ricarte refused to take oath of allegiance to the United
States and was exiled in Hong Kong and later in Japan.
As the 1907 elections for the First Philippine Assembly
approached, the nationalists saw the need for fusion in order to win
against the well- organized Partido Nacional Progresista (National
Progressive Party), which was formerly the Partido Federal The
Partido Nacionalista and Partido Nacional Progresista clashed in the
elections of July 30,1907 for 80 seats in the First Philippine
Assembly. The Partido Nacionalista advocated immediate and
absolute independence. It won a landslide majority.
The Philippine Assembly was inaugurated at the Grand Opera
House, Manila on October 16, 1907. Sergio Osmena was chosen
Speaker of the Assembly while Manuel L. Quezon became the
majority floor leader. The first bill passed by the Philippine
Assembly was the Gabaldon Law (sponsored by Assemblyman
Isauro Gabaldon), which appropriated one million pesos for barrio
schools.
Pursuant to the Philippine Organic Act of 1902 (also known as
Cooper Act), two Filipino resident commissioners represented their
countrymen in the U.S. Congress. They were Benito Legarda (190712) and Pablo Ocampo (1907-09). The resident commissioners took
part in the debates in Congress in defense of Filipino interest in
America but were not given the privilege to vote.

On August 19,1916, the U.S. Congress passed the Jones Law,

which w.v* signed by President Woodrow Wilson. The Jones Law
provided a bicamer.il Philippine legislature with an Upper House
called the Senate (with JA members) and a Lower House called the
House of Representatives (with 93 members). The law contained a
preamble declaring that independence would be granted to the
Filipino people as soon as a stable government could be established
in the Philippines.
The new legislature under the Jones Law was inaugurated on
October 26,1916, with Quezon as President of the Senate and
Osmena as Speaker ot the House (until 1922, since he became the
Senate Pro-tempore after 1922). The Nacionalistas dominated both
Houses. The Progresistas had only one seat in the Senate and seven
in the House of Representatives.
On October 5,1921, Leonard Wood replaced their popular
Governor General Francis Burton-Harrison. In his first year of
administration, he vetoed 16 bills passed by the legislature,
whereas Harrison, in his whole term (1913-21), vetoed only five
bills.
The heightening tension between Governor Wood and the
Filipino leaders came to its climax on July 23,1923, when Senate
President Quezon, Senate President Pro-tempore Osmena, and the
Filipino Department Secretaries resigned from the Council of State.
The incident, known as the "Cabinet Crisis of 1923" happened when
Governor Wood governed the country without the cooperation of
the legislature.
Upon Quezon's advice, Filipino cabinet members resigned from
their posts in protest of Governor Wood's handling of the Ray
Conley case. Detective Conley of the Manila police was charged
with immorality and misconduct in office. Wood created an
administrative committee, which later exonerated Conley and
recommended his reinstatement. Secretary of Interior, Jose P.

226

Laurel and Mayor of Manila, Ramon Fernandez had earlier

resigned because of Wood's interference in the prosecution of
Conley. Laurel's resignation incurred political repercussions.
Quezon, acting as spokesman of the Filipino members of the
Cabinet, accused the governor general of controlling the affairs of
the government in utter disregard of the authority the department
heads and other officials.
In 1926, Governor Wood abolished the Board of Control, which
was created by law during Governor Harrison's term to oversee
and manage the ownership of stocks of government-owned and
controlled corporations. Those institutions included the Manila
Railroad Company, the Manila Hotel, and the Philippine National
Bank.
Governor Wood found himself opposed by Filipino advocates
of political autonomy. The dilemma awakened the nationalistic
spirit of the people. The Nacionalista and the Democrata Parties
joined forces in a common cause against this governor general and
to work for the recognition of the country's independence. A
coalition called National Supreme Council
was formed. Tension ended with the governor general's death
while
Undergoing surgery in the United States. Governor Wood died on
August
W, 1927.
From 1919 to 1933, there had been 12 Independence Missions
sent to the ' United States to campaign for the recognition of
Philippine Independence. In December, 1931, the ninth mission
popularly called the Os-Rox Mission, Bfter its leader, Senate
President pro tempore Sergio Osmena and House Speaker Manuel
A. Roxas, brought home the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. The III K
Act divided the Philippine Congress into two opposing camps - the
/\ litis and the Pros. The Antis, led by Senate President Quezon,

opposed the Act because of its objectionable features while the Pros
headed by Senator Osmena and Speaker Roxas upheld it on the
ground that it was the best independence measure.
The HHC Act provided the granting of Philippine
independence after 12 years, but reserving military and naval bases
for the United States. Also included in this controversial measure
was the control of the currency system and the conduct of foreign
affairs by the US President. American goods were allowed free
entry into the Philippines. The bill also directed the U.S. to retain
land for military and other reservations.
In December 1932, Quezon sent a one-man mission (Benigno
Aquino) to Washington to discuss his objections. Aquino, however,
was won over by Osmena and Roxas to their side.
In November 1933, Quezon led the twelfth mission to
Washington to secure a better independence act. A new
independence measure called Tydings-McDuffie Law was passed
and signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 24, 1934.
It closely resembled the HHC Act. The law was accepted by the
Philippine Legislature.
The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided for a 10-year transition
period under the Commonwealth of the Philippines, preparatory
to the granting of absolute and complete independence on July
4,1946. Also included in the provisions were an annual quota of 50
Filipino immigrants to America; control of the currency, coinage,
foreign trade, and foreign relations by America and representation
of one Filipino resident commissioner in America and an American
High Commissioner in the Philippines.
The Tydings-McDuffie Law authorized the Philippine
Legislature to call a constitutional convention to draft the
Constitution of the Philippines. It is also required that the
Constitution be approved by the American president and ratified
by the people in a plebiscite.

228

On July 30, 1934, the Convention met in an inaugural session at

the hall of the House of Representatives, Legislative Building in
Manila. The elected officers were Claro M. Recto, President;
Ruberto Montinola and Teodoro Sandiko, First and Second VicePresident, respectively; Narciso Pimentel, Secretary; and Narciso
Diokno, Sergeant-At-Arms.
The drafting of the (Constitution lasted six months - from July 30,
1934 to February 8,1935. The Constitution was approved by the
Convention by M( vote of 177 to 1. Twenty-two members were
absent. One member had died^ in August 1934.
Tomas Cabili of Lanao cast the dissenting vote. He opposed tint
constitution because it did not provide the system of popular
election foi* the members of the National Assembly from Lanao.
Gregorio Perfecto, fll delegate from Manila, signed the constitution
in his own blood, like tin- Katipunan blood compact or pacto de
sangre.
President Roosevelt approved the Constitution. Then on May I I
1935, the plebiscite for the ratification or rejection of the Constitution
wjr< held. For the first time, Filipino women exercised the right of
suffrage. The Constitution was overwhelmingly ratified by the
people with a total ol 1,213,046 in favor and those against were only
44,963.
The first national election under the 1935 Constitution was held
on September 17, 1935. The candidates for President and VicePresident were Manuel L. Quezon, Sergio Osmena (Coalition Party);
General Emilio Aguinaldo and Raymundo Melliza (National
Socialist Party); and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay and Norberto Nabong
(Republican Party). Quezon and Osmena were overwhelmingly
elected as President and Vice-President respectively by majority
vote.

3. The American Legacy

After the victory of the Americans against the Spanish fleet in the
Battle of Manila on May 1, 1898, the US military reinforcement grew
in number. The United States in fact, sent its top generals to the
Philippines, including General John "Blackjack" Pershing who urged
the Colt gun factory to manufacture the famous Colt .45 caliber
automatic revolver. This kind of weapon was used against the
Muslim warriors in battle.
Veterans of the Indian wars were also sent to the country.
Among them were General Elwell Otis and General Henry W.
Lawton, (for whom a street and a plaza were named respectively).
Some of the American soldiers helped in building roads. The rest of
them staffed the American public schools. They came to be known as
Thomasites, from the name of the U.S. army ship that they boarded
on their way to the Philippines. These American teachers, numbering
about 540 who arrived in the country on August 21, 1901, established
the modern school system.
Public elementary education, which provided educational
opportunity for all citizens, was financed by government funds.
Education was sought to acquire not only theoretical knowledge but
also practical skills to meet the essential demands of life. The English
language was used to transmit these new ideas in the country.
The Americans propagated the use of the English language for
better "^^Btanding with the Filipinos. English became the
language of instruction v all schools and became the official
language of the government.
The first American newspaper to appear in the Philippines was
the rUnding Billow, published at irregular intervals on board
Dewey's flagship )lympia. The first American daily newspaper to
be published in Manila Sis the American Soldier, with its first issue
dated September 10, 1898.

230

The first Filipino weekly paper in English was the Philippine

Herald, founded by Senate President Manuel L. Quezon in 1902.
Nationalistic periodicals like El Renacimiento and Muling Pagsilang
also circulated. Despite the Sedition Law of 1901, local writers
continued criticizing individual Americans committing offenses
against Filipinos by using talinghaga or embolism as a literary
device to elude detection of censors.
In 1908, El Renacimiento attacked the then Secretary of the
Interior, Dean Worcester in the article Aves de Rapina (Birds of
Prey). Worcester immediately sued the owner and editors of the
newspaper for libel. The litigants were .lefeated in court. The
newspaper, together with its machinery was sold at auction.
Teodoro M. Kalaw, the editor of the newspaper, was imprisoned
but later pardoned by Governor General Harrison.
Anew generation of Filipino writers in English attracted
appreciation from die people. Carlos P. Romulo won the Pulitzer
Prize for international reporting in 1942. Jose Garcia Villa was
listed among the top short story writers in America in 1932 by
Edward O'Brien, a known American anthologist.
The period from 1905 to 1930 was the golden age of the zarzuela
in the country. Severino Reyes' Walang Sugat (Not Wounded) was
one of the most famous Tagalog zarzuela. With the introduction of
the Hollywood talkies (talking pictures), the zarzuela gradually
vanished as a popular theatrical art.
Two Swiss entrepreneurs introduced film shows in Manila in
1897. The film clips showed recent happenings and natural
calamities in Europe. Then in 1912, two American entrepreneurs
made a film about Jose Rizal's execution. This became a big hit and
greatly inspired the making of the first Filipino film in 1919. The
credit of being the first Filipino to make a film goes to Jose
Nepomuceno, dubbed as the Father of Philippine Movies.
Nepomuceno's first movie was based on a highly acclaimed

musical play, Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden) by Hermogenes

Ilagan and Leon Ignacio.
Cartooning began to blossom at the turn of the century after the
American colonial government allowed free press to flourish.
Artists like George Pineda (1879-1972), who invented the immortal
representation of the Filipino - the salakot-wearing slippered Juan
de la Cruz, did political cartooning like Jose Perreira (1901-1954),
chief cartoonist of the Philippine Free Press magazine from the 1920s
to the 1930s.
In music, the young generation enthusiastically welcomed
American jazz and swing music. However, talented Filipino
musicians tried to preserve the country's musical heritage. Nicanor
Abelardo, a Bulakeno, became a prominent Filipino composer of
kundimans, waltzes, marches, and sonatas for piano and violin.
Among his famous compositions are Mutya ng Pasig (Muse of
Pasig), Nasaan Ka hog (Where Are You My Love?), and Bituing
Marikit (Beautiful Star). Other luminaries in this field were
Francisco Santiago, Jovita Fuentes, and Naty Arellano. Santiago
became known for his Anak Dalita (Child of Woe) and Madaling
Arazv (Dawn).
Protestant Christianity was introduced in the country by the
Americans. This new religion, which stresses personal salvation
through faith, was able to attract a number of new Filipino converts.
In 1899, Mr. C. B. Randall, a lay worker, distributed the first bibles
in Manila.
Bishop James M. Thoburn of the Methodist Episcopal Church of
India delivered the first Protestant sermon in the country.
Methodism, which began in 1729 at the University of Oxford in
England, was brought to the United States before the American
Revolution (1775-1783) by migrants from Ireland and England.
Other Christian denominations were also allowed to practice
their faith. Iglesia ni Cristo (Church of Christ) was founded in 1914

232

by Felix Manalo. The members reject the doctrine of Trinity and

argue the duality of Christ's nature. The Seventh-Day Adventists
(SDA) bears the Christian Old Testament doctrine of worshipping
on the Sabbath (Saturday); Felix Manalo, before founding the Iglesia
ni C'risto, was said to have belonged to the SDA. The Jehovah's
Witnesses is another fundamentalist group. Like the INC, the
Jehovah's Witnesses rejects the concept of the Trinity.
During the American occupation in the country, the people
were permitted to honor and celebrate the anniversaries of the
Filipino national heroes. The country came to commemorate the
Bonifacio Day (November 30) and Rizal Day (December 30).
America also added some holidays such as Valentine's Day
(February 14), Washington Day (February 22), Glorious Fourth (July
4), and Thanksgiving Day (4th Thursday of November).
The Filipino people adopted the American mode of dressing.
Men started wearing pants with belts or with suspenders. For
casual wear, polo shirts became popular. Coat-and-tie became the
typical formal attire. The women began to wear skirts, high-heeled
shoes, nylon stockings, artificial eyelashes, make-up, and even
perfumes.
Mr., Miss, or Madam as salutations became conventional.
Women were granted more rights in education, in places of work,
and even in politics. Coeducational schools were also instituted.
In 1903, Charles M. Swift established the MERALCO (Manila
Electric Company). Its original name was Manila Electric Railroad
and Lighting C ompany, the first company given the franchise to
operate electric cars called tranvia and supply electricity to Manila.
Communication likewise improved with the creation of the
Philippine Long Distance Telephone by virtue of Act No. 3436 in
1928.
On February 17, 1905, the Philippine Constabulary School was
established. Later it became the Philippine Military Academy, the

first military officers' school in the country. From Intramuros, it was

moved to Baguio.
In 1910, the Philippine General Hospital (PGH) located at Taft
Avenue, Manila was established by the government to attend to
indigent patients.
The Americans also trained the Filipinos in various physical
activities. Outdoor games such as baseball, Softball, calisthenics,
football and volleyball, and indoor games like bowling, billiard,
table tennis, poker, black jack, and other card games became
tremendously popular. The Americans emphasized the importance
of sport activities to improve physical fitness and ease tension
arising from work. They also inculcated in the minds of the players
the notion of sportsmanship.
The American era also marked the improvement of
infrastructure, transport, and communication facilities as well as
community services. Manila and other population centers had
modern buildings constructed along American architectural lines
resembling Greek or Roman temples with porticoes.
The architectural plan for the City of Manila and the Quezon
Memorial Circle (with eight main roads encircling from the
rotunda) were done by the Americans. It was Daniel Burnham,
noted Chicago architect and town planner who designed Baguio
City.
Filipino sculptors were given remarkable recognition in the
middle of the 19th century. One of the most prominent in die field
was Guillermo Tolentino (1890-1976), best known for his
masterpiece, the Bonifacio Monument, which is a group sculpture
composed of several figures gathered around a central obelisk. The
principal figure is Andres Bonifacio, the leader of the Philippine
revolution in 1896. Behind him stands Emilio Jacinto. The
monument was completed in 1933.

234

The Americans used their stay in the Philippines to teach us

their way of life and the principles of democracy. Individual
freedom, respect for rights and liberties of the people, free and open
elections, and multiple political parties are among the principles
found in a democracy. The Americans came and enhanced the
knowledge of the Filipinos on democratic ways and institutions.
They organized the civil courts, including the Supreme Court with
Cayetano Arellano as the first Filipino Chief Justice.
Local governments were established in towns and provinces
under the control of American troops. The first election under the
American flag was conducted on May 7,1899 in Baliuag, Bulacan.
It is a fact that the Filipinos had already some idea of a
democratic government as proven by the establishment of a
republican government in Malolos, Bulacan. However, the First
Philippine Republic did not last long having been overthrown in
1899.

4. Philippine Independent Church

The Philippine revolution in the late nineteenth century both
affected the Church and State. In the second phase of the
revolution, which began with Aguinaldo's return from Hong Kong,
Governor General Basilio Augustin and Archbishop Bernardino
Nozaleda commissioned Father Gregorio Aglipay to confer with the
revolutionary leaders to bring them back to the Spanish side with a
promise of autonomy for the Philippines. On the other hand, Emilio
Aguinaldo sent Colonel Luciano San Miguel as his emissary to
Aglipay for the purpose of persuading the latter to go to the North
to work for the revolutionary cause.
Aglipay went North to investigate the condition of the bishopric
of Nueva Segovia (Cagayan). Upon his return to Manila to report to
Nozaleda, he found Manila besieged by the Americans. He decided

to go to Cavite and join Aguinaldo's movement, particularly the

Malolos Congress.
On October 20,1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree appointing
Aglipay as Military Vicar General, making him the religious leader
of the revolutionary movement. A day after his appointment,
Aglipay issued a letter to the Filipino clergy to form an ecclesiastical
council, which would ask the Pope to appoint Filipinos in all
Church positions from archbishop to the lowest parish priest.
Archbishop Nozaleda, deeply alarmed by Aglipay's decisions
charged the latter with usurpation of power. Nozaleda issued his
decree excommunicating Aglipay, which took effect on May 5,1899.
Returning to the Philippines early in 1901, Isabelo de los Reyes,
a newspaperman imprisoned for conspiracy against Spain,
campaigned for the establishment of a Filipino Church, the Iglesia
Filipina Independiente. The church was a breakaway from the
Catholic Church. It was launched in August 1902.
In July of the same year, he founded the Union Obrera
Democratica (Democratic Labor Union). On August 3,1902, de los
Reyes called a meeting of his Democratic Labor Union at the Centro
de Bellas Artes and proposed the establishment of a Filipino
Church independent of Rome with Fr. Aglipay as the Supreme
Bishop. The proposal was accepted and thus, the Iglesia Filipina
Independiente (Philippine Independent Church) was founded.
In a conference with the Jesuits, Fr. Aglipay made his last
attempt to prevent a schism in the Church. He did not yet accept
the position of a Supreme Bishop in the Philippine Independent
Church when he was being interviewed at the Jesuit house in Sta.
Ana, Manila. For four days,
Fr. Francisco Foradada, a Spaniard, exerted all efforts to win back
Aglipay to the Catholic fold although the latter had not yet given
up his Catholic faith.

236

On the fifth day, Foradada handed Aglipay a document for his

signature, affirming his return to Catholicism. Aglipay wanted an
assurance that by signing the document, the problem of the Filipino
Catholic priests will be solved, that is, their appointment to the
posts formerly held by the Spanish regulars. Foradada in return
replied why did he mind so much the Filipino priests considering
they are vicious and inefficient. Aglipay felt very offended and he
demanded Foradada to withdraw his odious remark. He left the
Jesuit house and severed relations with Roman Catholicism.
Years later, the Jesuits tried their best to make up with Aglipay.
Father Joaquin Vilallonga was chosen to deal with Aglipay but the
latter had already made his decision to support the Philippine
Independent Church. In September 1902, bishops were consecrated.
On January 18,1903 Aglipay was consecrated Supreme Bishop by
the bishops of Manila, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Isabela, Cagayan,
Pangasinan, and Abra.
Subsequently, more Filipino priests joined the Philippine
Independent Church, which became popularly known as Aglipay
an Church. According to the Philippine census of 1918, out of a
total population of 10 million, close to one and a half million
Filipinos were members of the Aglipayan Church.

5. The Colorums
Indigenous religious groups mostly thrive in isolated islands
and mountainous localities. Some are induced by the power of
natural forces, others a mixture of Catholicism, and superstition.
The remnants of Hermano Pule's Cofradia de San Jose retreated to
the mountains between Tayabas and Laguna. They settled at the
mountain of San Cristobal and considered this place their
Jerusalem. This group came to be known as colorum, a corruption

of the Latin phrase, et saecula saeculorum (world without end) used

at Mass to end certain prayers.
During the American occupation, the term colorum was used
by the authorities to refer to rebel organizations with mystical
characteristics.These colorum groups were characterized by
religious fanaticism, which was a combination of Catholic devotion,
hero-worship and folk-superstition. Members were recruited from
the oppressed masses that sought the messiahs for their
redemption.
Colorum organizations were active in the 1920s. In Leyte and
Samar, the Sociedad de la Confianza was formed. The Caballeros de la
Sagrada Familia had one thousand followers in Pampanga,
Pangasinan, Bulacan, and Nueva Ecija. Other colorum groups were
established in Tarlac, Rizal, La Union, Batangas, and Surigao.
In Tarlac, the colorums worshipped Jose Rizal and Apo Ipe
Salvador. They believed that the two leaders would resurrect and
save them. Felipe Salvador, otherwise known as Apo Ipe was born
in Baliuag, Bulacan on May 26, 1870. When the Katipuneros from
Balintawak arrived in Baliuag, Ipe joined them. He was appointed
as colonel by Aguinaldo in 1899. When Aguinaldo surrendered to
the Americans, he went to the mountains and began his guerrilla
operations. Soon, he organized his group and called it Santa Iglesia
or Holy Church.
Apo Ipe warned his followers that a second deluge would occur
and destroy all non-followers and that after the flood, there would
be rain of gold and jewels for his followers. The colorums of Tarlac
believed that anting-antings made all members invulnerable to the
bullets fired by the enemy.
In Surigao, the colorum groups were devoted to the Sacred
Heart of Jesus, Immaculate Heart of Mary, and Jose Rizal. They
believed that one day Rizal would return and rule the Philippines.

238

The group grew in number and spread from Surigao to Agusan,

Cotabato, Samar, and Leyte.
The colorums of Surigao began their uprising by the end of
1923. They killed five Constabulary soldiers and later attacked a
Constabulary detachment, which resulted in the death of the
provincial commander and 12 soldiers. The government had to
suppress the colorum rebellion, which lasted from January to
October, 1924.
Governor General Leonard Wood, recognizing the patriotic zeal
that animated the colorum rebellion, prohibited the display of
pictures of Filipino heroes in all public schools in Mindanao.
In Nueva Ecija, Pedro Kabola founded a secret society in 1923
called Kapisanan Makabola Makarinag. They intended to assault the
municipal building of San Jose and execute all town officials so that
independence could be achieved. Subsequently, land would be
equally apportioned among the masses and the caciques as well as
the Americans would be expelled from the country. But before the
appointed date of the attack, the Constabulary troopers were able to
discover the plan. Kabola was killed. Hundreds of Kapisanan
members were arrested and jailed for conspiracy and sedition.
In Pangasinan, an Ilocano named Pedro Calosa began
organizing a colorum group in 1929. Members were given ranks
ranging from corporal to general and wore colorful red and white
uniforms with anting-antings embroidered on them.
In January 1931, the colorums decided to attack the town of
Tayug, supposed to be the spark of that would ignite the Central
Luzon area in a peasant revolution. Armed with knives, bolos, and
a few guns, Calosa and his followers marched on Tayug at the night
and managed to rout the soldiers. When a Constabulary
detachment arrived, the colorum group retreated into the convent.
Pedro Calosa escaped but was captured a few days later.

In an interview years later, Calosa himself said that many of the

colorum members were tenants who had been ejected by hacenderos,
or were small farmers deprived of their lands by land grabbers who
used their power to advance their personal interests.

6. Land Tenure System

During the American colonial rule, the Spanish feudal system
was not dismantled. Through the system of land registration that
favored the Filipino elite, tenancy became more widespread. The
hacienda (estate) system kept the peasants in bondage. The landlordtenant relations ensued even after the institution of a democratic
government.
Tenants were either inquilinos (cash tenants) or kasamas (share
tenants). The inquilino paid yearly rent for using a piece of land.
Aside from this, he was often required to give various services to
the hacendero for free. Refusal to work or to contribute to the
expenses could mean outright dismissal from the hacienda. It
became customary for the children of the tenants to serve the
landlord as domestic servants to help their parents pay the interest
on debts incurred due to cash advances.
The kasama or sharecropper provided the labor on the hacienda
where he shared the harvest on a 50-50 basis with his landlord or
hacendero, after deducting the expenses incurred in planting and in
harvesting. Like the inquilino, he was expected to render personal
services to the landowner, at the latter's discretion.
Low productivity, due to traditional farming methods, along
with cacique (landlord) exploitation insured the tenants a low
standard of living. Free trade likewise reinforced the feudal
agrarian system of the Spanish regime and twisted the normal
development of local industries. The leading families of the Filipino
elite joined the free trade system. This system paved the way to

240

multinational corporations. Rich landowners and investment

capitalists took control of the economy, laying the groundwork for
limited per capita income, inflation, and structural poverty.
Dependence upon duty-free, American goods increased the
suffering of local producers. In the 1920s to the 1930s, a number of
peasant uprisings and labor protests evolved from cases of
exploitation and poor living conditions.
The Philippines, though a country rich in resources, was unable
to sustain the basic needs of the masses. The Filipino leaders,
absorbed with much attention on how to gain political autonomy
had not fully given efforts to bring about economic independence.
Pressing issues like social reform, land ownership, tenancy rights,
and the distribution of wealth had been the causes of public
discontentment.

7. The First Labor Groups

In January 1902, Isabelo de los Reyes organized the first labor
union in the Philippines, the Union de Litografos e Impresores de
Filipinas. Soon after its founding, the members decided to
reorganize themselves into the Union Obrera Democratica (U.O.D.), a
federation of smaller unions of printers, lithographers, cigar
makers, tailors, and shoemakers, which demanded higher wages
and worker's benefits.
With its official organ, La Redencion del Obrero, the Union voiced
the social demands and nationalistic feelings of the workers. As a
result of one of the strikes, Isabelo de los Reyes was imprisoned. A
few weeks later, he was pardoned.
Dr. Dominador Gomez, who succeeded De los Reyes, led a
group of laborers on May 1,1903 in a demonstration before
Malacanang. However, Gomez was replaced by Lope K. Santos for

the union members distrusted the former's involvement in the

surrender of Sakay, which led to his capture.
Lope K. Santos, a printer and newspaperman, was the last
president of the U.O.D. Under him, the union became known as the
Union del Trabajo de Filipinas. Political rivalries had led to its
dissolution in 1907.
On May 1,1913, Labor Day was first officially celebrated in the
country. The labor leaders organized the Congreso Obrero de Filipinas
(C.O.F.). This Congress approved resolutions demanding eighthour labor day, child and women labor laws, and an employer's
liability law.
Barely four years later, Vicente Sotto established his Asamblea
Obrera, which he used to support his candidacy for the House of
Representatives. In 1917, Joaquin Balmori founded the Federacion del
Trabajo to support the candidates of the Democratic Party. The
Congreso Obrero de Filipinas for its part, backed the Nacionalista
Party's candidates.
In Bulacan, the Union ng Magsasaka was formed in 1917 to fight
the evils of tenancy and usury. In 1919, Jacinto Manahan, formed
his own group in view of the decline of the original peasant
organization.
Also in 1919, the Legionarios del Trabajo was formally organized
as a result of a strike against the Manila Electric Company. The
group pressed a number of nationalistic demands such as
protection of Philippine products from foreign competition.
Crisanto Evangelista, one of its organizers, later left the association
due to the adoption of Masonic initiation rites.
In 1924, Evangelista, Domingo Ponce, and Cirilo Bognot formed
the Partido Obrero de Filipinas. Its platform showed a strong Marxist
influence.
Attendance at world conferences and their affiliation with
international organizations of the Left, radicalized some labor

242

leaders. In 1927, the C.O.F. affiliated itself with the Red

International of Labor Unions. During its convention, subjects such
as communism, class struggle, and proletarian internationalism
were discussed. The following year, the C.O.F. leaders Evangelista
and Bognot attended the Red International of Labor Unions
Conference in Moscow.

8. The Communist Party of the Philippines

During the 1929 Congress of the Congreso Obrero de Filipinas
(C.O.F.), the conservative members clashed with Crisanto
Evangelista and his group over the proposals submitted by the
latter. Some of the recommendations included the organization of
factory committees as a first step toward the formation of industrial
unions, the establishment of a workers' political party, the advocacy
of class struggle and the condemnation of the Nacionalista and
Democrata parties.
With the radicals in the minority, Evangelista and his followers
walked out and immediately launched the Katipumn ng mga Anakpawis ng Pilipinas or K. A.P. Evangelista became the elected
executive secretary while Manahan, the vice-president, in charge of
the peasant movement.
Other officers were Jose Hilario, Antonio Ora, Patricio Dionisio,
Cirilo Bognot, and H. C. Hao. The K.A.P. wanted unity among
workers, peasants, and the exploited masses. It advocated struggle
against American imperialism in the Philippines, betterment of
living and working conditions, immediate and complete
independence of the country, unity among revolutionary
movements all over the world, and an establishment of a Soviet
system in the Philippines.
On November 7, 1930, the Communist Party of the Philippines
was formally established with all the officers of the K.A.P. except

Hao and Hilario, as members of the first Central Committee of the

Philippines.
Communist parties have been instituted in some countries in
Europe and Asia to establish and maintain the Soviet system. The
working class has been designed to dominate the administration of
the government.
Communism is a concept of society in which the major
resources and means of production are communally owned.
Theoretically, there would be equal sharing of the benefits of
production. This ideology involves the abolition of individual
ownership of property. It advocates the revolution of the working
masses to overthrow the capitalist society so that a classless society
may be achieved.
The promises of Communism confounded a number of people.
The CPP became more unrelenting after some of its officials were
apprehended by the military. Soon after, Antonio Ora, a CPP
Central Committee member was arrested in Manila.
While Ora was being taken to prison, he died reportedly due to
an automobile accident near Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija. The CPP
members became skeptical about it. They were thinking that the
incident was not purely by chance. As a result, the Communists
staged a demonstration on January 25,1931. More than 10 thousand
workers joined the funeral march carrying red flags and placards
with anti-imperialist slogans.
Evangelista, Manahan, Dominador Ambrosio, Guillermo
Capadocia, and Alfonso Pangilinan were arrested the following
month. Charged with sedition on the basis of the platform actions
and demands of the Communist Party, they were found guilty by
the Court of First Instance and sentenced to jail. It was on October
26, 1932 when the Supreme Court declared the CPP an illegal
organization.

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9. Sakdalism
Benigno Ramos, leader of a popular movement Sakdal, used to
be a Senate clerk. In 1930, he purposely left his job to work against
the administration. The immediate cause of his resignation was his
involvement in a student picket staged in a Manila high school,
which had been provoked by negative remarks made by an
American teacher against the Filipino students. A number of
Filipino professionals gave their support for the students. Ramos
had already been warned by Quezon not to join the protest action
but still he declined.
Ramos consequently founded Sakdal, a weekly tabloid, which
became the vehicle for bitter denunciations of the ruling oligarchy.
This tabloid exposed the discontentment of the masses. It also
adopted the position that independence is not given but must be
taken through the united action of the people. Through its
newspaper, the Sakdal movement campaigned against
maldistribution of property, excessive taxes, and the concentration
of land ownership to a few. Subsequently, Ramos transformed the
movement into a political party.
In the 1934 election of delegates to the Constitutional
Convention, the Sakdalistas desired to have a number of
candidates. In campaign meetings and through their paper, the
Sakdalistas opposed colonial education in the country, in particular
Camilo Osias' grade school "Readers," for their glorification of
American culture. They also expressed opinion against American
economic control and the military bases. In this election, the
Sakdalistas with three candidates for representatives won.
With the coalition of the Antis and Pros of the Nacionalista
Party for the 1935 National Elections, the Sakdalistas predicted the
greater expansion of American economic power. They continued

their barrio campaigns to boycott the plebiscite for the

Commonwealth Constitution. However, Governor Frank Murphy
issued a ruling that any campaign against the plebiscite shall be
branded as seditious. As a consequence, many Sakdalistas were
arrested.
In various parts of the country, perpetuation of feudal and
usurious practices, which originated from the Spanish regime,
intensified the agony of the peasant masses. On May 2,1935, one
hundred fifty peasants armed with bolos and paltiks marched to the
municipal hall of San Ildefonso, Bulacan and hauled down the
American and Philippine flags, and raised the red Sakdal flag.
Other Sakdalistas did the same in Cavite, Rizal, and Laguna. The
peasants occupied the town halls and burned American flags in
such places as Tanza, and Caridad in Cavite, and Cabuyao and Sta.
Rosa in Laguna. Altogether, almost sixty thousand Sakdalistas were
involved.
On the second day, constabulary troopers suppressed the
uprisings in the beleaguered towns. Disorganized and poorly
armed, the peasants were in no way equal to the Constabulary
detachments dispatched in the centers of the rebellion. Fifty-seven
peasants were killed, hundreds were wounded, and around five
hundred were imprisoned.
Benigno Ramos was in Japan when the revolt broke out. He was
then arranging for Japanese support for the Sakdal party. He denied
his involvement on the May 2 incident. Disowned by their leader,
many peasants withdrew support for Ramos. As a result, Sakdalista
influence greatly diminished in the countryside.

Study Guides
A.

Terms/Concepts to Understand

246

B.

Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation

Bates Treaty
Philippine Commission
Brigandage Act
Autonomy
Sedition Law
Questions to Answer
1.
What were the incidents that precipitated the FilipinoAmerican War in 1899?
2.
Why did Apolinario Mabini resign as cabinet member of
the Aguinaldo government? Would you agree with his
decision?
3.
What were the cultural changes brought about by the
Americans to the Filipinos?
4.
How did the militant groups in the country operate during
the American regime?
5.
What were the significant American policies that led ,to the
recognition of Philippine sovereignty?

Chapter VIII
Commonwealth Period
1. The Transition
The Filipino people opted to continue asserting their right to
political independence. A transition government was a
precondition given by the United States pursuant to the TydingsMcDuffie Law. Amidst colorful ceremonies, the Commonwealth of
the Philippines was inaugurated on November 15, 1935 at the

Legislative Building. The country now had a self-ruling

government except in matters of treasury and foreign affairs.
Recognition of Philippine independence by the United States was to
come in 1945.
Some U.S. officials and dignitaries who attended the
ceremonies were Vice-President Nance Garner, Speaker Joseph
Byrnes of the U.S. House of Representatives, U.S. Secretary of War
George Dern, and General Douglas MacArthur. Chief Justice
Ramon Avancena of the Supreme Court sworn into office the new
state officials, which include President Manuel L. Quezon, VicePresident Sergio Osmena, and the members of the National
Assembly. In this occasion, U.S. Secretary Dern proclaimed the
existence of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and the
termination of the Philippine government established under the
Jones Law.
Upon assuming office, President Quezon secured the enactment
of laws that would improve the conditions of the marginalized
society. He readily adopted the policy of social justice, referring to
justice to the common tao by improving his condition.
The policy measures included the following: the establishment
of a Court of Industrial Relations to resolve labor disputes and the
promotion of social justice as shown by the Eight-Hour Labor Act
and the Minimum Wage Law. Written contracts between
landowners and tenants as requisite, as well as the establishment of
credit facilities for farmers were also included. Authority given to
the President to acquire private lands for resale to farmers was also
part of the social justice policy.
Considering the problem of national security, the National
Assembly enacted Commonwealth Act No. 1, the National Defense
Act, which provided for citizens' army. In formulating the
Philippine defense system, President Quezon requested and

248

obtained the services of General Douglas MacArthur who became

the Field Marshal of the Philippine Army.
Filipino-American relations continued in the transition period
provided by the Tydings-McDuffie Law. In 1937, Quezon and
President
Roosevelt agreed to create a joint Philippine-American committee
to probe into the economic problems of the Philippines and to
recommend a program for economic development. The Joint
Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs (JPCPA) was
established on April 14, 1937. For over a year, conferences were
held in Washington, San Francisco and in Manila. In 1938, the
JPCPA recommended the grant of political independence to the
Philippines on July 4,1946 and the extension of PhilippineAmerican preferential trade to December 31,1960.
Growth of agriculture, commerce, and industries also took
place in the economy although this may be attributed to a
considerable number of foreign capitalists who had investments in
the country. The Chinese for one, heavily invested in industries,
which included rice production, tobacco, hemp, copra, logging and
timber, manufacturing, banking, and real estate. They also
controlled a big percent of the retail trade. Together with the
Americans, they controlled the country's foreign trade.
Aside from the Chinese, the Japanese also invested largely in
the country. Prior to Japanese invasion in the country, the Japanese
had already penetrated the Philippines for economic reasons. In
1903, when Baguio was chosen as a summer capital, the Americans
hired one thousand five hundred Japanese workers to build the
zigzag road to that city.
After the road was completed, one hundred of them stayed and
migrated to Davao to work on American hemp and coconut
plantations. By 1907, their leader, Kyosaburo S. Ohta had formed
the Ohta Development Company. Soon other Japanese corporations

were established. By 1930, the Japanese had practically controlled

the deep-sea fishing industry. By 1935, a big percentage of the abaca
production in Davao came from the Japanese corporations. They
likewise invested in mining, logging, manufacturing, and extractive
industries. Thus, prior to the outbreak of World War II, Davao had
a big population of Japanese migrants.
In these Japanese enterprises, Filipinos were often used as
fronts or dummies. Alarmed by this situation, the National
Assembly passed the Anti-Dummy Law in May 1939, which
punished Filipinos who would allow themselves to be used as
fronts by alien businessmen and investors. The government in this
manner attempted to secure the utilization of resources by
Filipinos.
There was also a growing apprehension over the political and
social consequences of unchecked immigration of a big number of
foreigners, especially the Chinese and the Japanese. Thereupon in
May 1940, the Philippine Immigration Law was enacted. The law
limited to 500, the number of immigrants permitted annually to
enter the country.
Civic-minded citizens, supportive of the government's program
in enabling Filipinos to engage in retail merchandising, established
the
National Economic Protectionism Association (NEPA) and the
Consumers' Cooperative League of the Philippines. Consequently,
Filipino participation in retail trade substantially improved.
In accordance to Commonwealth Act No. 184, s. 1936 enacted
by the National Assembly, the Institute of National Language was
established to make a study of the different Philippine languages
for the purpose of evolving and adopting a national language. After
a comprehensive study of the country's language condition, the
institute recommended to President Quezon the adoption of
Tagalog as the basis of the national language.

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On December 30, 1937, President Quezon proclaimed through

Executive Order No. 134 the National Language of the Philippines
based on the Tagalog vernacular. The teaching of the National
Language in all schools in the country began on June 19,1940. By
virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 570, the National Language was
declared one of the official languages of the Philippines effective
July 4, 1946. The said act also ordered that all textbooks written in
the National Language be prepared under the supervision of the
Bureau of Education, subject to the approval of the Institute of
National Language. (Secretary of Education and Culture Jose E.
Romero issued Department Order No. 7 on August 13,1959
mandating Pilipino in referring to the National Language, The
Tagalog-based Pilipino remains an official and common national
language until the ratification of the 1987 Constitution, which
prescribes Filipino as the national language of the Philippines and
an official language).
Other accomplishments of the Commonwealth Government
included the creation of the following new offices: National
Economic Council, Census Commission, and the Commission of
Mindanao and Sulu. Filipinization of the judiciary from the
Supreme Court to the municipal courts was completed. Woman
suffrage was finally allowed as shown in the May 14, 1935
plebiscite to ratify the 1935 Constitution. Pursuant to the Public
Defenders Act, appointment of public defenders (government
lawyers) was made to extend legal services to the people. New
chartered cities were also established - Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod, Davao,
Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon City, Cavite, and Tagaytay.
Three amendments to the 1935 Philippine Constitution were
ratified by the national plebiscite on June 18,1940. The amendments
included the tenure of the office of the President and Vice-President
to four years with reelection for another term. Another legislative
revision is the establishment of a bicameral Congress of the

Philippines, with the Senate as Upper House and the House of

Representatives as Lower House. The creation of an independent
Commission on Elections composed of three members to supervise
all elections was also part of the revised provision.

2. Decade of Unrest
It was in the 1930s when Hitler's troops occupied Austria,
Czechoslovakia, and Poland and invaded Norway, Denmark,
France, the Soviet Union, and the rest of Europe. Japan had been at
war with Manchuria in 1931 and later invaded China in 1937. In
1940, Japan occupied the northern part of French Indo-China and
the following year the whole French colony. America and Britain
consequently imposed economic sanctions in Japan. America froze
Japanese assets in America to prevent Japan from using these to her
advantage. Britain renounced her commercial treaties with Japan.
The imperialistic design of Japan in Southeast Asia could not
simply be ignored. The Commonwealth government feared that the
country would be the next target; thus it tried to lay its groundwork
for any contingency. Compulsory military training of able-bodied
Filipino youths under the supervision of General Douglas
MacArthur was made. In July 1941, the Philippine reserve and
regular forces joined forces with the United States Army. This
combined military forces known as United States Armed Forces in
the Far East (USAFFE) was placed under the command of General
MacArthur.
The Civilian Emergency Administration was likewise
organized. The Philippine National Red Cross conducted practice
evacuation drills in Manila and in other towns. The first simulated
blackout was conducted in Manila on July 10,1941. In October of the
same year, the whole archipelago experienced other simulated
blackout.

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Notwithstanding the diversification and growth of agricultural

production, the living conditions of the farmers did not improve.
Exorbitant rental fees, arbitrary ejection, and other agrarian
problems intensified their agony. Though the previous government
assumed control of many religious estates, still many tracts of land
were sold to private American entrepreneur and big Filipino
landowners. The problems of the peasants were compounded when
some influential landowners resorted to a system of landownership
characterized by fraudulent resurvey of their estates.
Conscious of their common grievances, the peasants formed
organizations to realize their objectives. One of these organizations
was die Kapisanan Panahoti Na (The Time Has Come), composed of
tenants in haciendas in Dinalupihan, Bataan; San Rafael, San
Ildefonso, Bigaa, and Polo in Bulacan; San Pedro Tunasan in
Laguna; and Lian in Batangas. The members were concerned with
the resale of the lands to the tillers.
Other peasant organizations were Dumating Na (It Has Come),
composed of tenants of Hacienda Buenavista in San Rafael and Oras
Na (It is Time) in a Jesuit estate at San Pedro, Laguna.
From 1935 to the outbreak of war in 1941, the recognized leader
of the peasantry in Central Luzon was Pedro Abad Santos, known
as Don Perico.
A bar topnotcher and a member of the landed aristocracy, Don
Perico was elected in 1917 to the Philippine Assembly. In 1929, he
founded his Socialist Party. Regarded as a traitor by his hacendero
province-mates, he devoted the remaining years of his life to the
cause of the peasants. Under his guidance, the peasants and rural
workers conducted many protest actions, from strikes to the
burning of rice and cane fields and the carting away of farm
produce.

3. Entry of Japanese Imperial Forces

The Philippines was still getting used to the American colonial
lifestyle when World War II (1939-1945) broke out. The country was
drawn into this war as an ally of America. The Japanese assault in
the country was meant to cut America's lines of communication in
the Pacific as Japan sought to expand her empire in the region.
While Admiral K. Nomura was in Washington to present
Japan's peace proposals to the American officials, the Japanese
forces on December 7, 1941 (Washington time) bombed Pearl
Harbor in Hawaii, the main base of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. This
resulted to the death of 2,897 men. The Japanese also launched
offensive attacks in Malaya, Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island,
Midway Island, and the Philippines. On that tragic day, President
Theodore Roosevelt asked the US Congress to declare war, which
the latter did with only one dissenting vote.
The general offensive plan of the Japanese was to acquire the
Dutch and British possessions in Southeast Asia, which include
Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). In order to
carry the scheme, the Japanese navy and air forces had to destroy
the U.S. Pacific Fleet.
At the dawn of December 8, 1941 (Philippine time), 10 hours
after the attack in Pearl Harbor, the Japanese bombers under the
command of General Masaharu Homma, conducted air attacks in
various places of the Philippines. They destroyed the air and naval
defenses in Davao, Tuguegarao, Baguio, Iba, Tarlac, and Clark
Field. Generally, the country had few planes to assault the enemy
forces. American planes on the ground were caught by surprise.
Davao was bombed twice on December 8. The Japanese were
able to land in Batan Island without any opposition. On December
9, the city of Manila experienced its first wartime air raid. Lacking

254

air cover, the American Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines withdrew to

Java, Indonesia on December 12, 1941.
Capt. Jesus Villamor of the Philippine Air Corps defiantly led a
flight of pursuit planes against the Japanese who were then raiding
Nichols Field. He was able to destroy an enemy plane in the aerial
combat, which took place on December 10. On the same day, the
Japanese invaders made their first landing in Aparri and Vigan.
Two days later in Legazpi, Albay and on
I ember 20, they landed in Davao. Two days later, December 22, the
main l.ipanese forces, under the command of Lt. Homma landed in
Lingayen, Pangasinan.
At the onset of the attacks, civilian structures were burned and
crumbled in succeeding explosions. Many were shocked. Bodies
littered the ground together with the wounded. Emergency
operations were compounded by the evacuation of the civilian
casualties to nearby hospitals.
On December 14, after the enemy landings in Legazpi, all
remaining 14 fortresses were withdrawn to Fort Darwin in
Australia for repair service. Some 11 Navy patrol bombers were
flown to the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia today) to join the
Asiatic fleet. General MacArthur was left with few fighters and
observation planes.
The landing of General Homma's main force, the 48th Division
in 1 ingayen made General MacArthur finally decide to use the War
Plan Orange 3 (WPO-3). This was the master plan later renamed
Rainbow 5, which ordered the withdrawal of all island forces to
Bataan peninsula, which was considered key to the defense of
Manila Bay. This assumed that the Japanese forces would have
Luzon as primary target. Delaying action was to be enforced
against the enemy forces in Bataan until the arrival of the U.S.
reinforcement. It also required the evacuation of all civilians within

the area before the entry of troops. The USAFFE officers and men
had in mind the U.S. aid while on systematic withdrawal.
The enemy bombers were hitting Port Area Manila at the time
President Quezon and his group were about to leave. The President
was advised by General MacArthur to evacuate to Corregidor
Island, strategically located at the entrance of Manila Bay. The
presidential party left Manila on December 24,1941. President
Quezon, his wife Dona Aurora, his two daughters Maria Aurora
and Zenaida, and his son Manuel, Jr. together with Vice-President
Sergio Osmena, Chief Justice Jose Abad Santos, Maj. Gen. Basilio J.
Valdes, Col. Manuel Nieto, the President's aide and Serapio I).
Canceran, the president's private secretary on board S.S. Mayon
were able to reach the island fortress.
On December 26, General MacArthur declared Manila an open
city, wherein the enemy forces may enter the area provided they
stop shooting. This would spare the city from further destruction.
Immediately, all military i nstallations were removed from Manila.
The northern and southern armies of the USAFFE were retreating
to Bataan.
On December 30, 1941, the second inaugural ceremonies of the
C ommonwealth were held outside the Corregidor tunnel.
President Quezon took his oath of office as President of the
Commonwealth, marking the commencement of his second term.
Administering the oath of office to President Quezon and VicePresident Osmena was Chief Justice Jose Abad S.intos. General
MacArthur ordered that all troops must have crossed Calumpit
Bridge (in Bulacan) by six in the morning of New Year 1942, before
their explosives destroy the structure. This was to prevent the
enemy from crossing it. By the time the people of the province
learned about the blasting they began to prepare for evacuation to
the outlying fields.

256

By January 2, 1942, the Japanese forces had already entered

Manila. The people of nearby areas left hurriedly. Evacuation
became the frequently repeated word as families gathered their
portable belongings, stored and preserved food, and went into safer
places like the mountainsides for refuge.
For many days, the people stayed in evacuation areas. People
dug underground shelters for threatening air raids. The bolder ones
ventured to return to their respective homes to get provisions they
failed to take along with them while fleeing hastily from the
invading forces.
Almost everywhere there was panic and fear. Many people
stayed in air-raid shelters for many days. Others went to the fields,
hills and fishponds, mindful of the radio broadcast by the Voice of
America in Corregidor that the Japanese soldiers were committing
atrocities in areas they have occupied.
As the Japanese occupied the towns, their immediate task was
to reinstate order in the area. To achieve this, the Japanese
employed austere rules to demand obedience from the local
inhabitants. Once this was achieved, they worked for the
development and procurement of war materials and strategic
resources. The Japanese rushed to deliver the immediate needs of
their war machinery.
Many Filipinos thought that the stay of the Japanese would
only take a month or three. The American forces made the Filipino
people hope that the invading Japanese forces will be repulsed
immediately.
With the formation of the Bataan Defense Force (BDF), the
North Luzon Forces were deactivated. The BDF established the
advance Command Post at Signal Hill near Mt. Samat. The first
Main Line of Resistance (MLR) ran 20 miles from Morong to
Abucay. The Abucay line stretched across the peninsula to Mauban
on the west.

For three months, the Filipino-American troops, which

numbered around 80,000 (65,000 Filipinos and 15,000 Americans)
held out in Bataan against the assault of the enemy forces.
Thousands of soldiers and civilians perished due to malnutrition,
dysentery, and malaria.
In the midst of enemy attacks in the Philippines, President
Roosevelt urged President Quezon to flee to the United States since
the Japanese could inevitably use him as the leader to rally Filipinos
behind Japan. President Quezon and his family left Corregidor for
Australia on February 18 on board submarine Swordfish. From
there, on board another submarine S.S. Pres. Coolidge, President
Quezon sailed for San Francisco, California on April 20,1942.
Likewise, General MacArthur on orders of the US President, left
Corregidor for Australia on the night of March 11,1942 to assume
command of the newly designated Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA).
On this day, the USAFFE was deactivated. Constituted was the
United States Army Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP) under the
command of Major General Jonathan Wain wright. After landing in
Australia on March 17,1942, General MacArthur made his promise
to the Filipinos, "I came through and I shall return."
Major Gen. Wainwright was promoted as Lieutenant General
on March 21. He became the Commander of Filipino-American
troops, the USAFIP (formerly USAFFE). The U.S. Air Force and
other units in the Western sector were able to trim down the
Japanese night raiders at the beaches of Mariveles.
Gen. Momma's 50-day deadline to take the Philippines had
ended. Homma failed to conquer the country in time. He called a
halt to offensive action and waited for reinforcement from Tokyo.
The 48th Division was pulled out to invade the Netherlands East
Indies.
For one and a half months, small military action took place in
Bataan. During this period, the Japanese sent propaganda teams

258

with leaflets.from planes and portable speakers, urging the Filipino

fighters to surrender. They even played sentimental music and
recordings of pleas from loved ones. They asked the Filipino
soldiers to desert their American comrades-in- arms, assuring them
of safe passage outside the peninsula. But the Filipino soldiers
ignored this kind of psychological warfare.
As the battle in Bataan went on, more and more civilians were
arriving in Hagonoy, Bulacan. Most of the evacuees came from
Abucay, Balanga, Pilar, Orion, Limay, Morong, Bagac, and
Mariveles. These towns were totally destroyed by war. The exit
point from the Bataan peninsula was barrio Camachile in Orion and
the nearest point of deliverance was Hagonoy, the closest bayside
town from Bataan to Bulacan.
The POWs who were able to escape the Death March, sought
safety in the hands of some Filipino families. They hid their
uniforms to prevent Japanese patrols or sentries from recognizing
them as soldiers. Old women pretended to be their mothers or
older sisters.
The exodus to Hagonoy resulted to an increase of population
from around 25,000 to 90,000. The Religious of the Virgin Mary
(RVM) based in Hagonoy proved to be very helpful in providing
for the needs of the people. This was the only religious
congregation that openly assisted the wounded, the hungry, and
the orphaned. They placed a number of children under their
custody. What they did was not easy, for their selfless service could
mean something else to the Japanese that might cost a number of
lives among the religious.
At the end of March, General Homma finally got the military
support he needed. The Japanese brought in reinforcement from
Singapore. On April 3, Good Friday (after Singapore surrendered to
Japan) the enemy forces launched their final offensive in Bataan.
Bombers attacked anything that moved. The main thrust centered

on Mt. Samat, where hostilities started from 8 A.M. and lasted until
2 P.M. The forest dimmed with smoke and explosion.
The capture of Mt. Samat would give the Japanese a key
observation post, which overlooked the whole Bataan peninsula.
General Homma pressed hard on this area to deny the FilipinoAmerican forces the chance to regroup and mount a counterattack.
However, General Edward P. King managed to pull together the
American 31st Infantry Regiment and the Philippine Scout units.
Resistance began to weaken on April 7. The aggressiveness of
the enemy forces, the long days in the battlefields and the shortage
of food and medicine claimed the lives of many. The next day,
conditions worsened and the Bataan defense forces were
disintegrating. To prolong the fight would mean the loss of more
men. On April 9, around 78,000 men from Bataan under General
Edward King surrendered, while the rest headed by Lt. Gen.
Wainwright had escaped to Corregidor and to surrounding
provinces. General King sent peace feelers to the Japanese.
Surrender negotiations were conducted in front of the public
school in Lamao. Since General King was not the senior officer in
the Philippines, the Japanese refused to recognize the surrender of
the whole Bataan force. They accepted the surrender of each unit as
they laid down their arms. (Today, a Shrine of Valor was erected in
Mt. Samat to commemorate the historic defense of Bataan).
The infamous Death March began in Mariveles and Cabcaben on
April 10, 1942. The Filipino-American troops were forced at
gunpoint to march from Bataan to San Fernando, Pampanga. Some
were kicked and beaten. Those wounded had their legs or head
wounds bandaged with shirt uniforms. Others were carried on
army wool blankets folded in hammocks, tied in bamboo poles, and
carried by other comrades. Other soldiers limped on crutches made
out of tree branches. Those who were too sickly to walk were left to

260

die. The Japanese army had little provisions for Filipino-American

POWs. Around 10,000 lives were claimed by this infamous trail.
The POWs reached San Fernando and were billeted in
schoolhouses, warehouses, and vacant lots. The next day, the weary
marchers were herded like cattle into the boxcars. Close to 100
POWs were huddled in every boxcar, which was supposed to
accommodate only 50 people. Many of the weak and exhausted
passengers died. The freight train stopped at Capas, Tarlac. From
there, they walked seven kilometers more to Camp O'Doruiel, the
prison camp. Some 56,000 reached the camp alive on April 15,1942.
The camp contained the barracks of the Philippine Army before
the Japanese occupied the area. It was actually a group of
unfinished structures made of bamboo and cogon grass and fenced
with barbed wire. The suffering of the survivors did not end there.
Those who managed to stay alive had to endure the dirty
surroundings, hunger and diseases, which further reduced their
number.
In Manila, the people could hear successive bombings directed
against the island of Corregidor. General MacArthur had
established USAFFE headquarters on this island On December 24,
1941, after he had declared War Plan Orange in effect. After the fall
of Bataan, the Japanese pounded the island daily. The Japanese also
raised an observation balloon daily to spot Corregidor's gun
positions.
Even though the enemy constantly assaulted Corregidor, the
forces in the island fortress gave downright protection to it. Inside
the Malinta Tunnel, a radio station had been established, called the
Voice of Freedom. Major Carlos P. Romulo, the prewar editor of the
Philippine Herald, headed this station in broadcasting news to men
in Bataan and in occupied areas like Manila. Well-known writers
like Salvador P. Lopez, Leon Ma. Guerrero, and including Major
Romulo prepared the scripts.

The Japanese were able to seize a beachhead on May 5. The

Americans tried to counterattack but were stopped by Japanese
artillery fire and the appearance of Japanese tanks in the area.
Should the Japanese forces reach Malinta Tunnel, the
noncombatants in the tunnel and the wounded in the hospital
would be in great danger.
General Wainwright decided to surrender Corregidor and the
harbor forts. In the morning of May 6, General Wainwright
addressed a message to General Homma through the Voice of
Freedom offering his surrender with men directly under him. At
noon, the American flag was lowered from the flagpole and
replaced with the flag of surrender.
Wainwright was taken to Cabcaben, Bataan to meet Homma.
Upon learning that Wainwright only offered to surrender the
harbor forts, Homma rejected his surrender. The American general
explained that he had command only of Corregidor and its satellite
islands. He could no longer communicate with General Sharp, who
took command of Visayas and Mindanao, because he had no radio
facilities. Realizing the hopelessness of his position, at midnight of
the same day, Wainwright signed the surrender documents
according to Homma's wishes.
On May 7, Wainwright was brought to Manila to broadcast a
message to General Sharp and the guerrilla leaders in Luzon,
saying that he was taking command and ordering them to
surrender. American commanders in the Visayas and Mindanao
debated on whether the orders were genuine and therefore should
be followed or whether they had been forced on Wainwright by the
Japanese, making it unlawful.
General MacArthur himself radioed General Sharp that
Wainwright's surrender was not valid. General MacArthur ordered
Sharp to initiate guerrilla operations against the enemy forces.

262

The POWs were brought to Capas. On August 11, 1942, General

Wainwright and ranking officers were shipped to Formosa and
later to Japan. On Corregidor, the Japanese maintained a reinforced
company with about 300 POWs mostly American technicians to
restore necessary installations.
The battered Filipino and American soldiers submitted to the
enemy forces. They received orders to lay down their arms. Life in
the prison camp was a grueling sequel to the agony in Bataan.
Nevertheless, the strength and will of the Filipino people did not
waver even after the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor to the
Japanese. Underground guerrilla movements were put into action
by Filipino and American soldiers, as well as unyielding civilians in
the countryside.
Study Guides
A. Terms /Concepts to Understand
Social justice
Anti-Dummy Law
National language
Official language
Rainbow 5 POWs
Death March
Religious us of the Virgin Mary
B. Questions to Answer
1.
How did President Manuel L. Quezon implement the Social
justice Program under his administration?
2.
Why is there a need for a national language?

3.

4.

5.

What caused the Japanese forces to invade the Philippines

during the Pacific War?
Discuss the gruesome picture of the Philippine archipelago
at the onset of World War II.
Do you think the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor was
necessary at that time?

Chapter IX
The Japanese Occupation
1. Japanese Martial Law
By early 1942, the Philippines, Burma, Singapore, the Dutch
East Indies, French Indochina, and other territories in southeastern
Asia and the Pacific were placed under the Japanese rule. After
conquering the lands, Japan claimed that it was creating an Asia for
Asians.
On January 3,1942, a day after Manila became an occupied city,
General Masaharu Homma, commander-in-chief of the Japanese
Imperial Forces issued a proclamation announcing the end of the
American occupation and the imposition of martial law in the
country. One of his first orders was the surrender of firearms.
Those who were still caught with weapons were detained at the
dungeons of Fort Santiago and in other detention posts.
Detention camps became places of torture. Water cure, pulling
of fingernails and toenails, pouring and burning of extremities with
gasoline, and severe beatings were some of the abuses committed
to prisoners.

264

Americans and other foreigners who were allies of America and

Great Britain were rounded up in Manila and in other parts of the
country as early as January 4, 1942. Most of them were held in
custody at the University of Santo Tomas campus in Manila, a 22hectare university campus. Other internment camps were
established in Los Banos, Laguna and in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija.
Priests suspected of engaging in subversion activities were also
imprisoned like Father Rufino Santos who was then a young priest
and later became the first Filipino Cardinal of the Catholic Church
and Archbishop of Manila.
General Homma allowed the laws then enforce the
Commonwealth to stay for the moment. He ordered all public
officials to continue to discharge their duties.
Jorge B. Vargas, who was then the mayor of greater Manila
before the Japanese occupation of the city, had been instructed by
President Quezon and General MacArthur to cooperate with the
enemy hoping that with the cooperation of Filipinos, the occupation
might be less severe. This was to avert further anguish on the
Filipino people.
On the very same day that the city of Manila was occupied,
Vargas met with a representative of Imperial Japanese forces to see
to it that peace and order be maintained and that public utilities
such as water, electricity, and transportation be restored.
Three weeks later, on January 23,1942, Vargas received an order
from General Homma to assume the position of the Executive
Commissioner of the Central Administrative Organization of
Occupied Philippines. He had to coordinate the activities of all
existing central administrative departments in the Philippines and
was to see to it that all commands of the Japanese commander-inchief were carried out.
Movement was registered with the imposition of curfew, first
from 8:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m., and finally from midnight to 6:00 a.m.,

from May 18 onwards. After the fall of Bataan, total blackout was
lifted on May 4,1942.
Arbitrary arrests and executions were done by the kempeitai
(military police) any time of the day. The people were not assured
of their safety in their houses nor in the streets. The most dreaded
Japanese word was kura, which meant two things depending upon
the movement of the hand. When the word was mentioned with an
inward wave of the hand it meant, "Come here!" The moment kura
was uttered with an outward wave of the hand it meant, "Scram!"
or "Dismiss!" For the slightest offense, soldiers would slap the face
of the civilians.
Many were also executed on mere suspicion of being with the
resistance movement. Other offenses punishable by death were
arson, murder, robbery, spreading rumors against the Japanese
forces, cutting military lines of communication, counterfeiting and
spying, and printing or distributing anti-Japanese leaflets.
During the initial period of the Japanese occupation, no one
could travel without a pass from its army. This prohibition in travel
was lifted a month and a half after the fall of Corregidor. In Manila,
the streetcar was still operational. Many people rode bicycles and
dokars (wartime carriages pulled by horses). The casco, a large banca,
pulled by motorboats transported goods and foodstuffs from
Manila to Guagua, Pampanga. Most of the passenger coaches and
freight cars of the Manila Railroad Company were destroyed at the
onset of the Japanese invasion.
Taliba, La Vanguardia, Tribune, and Liwayiuay were allowed to
continue publication but under rigid censorship by the government.
Some old Hollywood films were shown in movie houses. Many
theaters switched from movies to stage shows.
Knowing that the Church had played an important role in
shaping 1 ilipino minds for centuries, the Japanese did not wish to
incur open hostility with the Church. As early as January 14,1942,

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Colonel Murosawa, head of the Religious Section of the Japanese

Army, issued a Declaration to Christians in the Philippines in which he
expressed the view of the Japanese army to assure freedom of
religion. By 1943, parish priests were being required to use their
pulpits to convince the people that it was useless to resist Japanese
rule.
Conciliatory moves were also done to the Philippine
Independent Church. The Japanese also showed leniency towards
the Muslims. In contrast, the American Protestant ministers were
detained at the Santo Tomas Internment Camp.
Japanese Premier Hideki Tojo said on January 21, 1942 before
the Japanese Diet, Japan's legislature, that the Philippines would be
granted independence provided it recognizes Japan's program of
establishing "The Philippines for the Filipinos" as a member of the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. He visited Manila on May
6,1942. He noted that the Filipinos desired to cooperate with the
Japanese government.

2. Life Daring the Wartime Years

Neighborhood and district associations were organized based
in an executive order issued by Vargas on August 8, 1942, "for the
purpose of providing means for protection under joint
responsibility." They were supposed to cooperate with the Japanese
Army to keep the residents within the area of jurisdiction from antiJapanese activities.
Each neighborhood association was to be composed of at least
10 families, their leader of which was to be appointed by their
respective town or city mayor. Then they, in turn grouped into
district associations. The president of the district association was
appointed by the mayor with the approval of the directors of the
local branch of the military administration.

The head of each family had to report to the Constabulary

officers, the leaders of the neighborhood association, or other
competent authorities any movement of bandits or other suspicious
persons in their place. He was also to report changes within his
family, such as birth or death of any family member.
The Sendenbu, the propaganda section of the Japanese army,
and later the Hodobu, or Department of Information did its best to
convince the people to collaborate with them. They sought to
promote the cultural ideas of the New Order and the policy of the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
Violation of Japanese orders and laws was considered a hostile
act, which meant death penalty. Also punishable with death was
the injuring of a Japanese soldier. If the assailant could not be seen,
some Filipinos were held hostage by the Japanese military.
The Japanese military authorities instituted outright
confiscation and direct management of banking institutions and
public utilities, including transportation. They also supervised the
production and distribution of agricultural yields for systematic
extraction.
In different parts of the country, the Japanese refloated interisland ships, which they themselves sunk for revival of transport
service. Trucks and automobiles were shipped to Japan in huge
volumes. Oil companies were forced to sell their stocks to the army.
This led the Filipinos to use their improvised charcoal-fed
transportation facilities. They assumed direct management of
railroad, electrical, telephone, and other facilities from different
companies.
The schools were again made open to the public. Books used
before the war were again utilized, except the ones with pictures
and stories about the Americans. To get the Filipinos to the
Japanese side, the United States and England were projected as
bent on world power. Japanese language and culture were taught

268

and disseminated. Various contests with attractive cash prizes were

held to encourage further the study of the language.
Tight restrictions on the movement of commodities by the
Japanese had made the supply of rice, sugar, and other crops
scarcer. Prices of commodities had increased to the point when
most people could no longer afford to buy. As months passed by,
very few families could afford to enjoy three meals in one day.
The worsening food crisis reached a point where the populace
started eating plain lugaw (rice porridge). At times they subsisted
on binatog or boiled grains of dried corn with grated coconut and
pinches of salt. Toasted rice was brewed as coffee but even these
lowly meals could har.dly be available regularly.
In spite of the government's ardent call for national food
production, the people suffered from deprivation and starvation.
Several well-to-do families had to dig up the canned goods they
had placed under the ground at the start of the war.
The Japanese soldiers confiscated palay stocks stored in the
ktimalig (warehouse) of the farmers. They ransacked private
backyard loading their trucks with chicken and hogs. These
frequent food forays virtually stopped land production causing
imminent food scarcity and escalating prices of prime commodities.
A cavan of rice sold clandestinely in Japanese money costs
thousands of pesos.
Currency and banks were also closely monitored. The
Department of Finance of the Japanese Military Administration
controlled all existing banks. One of the first acts that the Japanese
did was to circulate military money, also known as military pass
money or war notes. It was in peso and centavo denominations.
These bills had been prepared before the war.
The peso was decreed equal to the Japanese yen in its monetary
value. Since the peso was equivalent to two yens before the war,
this order favorably served the purpose of the Japanese. They

found everything cheap in the Philippines. Bales of Japanese war

notes, without any foreign exchange value, were forced on the
people. In local transactions, the Filipinos used this Japanese money
for the payment of commodities, which before would cost a few in
Philippine pesos.
The new peso bills looked like play money. They lacked serial
numbers. They were not backed by silver or gold reserves. Filipinos
were doubtful to accept them. The Japanese, however, threatened
punishment to anyone who refused the war notes. The threats
convinced the Filipinos to use them but they haughtily called it
Mickey Mouse money. Others called it gurami, a small fish so
plentiful and cheap and apa, the sweet wafer for ice cream cones,
implying flimsiness. Prewar bills and coins immediately
disappeared as people chose to keep them for future use.
The Japanese realized the Filipinos were apathetic about the
military money. In 1942, the Southern Development Bank was
established to finance projects in occupied territories in Southeast
Asia. The bank printed war notes and produced a modified Ho
note, which started circulating in 1943. The new notes in
denominations of 1, 5, and 10 pesos had serial numbers this time.
The Rizal Monument was printed at the front side.
Since the highest denomination was 10 pesos, more bills were
required to buy basic necessities as prices soared high. Salaries
were paid in bundles. Bayongs (woven buri bags) of small bills were
carried to market.
Severe inflation set in as supplies ran low. Fuel shortage,
confiscation, and deteriorating peace and order hampered food
production. In March 1942, in order to meet the rice shortage, the
Japanese Military Administration introduced a fast-maturing grain
from Taiwan called horai rice. Experimental farms directly under
the Japanese army control were developed to test the new grain.
The controlled media proclaimed that this would make the

270

Philippines self-sufficient after a year. However, due to heavy rains

in 1942, many of these experimental crops were destroyed. Pests hit
other crops.
The cotton industry likewise did not fair well. It was readily
affected by unfavorable weather and soil conditions. Moreover, the
abundance of pests as well as the reluctance of the Filipino farmers
to plant a crop that was hard to tend and yet destined for Japanese
war factories contributed to this adverse situation.
The exorbitant price of meat resulted to the slaughtering of
cows and carabaos in large numbers. Farms were running out of
work animals. The administration had to restrict the number of
animals to be killed. Only those certified to be no longer useful in
the fields were to be butchered. To save on matches, some families
lighted dry "cakes" of carabao manure, which burn out slowly and
serve as light at night.
Although factories and stores for prime commodities were soon
reopened, they were not as free to operate. In order to assure steady
supply and affordable prices, a Japanese-controlled economy put
into effect. This involved price control measures, registration and
issuance of permits, and a ration system for basic commodities like
rice, sugar, matches, laundry soap, and cloth.
Hoarding and profiteering were banned. Retailers and
suppliers were ordered to follow price lists issued by the
government. Price tags had to be displayed prominently. Rents
were also fixed.
Life had become harder for most people. The residents having
no land to cultivate had to gather items of value from their cabinets
or drawers. Things like clothes, jewelry, and kitchenware were
disposed in buy and sell in Manila's downtown. They spent the
proceeds to buy food, which they would be consuming for a few
days.

Many families were forced to sell their furniture and other

personal belongings. Pushcarts loaded with furniture traveling
along the highway, was a common sight. Cascos (local boats) were
also used in transporting these items.
The railroad train became a common vehicle of smuggling rice
to the city at the Tutuban station, where the Japanese sentries lay in
wait for the viajeros (passengers). Among these viajeros were
children as young as 12 years old. They fought for every available
space on the train, even on the rooftops.
To evade arrest, those carrying half a cavan or more would
jump off somewhere at Solis, Tondo after their merchandise had
been pushed off the freight or passenger cars by their companions.
They usually did this at night. However, train jumpers began to be
plagued by nocturnal hijackers waiting for viajeros to drop their
goods. They would then run off with the sacks of rice before their
owners had the time to jump off the speeding train.
Aside from the rice business, people became preoccupied with
cigarette making. Steady tobacco supply came from the North.
Sometimes the genuine tobacco leaves were blended with dried
papaya leaves.
Another trade that prospered during the era was the making of
fakes and forgeries. Some doctors made adulterated medicines,
while some lawyers made fake documents. Fake Lucky Strike,
Camel, and Chesterfield cigarettes became part of consumers'
goods. Clever counterfeiters produced fake passes, IDs, ration
tickets, and even Mickey Mouse money.
Due to scarcity of food, medicine and basic services, thousands
died of malaria, malnutrition, tuberculosis, and other diseases.
Sulfathiazole, the wonder drug of the period, was sold at a very high
price. Many died on the sidewalks. Such desolate condition brought
about the increase of crime rate, which included burglary and hold-

272

up. Others even tried to kill in order to survive in a highly

competitive and hostile environment.
Disheartened by their dismal situation in the country, a number
of Filipinos did anything simply to survive in the wartime years.
Some had lost their social balance and moral strength in these most
trying times. Others collaborated with the enemy. In the midst of
turmoil, still there were Filipinos who kept their faith in God and
waited for the liberation of the country.
3.

Reforming the Philippine Government

On December 2,1942, the Japanese Military Administration

announced that political parties had been dissolved "of their own
free will." The Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas
(KALIBAP1), a non-political organization, was established.
KALlBAPl's aim was to bring about the rapid reconstruction of
the Philippines and the rehabilitation of the Filipino people. This
organization was designed to coordinate all activities and services
of associations and individuals concerned with the promotion of
the total well-being of every person and to foster a stable
foundation for the New Philippines by inculcating the Asian
virtues of hard work, faith, self-reliance, loyalty, bravery, discipline
and self-sacrifice. Jorge Vargas became the ex-officio president of
the KALIBAPI. Benigno Aquino was appointed director-general of
the said organization.
At their June 18,1943 convention in Manila, the KALIBAPI
members appointed a committee to nominate the members of the
Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). Four
months after the establishment of the PCPI, the first draft of the
new Philippine Constitution was completed. Written in Tagalog
and in English, the Constitution had a preamble and twelve articles.
The Constitution was quite similar to the Commonwealth

Constitution however, several modifications were made in keeping

with the requirements of the Japanese Occupation. This body of
laws was not submitted to the Filipino people for ratification.
With the approval of the Constitution by the members of the
KALIBAPI and the election of Laurel as President of the Republic,
Laurel, Aquino and Vargas flew to Tokyo on September 29, where
they met with high-ranking Japanese officials to discuss Philippine
independence. They made an official call on the emperor on
October 2. Then on October 5, these three Filipino leaders returned
to Manila. Two days later, the government announced the
inauguration of the Republic of the Philippines would be on
October 14.
The Japanese worked for the enlistment of the Philippines into
the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, a long-range economic
plan for Japanese-conquered territories. The pool of raw materials
from these territories would be a source for Japan's industries as
well as outlets for its export products.
4.

The Second Republic of the Philippines

On October 14, 1943, Manila was in a holiday mood, despite the

traces of war. Five hundred to eight hundred thousand people
gathered in front of the Legislative Building that morning to
witness the proclamation of Philippine Independence and the
inauguration of the Republic of the Philippines. In the afternoon, a
Pact of Alliance between the Philippines and japan was signed by
the Philippine Minister of Foreign Affairs, Claro M. Recto, and the
Japanese Ambassador, Shozo Murata.
Then on October 18, Laurel announced the appointment of his
cabinet: Claro M. Recto, minister of foreign affairs; Antonio de las
Alas, minister of finance; Teofilo Sison, minister of justice; Quintin
Paredes, minister of agriculture and commerce; Jose Yulo, chief

274

justice of the Supreme Court, and Jose Villa, acting executive

secretary.
The President of the Republic, elected by the majority of all
members of the National Assembly, was given the highest
executive power by the Constitution. He was to serve a single term
for six years. Being the commander-in-chief of all armed forces of
the country, he could place the Philippines or any part of the nation
under martial law, when public safety required it. He could also
declare war and make peace with the concurrence of two-thirds of
all members of the National Assembly. And with the agreement of
the majority of all members of the Assembly, he could make treaties
with other nations.
The Constitution did not provide for a vice-president, however,
the ranking minister in the order of precedence established by law
could assume presidency in the event of a permanent disability of
the President. The power to make laws was vested in the
unicameral National Assembly, which was composed of provincial
governor generals and city mayors as ex-officio members and of
delegates to be elected every three years, one from each province
and chartered city. The Assembly was to meet in regular session
once every year.
Judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court, composed of a
chief justice and six associate justices who were appointed by the
President with the advice of the Cabinet. The President with the
advice of the Supreme Court appointed judges in the lower court.
A governor ran the provincial civil government. The governors
and city mayors, in an ex-officio capacity became members of the
108-man National Assembly. Civil administration was operating
under the supervision of a Japanese garrison commander
headquartered at the provincial capitol.
However, civil administration was ineffectual. The Japanese
continued to maltreat the local inhabitants. The garrison was

tolerant of the abuses committed by the Japanese military stationed

in the provinces. The supply requisitions were never coursed to the
local administration. The extended Japanese occupation caused
widespread anxiety among the people in the islands.
With the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic,
President Laurel created the National Education Board to study
curriculum changes and to develop a more suitable educational
program for the country. The board advocated enhancement of the
Filipino identity by giving emphasis to the study of the national
language and history. It also recommended the teaching of Asian
history and culture.
The board also adopted the semestral system, with a vacation
long enough for the students to rest, and in time for the rainy
season to lessen disruption of classes. (Before the outbreak of war,
in 1940, school calendar had been changed to four terms with only
one week between terms. This exhausted both students and
teachers).
To direct the educational thrust more thoroughly, the
government was given more powers to supervise all schools, both
public and private. President Laurel saw schools as complementary
to the family and church in shaping morals and character.
The government also sent selected young men to japan as
pensionados to study at Japanese schools. Members of the Japanese
constabulary taught them Japanese methods of discipline. These
pensionados had to be cleansed of anything anti-Japanese to operate
in the new environment.
Simultaneous with the restructuring of the educational system,
control over media and culture was also emphasized by the
Hodobu. Movies, stage shows, radio programs, and even letters at
the post office were checked.
Under the Laurel administration, the media was used to spread
more Filipino propaganda line. Posters and leaflets called for the

276

support of the republic. New periodicals such as Filipino, a monthly

magazine, were also read not only in Manila but also in the
provinces. On the anniversary of the Japanese-sponsored republic, a
new newspaper was born (The Republic). Both periodicals tried to
portray a more Filipino perspective rather than other publications.
New stamps were also printed for the republic, showing the
government's nationalist orientation. One stamp issued to
commemorate the 1943 independence showed a Filipina in
traditional costume, with the Philippine flag and the Rizal
monument in the background.
In publications, the flag was highlighted. The Philippine
national anthem was translated into Tagalog. It replaced the
Japanese national anthem and Awit sa Paglikha ng Bagong Pilipinas.
Even cigarette boxes were used for the propaganda. One box bore
the slogan, "AFree Philippines in United Asia." Another had
"Freedom Implies Responsibility" written on the box. The brand
was called Independencia cigarettes.
President Laurel went his way to Filipinize the Catholic Church.
He wrote the Pope explaining that Filipinos would understand the
Church better if they ran the parishes and religious schools. He met
with religious leaders to explain his views. The government tried to
keep the Church under some degree of control.
The Japanese Military Administration did closely supervise the
affairs of the Church. The Bureau of Religious Affairs was created
as an agency under the Executive Commission to control the
activities of the religious orders like the issuance of permits for
special collections, meetings, and religious parades. The Church
was ordered to report the amount of money it had received as
donations. Its financial status was obliged to be disclosed. All
priests, ministers, and other religious officials had to secure permit
from the government in solemnizing marriages.

The Board of Information, which replaced the Bureau of

Information and Public Security of the Executive Commission, was
created. This prevented the printing of reports that was not in
keeping with the republic's ideals.
Following the government's pro-Filipino line, the Kabataang
Pangarap ni Rizal (The Youth of Rizal's Dreams) and Revtrufilnism
(Revive True Filipinism), were organized according to some
historians. Both civic organizations aimed at developing
nationalism consciousness. This cultural campaign was launched
somehow to make the Filipinos aware of Japanese and Filipino
native traditions. Somehow, prolonged exposure to Asian spirit
could win Filipino cooperation and sympathy.
Pre-war American films, previously censored, were still shown
in some movie theaters. Japanese films glorifying the Japanese war
machine and way of life were also shown in between presentations
of American films as part of the cultural propaganda.
The Japanese discouraged the Filipinos from writing in English.
In a way, these Asian colonizers contributed to the promotion of the
Tagalog language. They bolstered the enthusiasm of local writers to
rediscover the richness of the country's mother tongue. Liwayway,
the only Tagalog weekly magazine, was allowed to continue
publication.
A number of writers began to create short stories and verses
similar to the Japanese haiku. Two magazines that became popular
during those days were the Philippine Review and Pillars. However,
freedom of expression was suppressed during the occupation
period. The writers who were limited to their subject matter had the
rural scene as the popular theme. Moreover, the writers were not
well compensated. Their income was good enough to buy them a
kilo of coffee-corn.
In 1943, the Dramatic Philippines, Inc. was formed to stage
popular plays in English, adapted in Tagalog. These plays were

278

performed at the old Metropolitan Theater. Under the management

of a group of college actors, the organization presented highly
acclaimed plays translated in Tagalog such as Passion Play, Julius
Caesar, Golden Boy, and Applesauce. Sa Pula, Sa Puti, an adaptation of
Julian Cruz Balmaseda's Isang Kuwaltang Abaka, became a crowd
favorite. Musical Philippines, Inc., a sister organization of Dramatic
Philippines, Inc., enabled classical musicians to present their
performances at the theater.
Despite Laurel's attempts to make independence real, many
elements of the Japanese policy were still there. Censorship of the
media continued as before. Nippongo classes were still mandatory.
Listening to foreign short wave stations (except Radio Tokyo)
remained restricted.
At the forefront of Japanese attempt to establish the New Order
was the kempeitai. Being a separate army organization, it reported
directly to the Japanese commander-in-chief in the Philippines, and
from there on to the kempeitai headquarters in Tokyo. It had
established branches throughout the Philippines. Anywhere in the
country, they struck terror and fear.
The Japanese occupation in just about a few years had relatively
changed the Filipino outlook. Because of the grim consequences of
the war, they became more pragmatic, or rather materialistic. The
people had come face to face with violence. They had learned to use
weapons to kill the opponents, obviously the Japanese and those
who work for them, to the detriment of their own safety and
security.
For want of doing something, some men, both young and old
learned to indulge in many forms of vices. Smoking, cockfighting,
dice games, mahjong, jueteng, monte, and other card games became
common pastimes. However, there were also other forms of
recreation like stage shows (mostly of the hometown variety) and
fist bouts.

People kept leaving and returning, depending upon the

situation. Those who could not stand the condition any longer had
to evacuate to other barrios. Some opted to live with relatives in far
provinces. With the enemy occupation, the old social elite, the
wealthy land-owning families, no longer held the monopoly of the
social circle. The rushing in of the new rich led to the rise of a new
bourgeoisie.
Everywhere in the land, people lived in fear. Men did fear the
spies (like the Ganaps and Makapilis) as well as the dreaded
kempeitai and their zona system, whereby the local males were
herded in one place, usually a public one, to pluck out the
guerrillas.

5. Resistance and Restoration

What strongly nullified the Japanese policy of attraction was
the series of atrocities ranging from confiscation of personal goods
to wanton killing of people. There was the imposition of severe
penalties for slight violations of the law. Persons caught violating
the curfew were punished with water cure. Afterwards, nothing
would be heard about them. Pedestrians who refused to bow to the
Japanese military were slapped on their faces or hit with closed
fists. The Filipinos looked at this gesture as a grave personal
assault.
Health and living conditions deteriorated throughout the
Japanese occupation. Tuberculosis, malaria, and nutrition ailments
became common illnesses. Many people died of starvation.
The war years witnessed the mass contact of Filipinos and
Japanese, characterized by mutual suspicion. The Filipinos could
not simply trust the motives of the Japanese in promoting the
national culture. The Japanese showed unreasonable harassment

280

and executions of Filipinos deemed dangerous to the new order of

the society.
There were others who thought that the war was about
democracy and against fascism. The unprovoked attack of the
Japanese in the Philippines led many Filipinos to resist in defense of
the country.
Thoughts in having recognition and a challenging experience
did help in encouraging more volunteers for the army. Others
joined the struggle for freedom because it seemed to be the natural
thing to do. Classes had been suspended for quite a time. When the
enlistment of recruits for the army took place, many young men
signed up.
If the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor and the immediate
retreat of General MacArthur to Australia marked the end of
American assistance to the country, these events were only
perceived as temporary. Moved by their sense of nationalism,
others felt that it was glorious to fight for the country's freedom.
They had realized that it was their duty to their fellow Filipinos to
defend the country from foreign aggression. Guerrilla fighters all
over the country kept their faith in democracy. Many waited for the
return of the Americans.
The United States Army Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP),
North Luzon, was one of the earliest guerrilla units to be organized
after the fall of Bataan and Corregidor. The USAFFE soldiers of
Northern Luzon who had been unable to join the American and
Filipino Forces in Bataan banded together under two Filipino
captains, Guillermo Nakar and Manuel P. Enriquez. This was
recognized as the First Guerrilla Regiment by USAFFE
headquarters.
Walter Cushing, an American mine operator in the Mountain
Province, led the first ambush against the Japanese. Cushing
organized some 200 Filipino guerrillas shortly after the enemy

invasion. (Unfortunately, on September 19,1942, Cushing and two

of his men were killed instantaneously by Japanese soldiers at
Jones, Isabela while on a mission to contact a large guerrilla outfit).
American soldiers in Northern Luzon who did not surrender
with General Jonathan M. Wainwright placed themselves under the
command of Captain Nakar and Captain George Barnett, an
American engineer.
Other American officers who managed to escape from Bataan
like Major Russell Volckmann (a West Point Graduate) organized
their own guerrilla units. Volckmann set up secret training camps
for his guerrillas. The North Luzon guerrillas were consolidated
under his overall command. Among the prominent guerrilla
leaders under his direction were Governor
Roque Ablan of Ilocos and Bado Dangwa in Baguio. He also
established a communication and intelligence network, which
reported the movements of the enemy. Reports from this network
were transmitted to MacArthur's headquarters in Australia.
Volckmann's Northern Luzon guerrilla army was responsible
for driving General Tomoyuki Yamashita's troops from the
Mountain Province in the last days of the war in the Philippines.
Marcos V. Agustin, a bus driver before the war, formed a
guerrilla unit centered in Antipolo. This eventually became one of
the largest in Luzon owing to its membership from different
sectors. In its ranks were soldiers, teachers, lawyers, writers,
laborers, drivers, young inmates of a reformatory school, and a few
reformed convicts. Some Chinese and Americans joined Agustin's
group.
The Hunters ROTC (Reserve Officers' Training Corps) guerrilla
group, headed by two young cadets of the Philippine Military
Academy, Eleuterio Adevoso (better known as Terry Magtanggol,
during the war), and Miguel Ver, was formed at Ver's house in San

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Juan, Manila. After the surrender of Bataan, the group moved to

Antipolo.
During the latter stages of the war, the Hunters ROTC
guerrillas cut Japanese communication lines, blew up roads and
bridges, and destroyed convoys passing through their territory.
Their newspaper, Thunderclap, which came out in 1943, oftentimes
changed its place of publication to confuse the enemy forces.
Other guerrilla units were established in Central Luzon. In
Bulacan, Captain Alejo S. Santos, "C" Company, 31st Infantry of the
USAFFE, who escaped the Death March from Bataan at Betis,
Pampanga, organized the Philippine Legion at his hometown
Bustos. Captain Santos and his comrades wanted to continue the
battle against the enemy forces. No longer did they want to suffer
silently in pain.
The Philippine Legion was initially envisioned as a force of
small combat units with primary mission of destroying enemy
intelligence groups. It also aimed to gather information on military
installations as well as political and economic activities sponsored
by the Japanese government. The group members were also
directed to eliminate Filipino traitors.
In August 1943, Captain Bernard L. Anderson, a U.S. Airforce
officer, took command of the USAFFE Luzon Guerrilla Army
Forces and appointed Captain Santos as his personal representative
in the area. On October 12, 1943, Captain Anderson issued a
directive confirming Captain Santos' command over the Bulacan
Military Area (BMA).
BMA had four regiments at the start. By the middle of 1944, it
had a force over 18,000. The BMA was regrouped into 10 regiments
as follows: Valenzuela Regiment (Meycauayan, Marilao, Bocaue,
Polo, and Obando);
Republic Regiment (Malolos and Paombong); Del Pilar Regiment
(Hagonoy and Calumpit); Kakarong Regiment (Plaridel, Guiguinto,

and Bigaa); M. Ponce Regiment (Baliuag, Pulilan, and Bustos);

Buenavista Regiment (San Ildefonso and San Rafael); Natividad
Regiment (Northern San Miguel); Biak-na-Bato Regiment (Southern
San Miguel); Mountain Regiment (Angat and Norzagaray); and the
Batute Regiment (San Jose and Sta. Maria). These regiments were
named after famous personages and places in the province of
Bulacan.
Procurement groups were organized to collect arms and
ammunitions. Some Bulacan guerrillas went back to Bataan to look
for weapons buried prior to the surrender of the Filipino-American
troops in April 1942. In the latter part of 1943, the guerrillas raided
some municipal buildings to get the arms and ammunitions.
Daring assaults were mounted by the BMA fighters against the
Japanese garrison in Malolos and in the other towns in Bulacan.
Military intelligence reports continuously needed by General
Headquarters Southwest Pacific Area (GHQ-SWPA) were supplied
by the BMA.
In August 1944, the submarine Nawarhal landed arms and
ammunition, signal equipment, and other supplies at the Kalayaan
Headquarters of Major Anderson in Infanta, Tayabas. Salanga
Point, just off the mouth of Masanga River became the surface point
of the Nawarhal submarine. Some officers and men of the BMA,
together with some loyal Dumagats of the mountains journeyed
across the Sierra Mad re Mountains to bring the military supplies to
Bulacan.
Together with the group of Americans was Captain Bartolome
Cabangbang. He manned the Philippine Islands Detachment of the
Allied Intelligence Bureau. A graduate of Philippine Military
Academy, Capt. Cabangbang fought in Bataan and Corregidor. He
was released from Capas Concentration Camp to be trained at the
Philippine Constabulary School. He was able to escape in October
1942 and later joined Capt. Villamor in Negros Occidental. He

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boarded submarine Gabriela to Australia and thereon was trained in

communications and jungle warfare.
Airstrips were also constructed by the BMA guerrillas for the
emergency landing of American airmen like the ones found at Akle
in San Ildefonso, at Atlag, Malolos and Bustos. Each of these
airstrips had a runway of about 600 yards right for L-5s, which
required 200 yards to get airborne.
These airstrips did facilitate the transport of supplies and men
from the army posts in Lingayen and Dagupan to Bulacan guerrilla
headquarters and vice versa. All units of the BMA were alerted for
any ill-fated plane that would need help. They were set to rescue
these pilots before they could fall into the hands of the Japanese.
Their other concern was retrieving whatever equipment remained
intact in the damaged planes.
On November 16, 1944, three men from Admiral William
Halsey's Third Fleet belonging to the Carrier USS Essex were
rescued by the Republic Regiment. (Halsey's Fleet had undertaken
air strikes in the Visayas prior to General MacArthur's landing in
Leyte). They were later on escorted to BMA headquarters. Among
those ferried from Akle (home base of BMA) to San Jose, Mindoro
were Colonel Gwen G. Atkinson, Lts. Floyd Fulkerson, Yates Hicky,
Russel Reed, and Landry.
On January 4, 1945 at Camp Jerusalem, the first air drops in
Luzon were done by giant B-25s of the US Air Force. Crated TNT
(trinitrotoluene), arms and ammunitions, medicines, rations and
radios for the BMA were dropped. On the evening of January 9,
1945, the Sixth Army, under Gen. Walter Krueger, landed 68,000
combat troops. Some army units rolled eastward to Nueva Ecija
and turned to Pozorrubio-Rosario-Aringay Line. Others penetrated
the Pampanga and Pangasinan areas - all of them, including the 37th
Division entered through Bulacan towns.

In Southern Luzon, the PQOG (President Quezon's Own

Guerrillas) engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in
Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, and Quezon Province. In the Bicol
region, former Assemblyman and Governor Wenceslao Vinzons,
headed the guerrilla activities in the area.
The guerrilla movement in Samar and Leyte was led by Colonel
Ruperto Kangleon; while Colonel Macario Peralta of Tarlac headed
in Panay Island with Governor Tomas Confessor as the civilian
leader. In Mindanao, Tomas Cabili, Salipada Pendatun and
Wendell Fertig organized the guerrillas in the region.
Another guerrilla unit that confronted the Japanese forces was
the communist-led Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon known as the
Hukbalahap. The organization was founded on March 29,1942 in a
forest near the boundaries of Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Tarlac.
Luis Taruc was chosen chairman of the committee. Casto
Alejandrino (GY), became second in command.
Other Huk leaders were Bernardo Poblete (Banal) from
Minalin, Eusebio Aquino from Magalang, and Felipa Culala
(Dayang-Dayang) from Candaba. Other Partido Komunista ng
Pilipinas (PKP) members who became leaders of the Hukbalahap
aside from Taruc and Alejandrino were Lope de la Rosa and
Mariano Franco. "Anti-Japanese Above All" became the battlecry of
this underground movement, mostly consisting of peasants and
workers.
The guiding principles of the Huks were found in this
document, The Fundamental Spirit. The duties and privileges of a
Huk soldier were discussed in another document, The Iron
Discipline. The kind of discipline imposed on its members was quite
tough. Members found deviating from the rules of the organization
were reportedly liquidated in the name of unity. For instance,
Dayang-Dayang was executed by her own men.

286

Katubusan ng Bayan (Redemption of the People) was the

principal Huk publication, which started in mid-1942. It was issued
weekly with between 3,000 to 5,000 copies mimeographed. Its
editors included peasant leaders, trade unionists from Manila and
university people. They chronicled the Huk victories against the
Japanese.
The Huks fought guerrilla battles with the enemy forces. In
mid- January, 1945 they liberated much of Tarlac and Pampanga.
By the time the Americans were already in Cabanatuan, there they
found the Huks had already secured the town for them. Municipal
governments attacked by their squadrons were placed under Huk
auspices. The Huks occupied a number of towns in Central Luzon
and also rose against exploitative landlords.
There were some Filipinos who chose to cooperate with the
Japanese and aided them in apprehending the guerrillas and their
supporters. These fanatical pro-Japanese included the Ganaps, the
Pulahanes, the Palaaks, the United Nippon, the Painpars, and the
MAKAPILJs.
The Gamps were the former pro-Japanese Sakdalistas who
served as spies for the Japanese military authorities while the
Pulahanes (from Samar, "pula" means red) acted as guides for the
Japanese in their efforts to arrest people who supported the
guerrilla cause.
The Palaaks, armed with bamboo spears, worked as guards for
the Japanese army while the United Nippon (U.N.), armed with
rifles, wore army uniforms as part of the Japanese military. The
members were recruited from the Ganap Party.
The Pampars (Pambansang Pag-asa ng mga Anak ni Rizal) were
also armed with rifles. The Japanese military authorities in Pililla,
Rizal Province organized the group in 1943. The group members
wore blue denim uniforms with short pants.

The most dreadful one, the MAKAPILI (Makabayan: Katipunan

ng mga Pilipino) was headed by General Artemio Ricarte, Benigno
Ramos, and Pio Duran. This group was organized after the
American liberation forces had already entered the Philippine
territory. MAKAPILI was formally launched in Manila on December
8,1944, amidst a gala ceremony attended by General Yamashita,
President Laurel, Ricarte, Ramos, Duran, and other high officials.
Escalated guerrilla operations pressed the Japanese army to
offer amnesty. Such offer was given throughout the land but
eventually no guerrilla fighter accepted such dubious proposal. The
Japanese continued their propaganda to secure the cooperation of
the people in various ways like the sponsorship of the Japanese
Youth Leadership Program. Young Bias Ople had already left the
program and joined the ranks of the BMA. The guerrillas carried
out missions that were of great importance to the Allied forces
leading to the eventual liberation of the Philippines.
In June 1944, the Battle of the Philippine Sea began. The air raid
strikes started in Guam to neutralize Japanese offensive. In
desperation, Japanese suicide pilots known as kamikaze (meaning,
divine wind in Japan) engaged in dog-fight air battles against
American warplanes. By August 9, the American fighter planes
began their devastating raids on Japanese military installations in
Mindanao, Visayas, and Manila. Casualties ran high in the Pacific
because of the Japanese feeling that surrender meant dishonor
(Perry, et. al., 1989:711).
On September 21,1944, President Laurel proclaimed martial law
in the country by virtue of Proclamation No. 29. News about
General MacArthur's Pacific Forces nearing the Philippines through
the newspaper, The Tribune, and short wave radio broadcasts made
the Japanese fiercer and more distrustful. Japanese raiding forces
swooped into barrios and assembled all men in tine barrio chapels

288

to be warned against subversive acts. More zonas were conducted.

The male residents were detained for days.
On October 20,1944, the Leyte beaches were severely
bombarded by American bombers and fighter planes. The new P-38
fighter planes had proven its prowess in air battles. With faster
velocity to go up at a higher altitude, the planes pounded the
Japanese planes below with bullets from the 30/50 caliber machine
guns. The path to Leyte was cleared on the same day, paving the
way for General MacArthur's return together with his allied forces,
landing at Palo Beach. Warships formed a line of defense to protect
the American forces in the island.
Consequently, the American flag was raised at Hill 120 in
Dulag, Leyte. The Japanese suicide pilots crashed their planes on
the American warships at Leyte Gulf. The Battle of Leyte Gulf, the
greatest naval battle in history was fought from October 24 to 26.
Simultaneous with this naval warfare were the following battles:
the Battle of Surigao Strait, the Battle of Samar, and the Battle of
Cape Engano.
On December 21, 1944, President Laurel and his Cabinet moved
to Baguio. The Japanese forces retreated to the "Yamashita Line," a
battlefront stretching along the jungle of Sierra Madre from
Antipolo to Aparri. While retreating, the Japanese took some
provisions from the Filipino civilians, massacred innocent people,
and burned towns and villages.
Despite kamikaze attacks, landings were made at Lingayen Gulf
on January 9,1945. Other American troops landed in Zambales,
Tagaytay, and Batangas. The U.S. Sixth Army, with its headquarters
in Dagupan City, had issued on February 2, a letter of instruction
calling for coordination of all guerrilla units in Central Luzon in
combat operations against the enemy forces. The units of the Sixth
Army were seen riding in a new type of vehicle, which was later
learned to be jeeps. (The army jeeps left by the Americans after

World War II inspired the making of the Philippine jeepney, resized

and remodelled to accommodate commuting passengers
numbering from 20 to 30, making it a smaller versions of a bus).
Others boarded armored cars and half trucks.
On February 3, an American cavalry division entered Grace
Park in the northern outskirts of Manila. With Filipino guerrillas as
guides, they rescued the suffering prisoners at the Santo Tomas
Internment Camp.
By March 3,1945 the Americans had won the war in Manila.
Baguio was captured from the Japanese on April 26. By July 4, the
Americans had officially completed liberating Luzon.
The Japanese made their last stand in Northern Luzon. The US
6th Infantry entered Kiangan, Ifugao province and engaged in series
of close fighting. The so-called "Million Dollar Hill" sheltered the
14th Area Army under the overall command of General Tomoyuki
Yamashita known as the "Tiger of Malaya" and his elite officers.
There were three infantry divisions to entrap the enemies the
USAFIP NL, the 6th Division, and the 32nd Division. The Buenavista
boys, detailed with the 6th Division and 32nd Division, were the first
ones to come near the mouth of the hill. The major obstacle in
blasting the place was the Japanese woodpecker machine gun.
After four months in its Northern Luzon drive, the Buenavista
Regiment's task finally ended. Japan formally announced through
radio broadcast its final surrender on August 14 after the bombing
of Hiroshima and later Nagasaki on August 6 and August 9,
respectively. Two days later, front line units of the USAFIP NL
received Volckmann's order to cease firing.
Negotiations for the surrender of General Yamashita and his
troops began after a Filipino officer 2nd Lt. Macario A. Abarillo,
leading a patrol of the 15th Infantry Combat Company had
penetrated into enemy lines northwest of Kiangan.

290

The Kiangan campaign ended on September 2, 1945. General

Yamashita finally ordered his men to lay down their arms. The
surrender was administered by the 1st Battalion of the 14th Infantry,
supported by other units of the US 6th Division. It was also on that
day that Japan formally accepted defeat upon signing a treaty on
board USS Missouri at Tokyo Bay. Ten days after the formal
surrender, Laurel was arrested by the U.S. Army. He was confined
in Sugamo Prison for almost a year and returned to Manila in July
1946.
From Kiangan, the Japanese officers and their respective staff
were brought down by trucks to Bagabag, Nueva Viscaya and
flown to Luna, La Union and finally brought up in jeeps to the
American High Commissioner's Residence at Camp John Hay,
Baguio City for the formal surrender.
From Baguio, Yamashita and his staff were brought to the
National Bilibid Prison in Muntinlupa. Yamashita went on trial in
October 1945 before U.S. War Crimes Commission and was
convicted of war atrocities on December 7.
On the early morning of February 23, 1946, Yamashita was
hanged on a tree on top of a hill overlooking the U.P. College of
Agriculture in Los Banos, Laguna. U.S. Army police unit headed by
Col. Charles Haldermann carried the execution order.
President Osmena, who succeeded the late President Quezon,
tackled the task of rehabilitating the land, which had been cruelly
damaged by war. Quezon died on August 1,1944 while in exile in
Saranac Lake, New York. Three days after the Leyte landing,
Osmena was already given the power to govern all territories
liberated by the U.S. forces. This took place at a public ceremony
headed by General MacArthur.
On March 7, 1945, President Osmena signed an Executive Order
providing for the restoration of the executive departments of the
government as they existed prior to Japanese occupation. The

Order, dated February 27, also created the department of

information as part of the Department of Public Instruction.
On March 8, the President sworn into office the new members
of the Cabinet. He also outlined the principles of his government.
These included the adherence to the principles of freedom and
democracy and the establishment of a social and political system
wherein the government officials and employees are servants of the
people. The government reaffirmed the principle of FilipinoAmerican collaboration.
The Philippines at that time was practically without funds.
Production at the onset was very slow owing to lack of capital to
finance the rehabilitation of destroyed machinery and other
equipment. In the early months of reoccupation, the United States
attended to the needs of the local populace. The Philippine Civil
Affairs Unit of the United States Army (PCAU) became the
principal agency for relief distribution in Manila and the provinces.
It also proceeded to remove municipal officials elected by the Huks
and replaced them with USAFFE guerrillas (ideologically different
from the Huks).
General MacArthur known to be a man of action, at that time
made important decisions for the President. He advised President
Osmena to immediately convoke the Congress, for it was part of
the policy of the American government to restore constitutional
government in the Philippines as soon as law and order had been
established.
Osmena was reluctant at first, believing that the government
might fall into the hands of collaborators whom the American
government suspected of treason. Nevertheless on June 9,1945, the
First Congress of the Philippines convened for the first time since
the election of its members on November 11,1941 with Senator
Manuel A. Roxas chosen as President of the Senate. By July 4,1945,
the Commonwealth was reestablished in Manila.

292

President Osmena offered Roxas beforehand to go to

Washington as Philippine Resident Commissioner but the latter
refused. Roxas at that time was having in mind his candidacy for
presidency. Two days later, on May 26,1945 he instructed his men
to launch his bid for the position. The worsening relations between
Osmena and Roxas reached its climax when Roxas left the
Nacionalista Party and organized his own party, the Liberal Party.
He took many Nacionalistas with him.
The election of April 23, 1946 resulted in the victory of the
Liberal Party with Roxas and Quirino as the elected President and
Vice-President, respectively. Their party won nine out of 16
contested senatorial seats.
On May 6, 1946, Roxas was inaugurated as the last President of
the Philippine Commonwealth. The inaugural ceremonies were
held on the grounds of the Legislative Building. In his inaugural
address as the last President of the Commonwealth, he cited the
groundwork of his administration - to rebuild the economy from
the ruins of war. He also advocated the establishment of political
and economic ties with America, to help in the rehabilitation of the
islands.

Study Guides
Terms/ Concepts to Understand Declaration to Christians in the
Philippines Neighborhood and district associations Binatog Ration
system Sulfathiazole MAKAPILI Sa Pula, Sa Puti Questions to
Answer
1.
How did the Japanese military rule the country before and after
the inauguration of the Second Philippine Republic?

2.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Describe the living conditions of the Filipinos under the

Japanese occupation.
Why did a number of Filipinos join the guerrilla movement
against the Japanese?
How did the war in the Pacific end?
KALIBAPI Pensionados Zona system Nawarhal
Katubusan ng Bayan
Kamikaze
Kiangan

Chapter X
The Republic
1. Roxas Administration (1946-48)
From the ashes of the Pacific war, a new Philippine Republic
has risen. Philippine sovereignty was finally recognized with
Manuel Roxas as the President of the Third Republic of the
Philippines. On July 4, 1946, at exactly 9:15 a.m., High
Commissioner Paul V. McNutt read President Harry S. Truman's
proclamation announcing to the world the withdrawal of American
sovereignty and the recognition of the independence of the
Philippines.
To the accompaniment of the American National Anthem,
Commissioner McNutt lowered the American flag. Thereafter,
President Roxas hoisted the Filipino flag to the accompaniment of
the Philippine National Anthem. He took his oath of office before
Chief Justice Manuel V. Moran of the Philippine Supreme Court. In
his inaugural address, President Roxas thanked the coming of the

294

United States in 1898 and urged the people to have faith in the
goodness of America.
Following the President's inaugural address was the public
signing of the US-Philippine Treaty of General Relations. Based on
this treaty, the United States withdrew and surrendered all rights of
supervision, control or sovereignty over the Philippines. Likewise,,
the United States would represent the interests of the Philippines in
countries where there is no Philippine representation, pending the
establishment of Philippine diplomatic service abroad.
In the final part of the inaugural rites, a chorus of 1,000 voices
sang the Philippine Independence Hymn. Closing the ceremonies
was the Invocation Prayer by Most Rev. Gabriel M. Reyes, the
Archbishop of Cebu.
The political system of the Philippines was basically patterned
after the U.S., with a bicameral legislature and a president elected
every four years, limited to one reelection.
When Roxas assumed his post, he solved the collaboration issue
by proclaiming amnesty to all political prisoners. Senator Claro M.
Recto refused to be amnestied. He fought his legal battles with the
People's Court and was acquitted.
The Philippines as seen by the administration could not
rehabilitate its economy without American aid and investment.
Subsequently it adopted two laws legislated by the United States
Congress to grow and industrialize. On April 30, 1946, the U.S.
Congress passed two laws that were intended to help the economic
recovery of the country.
The Philippine Trade Act, also known as the Bell Trade Act,
provided for the continuation of free trade with the Philippines and
the United States from 1946 to 1954. For the next 20 years from 1954
to 1974, Philippine exports to the U.S. will pay a gradually
increased tariff rate. The value of the peso was fixed at half an
American dollar.

The Philippine Rehabilitation Act on the other hand, also

known as the Tydings Rehabilitation Act resulted to the creation of
the Philippine War Damage Commission to take charge of war
damage payments.
President Roxas really wanted to rebuild the Philippine
economy even if it meant sacrificing national patrimony. In return
for American support, the government went its way to amend the
1935 Philippine Constitution to give parity rights to the Americans.
This obliged the country to grant U.S. citizens and corporations the
same rights as Filipinos in the utilization and exploitation of
Philippine natural resources. In addition, American citizens and
corporations enjoyed the right to acquire land of the public domain,
right to acquire grazing, fishing and mining rights, and the right to
engage in the ownership and operation of public utilities. The
people approved the parity amendment issue in the plebiscite of
1947.
Luis Taruc and his colleagues in the Democratic Alliance were
against the parity rights amendment because they perceived it as
more disadvantageous to the Filipino people. The Huks together
with a new party, the Democratic Alliance, composed of
intellectuals and peasants, succeeded in electing Taruc and their
other members to Congress in 1946. Upon the alleged instigation of
President Roxas, the Congress passed a resolution ejecting Taruc
and his six fellow party members from Congress on the ground of
alleged electoral frauds and terrorism committed by the Huks in
Pampanga and Nueva Ecija. The removal from office of Taruc and
his companions paved the way to the amendment of the
Constitution.
Another government action that also generated varied opinions
was the military bases issue. The Military Bases Agreement signed on
March 14, 1947, gave the U.S. free use of 23 base sites for 99 years
(shortened to 25 years in 1959) renewable on expiration of this

296

treaty. The largest active bases were the Clark Field Air Base in
Pampanga and Subic Naval Base, and the US Seventh Fleet base in
Zambales. A provision of the Military Bases Agreement granted
American military authorities an exclusive jurisdiction over all the
offenses or crimes committed by American personnel within the
bases or outside w7hile in the performance.
Taruc returned to his people and thereafter cooperated with
President Roxas in the pacification campaign in the countryside. It
was during the pacification campaign that Taruc and Mateo Castillo
got an intelligence report that they would be killed by their
adversaries, among whom were allegedly government officials. The
two Huk leaders took precautions as forewarned. Whereas, Juan
Feleo, the peasant leader of Nueva Ecija, who did not receive the
warning on time, was kidnapped and murdered while in the
company of MPs who were supposed to provide him security in his
pacification campaign from barrio to barrio. Following this tragic
incident was the killing of Jose Joven, a labor leader.
Believing that the Roxas administration was bowed on checking
the movement of the masses by liquidating its leaders, Taruc wrote
a letter to President Roxas reminding the latter of their demands,
which were mentioned in three prior conferences with the
government. These included the following: the temporary rights of
the people to keep their firearms due to present insecurity,
protection of constitutional rights, removal of some government
officials like Governor (Pablo Angeles) David of Pampanga and the
creation of social welfare projects and agrarian reform. The Huks
also demanded the collectivization of farmlands and the abolition
of tenant farming. They were able to organize a new rebel
government with its own military and administrative procedure.
Inefficient production and very low incomes were among the
basic problems of the people. After the liberation, the economy
improved but for many workers, wages were inadequate.The

government military and the Huks were plunged into hostilities.

The civilians, caught in the crossfire, lived in fear and hunger as
agricultural production decreased due to constant skirmishes
between the contending forces. The government had spent millions
of pesos to apprehend Taruc and his men. For two years, the Roxas
administration tried to pacify the local dissidents but failed.
To solve the peace and order situation, President Roxas issued a
proclamation on March 6, 1948'declaring the Hukbalahap and the
Pambansang Kaisahan ng mga Magbubukid (PKM), which was
reorganized after the war by Mateo del Castillo, as illegal
associations organized and maintained to commit acts of sedition.
People having affiliation with these groups were considered as
enemies of the State and thus, liable to be arrested and imprisoned.
This proclamation outlawing the Huks and PKMs in effect resulted
to indiscriminate arrests and detention of people suspected to be
aiding the rebels.
As early as July 29,1946, President Roxas had already issued
Republic Act No. 4 that called for the surrender of firearms not later
than August 31. The Huks upheld the principle of the people's right
to bear firearms. There was this sentiment among the Huks that
their physical survival depended on their keeping their arms and
ammunitions.
There were wealthy landlords who hired civilian guards to
assail Huk regions. Willful disregard for civil rights was shown in
the Masico Affair in Laguna, in which a group of old and young
men were machine-gunned. The same transgression was committed
in Maliwalu, Bacolor in Pampanga where a group of men and
women were fired upon while they were having a party at night.
Those who committed these acts were not penalized for their
crimes. Internal strife ensued as local dissidents continued to defy
the duly constituted authorities.

298

The peasants and workers were socially and economically

dislodged due to societal constraints. There were instances wherein
the landlords backed by their civilian guards, coerced their tenants
into signing 50-50 agreements, with crop expenses paid by the
tenants. This was inconsistent with Republic Act No. 34 (approved
on September 30, 1946), which gave the tenants a better share in the
rice harvests, with 70% for tenants and 30% for the landlord.
Fraudulent practices like takipan, which consisted in paying 100%
interest; talinduwa, consisted in paying 50% interest on a loan; and
pasunod, where the peasant was forced to borrow from his landlord
whether he liked it or not, continued to oppress the masses.
Postwar unionism became active. In 1948, the Committee on
Labor Organization (CLO) unions led strikes in large corporations
such as the Philippine Refining Company, Benguet Consolidated
Mines, Manila Trading Company, the Luzon Stevedoring
Company, and Franklin Baker in Laguna.
After the CLO's initial successes, the Partido Komunista ng
Pilipinas (PKP) members in the organizing committee began to
invite non-affiliated labor leaders to join. Cipriano Cid who was
then the first CLO president was succeeded in 1947 by Amado
Hernandez.
President Roxas incessantly undertook other activities to
promote the people's welfare. On April 15, 1948, President Roxas
made a public statement on the reaffirmation of Filipino loyalty to
the United States at the Kelly Theater in Clark Air Base, Pampanga.
The audience enthusiastically received his speech. At that time, he
was no longer feeling well. By evening, his condition became
worse. At around 9:30 p.m., he died of heart failure at the residence
of Major General E. L. Eubank at Clark Field.
Two days later, Vice-President Elpidio Quirino took his oath of
office as President of the Philippines, serving the unexpired term of
the late President Roxas. His first official act was the proclamation

of a state of mourning throughout the country for the former Chief

Executive.

2. Quirino Administration (1948-53)

President Elpidio Quirino took the task of resolving the peace
and order situation of the country so that economic mobilization
could be achieved. The President saw his mission as restoring the
people's faith in government. To realize this objective, the President
sent his brother, former Judge Antonio Quirino to have a dialogue
with Taruc and his men to know what the Huks wanted.
Through the representatives of the Manila Chronicle, I. P.
Soliongco and a photographer, the meeting with Taruc was set on
June 6 in a barrio between the towns of San Miguel and Baliuag,
Bulacan. The negotiations were not readily disclosed to the public.
Taruc allegedly entered into an agreement with Judge Quirino,
which led to his jubilant entry to Manila.
On June 21, Taruc went to Malacanang and in his presence,
President Quirino issued a proclamation granting amnesty to all
Huk and PKM leaders and members. The amnesty given was
absolute and covered crimes of rebellion, sedition, illegal
association, assault, resistance, and disobedience to persons in
authority.
The Huks agreed to surrender their arms and ammunitions to
duly constituted authorities within a period of 50 days following
the amnesty grant. Taruc resumed his seat in Congress and
collected his three years' back salaries.
Three hours after the 50-day period, a clash between the 507th
MP Company and a band of 50 Huks occurred in a barrio of
Cabanatuan. Fighting between the military and the Huks ensued.
Taruc accused the Quirino administration of bad faith when it
refused to give the peasants on- the-spot permits for possessing

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firearms, which they need for self-defense. He denounced the

noncompliance of the government to the agreement, which was
approved by Judge Quirino. According to him it included the
following: scrapping of the Bell Trade Act; no resumption of trade
with Japan; division of large estates for distribution to tenants;
release of all Huk prisoners; industrialization; and no military bases
agreement with the United States. Judge Quirino disproved Taruc's
allegations.
The Huk rebellion became more intense in 1949 to 1950. The
Huks continued terrorizing Central Luzon and the provinces
around Manila. They believed that programs regarding land reform
were not instituted. There was no breakup of vast landed estates.
The government did not release more than 600 imprisoned Huks
and PKMs.
The Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP) decided to place their
main emphasis on an armed struggle. The PKP worked out a
systematic expansion program and changed the Hukbalahap to
Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan (HMB) or Army of National
Liberation.
The peace and order contingency reached its climax when on
April 28, 1949, Mrs. Aurora Aragon Quezon, the late President
Quezon's wife, her daughter, Baby, and 10 others were ambushed
in Bongabon, Nueva Ecija. Taruc denied any Huk involvement in
the incident.
In the presidential elections of November 8,1949, President
Quirino was elected, besting Jose P. Laurel (Nacionalista Party) and
former Senate President Jose Avelino (rebel Liberal). He promised
to restore the people's faith in the government.
President Quirino created the President's Action Committee on
Social Amelioration (PACSA) to aid the needy families, the Labor
Management Advisory Board, to advise him on labor matters and
the Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration

(ACCFA) to help the farmers market their crops. Rural banks were
also established in the rural areas to facilitate credit facilities.
President Quirino also launched his "Total Economic Mobilization
Program" to employ natural resources, manpower, and technical
knowledge for economic progress.
Nongovernmental organizations were also given approval from
the administration. In 1949, the Philippine Jaycees (Junior Chamber
of Commerce) was organized. It is best known for the selection of
the TOYM (Ten Outstanding Young Men) in various fields of
endeavor. In promoting news and information, the Philippine
News Service, the first news agency in the country was established
in 1950.
In 1951, Fort Santiago was declared a national shrine. During
the Spanish era, this served as a detention cell where many
Filipinos suspected of rebellion died. It served the same purpose
during the Japanese occupation.
In the realm of diplomacy, President Quirino impressed foreign
heads of states and world statesmen by his intelligence. He
represented the Republic in his official travels to the United States,
Europe, and Southeast Asia.
The Bell Mission was sent by the United States to survey all
aspects of the Philippine economy. It found out that the country
had low income, excessive volume of imports, misdirected
investment, mounting deficits, and corruption in the government.
The Bell Report recommended the following: improvement of
production, higher taxes, a more efficient collection of government
revenues, a minimum wage law, a tax on the sale of foreign
exchange, reforms in public administration, and land reform.
The principal item of the Bell Report was the recommendation
that the United States grant $250 million in economic aid provided
that the Philippine Government would implement the Mission's
suggested programs. To secure this aid, President Quirino had to

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accept the recommendations of his American advisers. Thus, on

November 14,1950, the Quirino-Foster Agreement was signed
wherein the Americans would decide on how the Philippine money
would be spent. Under the provision of technical cooperation, the
Philippines had to accept American overseers in various
departments, especially those dealing with military, economic, and
educational matters.
The U.S. Pentagon-State Department sent the Melby Mission to
the Philippines to look into the military equipment needs of the
Philippine Armed Forces and to set up a program for improving its
counter-insurgency capability. The Joint U.S. Military Assistance
Group (JUSMAG) was assigned the task of implementing the Melby
Mission's recommendations, especially on its anti-Huk campaign.
Strict security measures were implemented to check rebel
activities. HMB suspects were arrested and taken to Camp Murphy.
Ramon
Magsaysay, the Secretary of National Defense, based his activities
on the government's objective in eliminating the HMB threat.
Secretary Magsaysay urged President Quirino to suspend the writ
of habeas corpus to be able to detain the Communist suspects
beyond the six-hour limit pending the filing of charges.
President Quirino sent Magsaysay to meet a rebel leader,
Commander Arthur or Taciano Rizal who wanted to surrender.
Rizal told Magsaysay about certain high ranking rebel officers who
were operating in Manila. The Military Intelligence Service (MIS) of
the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) worked to hunt down
the nerve center of the HMB Politburo, the administrative body of
the HMB Central Committee.
Before dawn of October 18,1950, 22 units of the Armed Forces,
aided by the Manila Police raided several places simultaneously.
Among those arrested were Atty. Jose Lava, Federico Bautista,
Simeon Rodriguez, Salome Cruz, Ramon Espiritu, Angel Baking,

and others. Important rebel documents were taken and presented

as evidence in court. The Manila Court of First Instance, presided
by Judge Oscar Castelo pronounced them guilty of the crime of
rebellion. They were sentenced to life imprisonment. This resulted
to the demoralization of a number of HMB members. Many
surrendered and were brought to Mindanao for rehabilitation.
In September 1951, the Philippine government signed a peace
treaty with Japan. However, in early 1952, the agreement was
suspended because the Philippines demanded $8 billion in war
damages. Pending the conclusion of talks on the issue, the
Philippine legislature refused to ratify the peace treaty.
In the last days of the Quirino administration, Moises Padilla, a
Nacionalista Party candidate for town mayor, was mauled and
murdered. After a painstaking investigation, Magsaysay ordered
the arrest of Negros Governor Rafael Lacson, allegedly involved in
the crime. As a result, Magsaysay unquestionably turned out to be
the hero of the people or "man of the masses" for his crusade for
peace and justice.
Magsaysay was able to project his image to the public as a
simple and dedicated man. When the proper opportunity came,
Magsaysay resigned from his cabinet position and joined the
opposition, the Nacionalista Party, which subsequently nominated
him as the presidential standard bearer. This time, he would run
against the Chief Executive.
Magsaysay's presidential campaign was characterized by his
emphasis on both the barrio and the masses. He moved from barrio
to barrio and listened to the grievances of the common people. He
shared with them his humble meals and projected himself as a
friend of the people. He became more popular with his slogan,
"land for the landless."
To ensure peaceful, clean, and honest elections throughout the
country, the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL)

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was formally inaugurated in August 1951 with Jaime Ferrer, as the

director. Throughout the Philippines, NAMFREL chapters were
organized. Rallies were held and leaflets were distributed to urge
citizens to vote freely and be vigilant against possible fraud. In the
1953 presidential elections, the Liberal Party lost. Nacionalista
Party's bet Ramon Magsaysay won a decisive victory over the
incumbent president.

3. Magsaysay Administration (1953-57)

On December 30,1953, Ramon Magsaysay and Carlos P. Garcia
were inducted into office at the Luneta amidst a million spectators.
Both of them were dressed in barong tagalog. President Magsaysay
opened the gates of the Malacanang Palace to the masses. He used
the basi, an Ilokano drink, instead of the customary foreign liquor to
exchange toasts with foreign diplomats. He banned nepotism.
Moreover, he prohibited the naming of towns, plazas, bridges, and
avenues after him.
As President, Magsaysay was empowered to purchase large
estates and distribute land to tenant farmers. To implement his land
reform, three legislations were made. The Agricultural Tenancy Act
of 1954 resulted to the shift of share tenancy system to leasehold
system. This law also provided the reduction of land rentals as well
as the prohibition of ejection of tenants except for just cause. The
Court of Agrarian Relations was also created to determine if there
was a just cause in the ejection of tenant. The Land Reform Act of
1955 was also passed to improve landlord-tenant relations.
The Presidential Assistant for Community Development
(PACD) was also established to ensure rural development. The
PACD was created for increased productivity, building of feeder
roads, and improvement of government services in the barrios in
the field of health and education.

Community roads and irrigation projects were expanded.

Agricultural experts were sent to the barrios to instruct farmers in
improved agricultural production. Loans were extended to farmers
through the Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Financing
Administration (ACCFA). Marketing associations, known as
Farmers Cooperative and Marketing Associations (FACOMAs)
were organized throughout the country. The legislation approved
by the Congress on August 11, 1955 empowered the President to
break up large landed estates. Lands were to be distributed to
tenant farmers.
Some public lands were also distributed to qualified settlers.
During the first year of the administration 28,000 land patents,
covering 241,000 hectares were issued. The following year, the
number of land patents was increased to 33,075. In 1955, the
National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA)
resettled some 8,800 families in 22 settlement projects.
It was during Magsaysay's term that Japan agreed to pay war
reparations brought about by World War II amounting to $800
million to the Philippines over a 20-year period.
Mitigation of peasant unrest became the most successful
achievement of the Magsaysay administration. Early in 1954,
President Magsaysay secretly sent Benigno "Ninoy" S. Aquino, Jr., a
journalist of the Daily Mirror and known Filipino war
correspondent in Korea, to confer with Taruc.
After four months of negotiations, Taruc on May 17, 1954
unconditionally surrendered to the government and duly
recognized the authority of President Magsaysay. Taruc was tried
in court and sentenced to 12 years in jail. Many of his men likewise
surrendered or were arrested, except Dr. Jesus Lava (later became
the chief of the Communist Party of the Philippines), who was
captured in May 1964 in a house on P. Leoncio St., Manila. The back
of rebellion fell into government custody.

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To counteract the communist activities in the Philippines and

the rest of neighboring countries in the Southeast Asian region the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was established in
Manila. On September 8, 1954, the SEATO, patterned after the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was founded with the
following member-states: Australia, France, Great Britain, New
Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States.
Senator Claro M. Recto had been lukewarm to the idea of
SEATO, for such organization might unnecessarily provoke some
Asian neighbors. He was also against the commitment of Filipino
troops in foreign wars particularly in Indochina. On the Senate
floor, Recto mentioned that President Magsaysay had committed
the Philippines in excess of his constitutional authority.
Recto opposed Magsaysay on several issues. This included the
Foreign Investment Bill, which allowed private U.S. investment in
the Philippines, labeling it as another American scheme to impede
the country's economic development.
Another issue that Recto criticized was about the signing of the
Laurel-Langley Agreement that took place on December 15,1954,
signed by Senator Jose Laurel and James Langley in Washington
D.C. This agreement provided for the gradual abolition of free
trade between the U.S. and the Philippines from January 1, 1956 to
July 3, 1974. According to him, such agreement would perpetuate
the status of the Philippines as an economic satellite.
Recto's Rizal Bill, which proposed to make Rizal's Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo compulsory in all universities and
colleges was opposed in the Senate by Decoroso Rosales, brother of
Archbishop Rosales; Mariano Cuenco, brother of Archbishop
Cuenco; and Francisco Rodrigo, former president of Catholic
Action. Their contention was that the measure would violate
freedom of conscience and religion.

On May 12, 1956 the controversial bill was finally approved by

a substitute measure authored by Senator Laurel and based on the
proposals of Senators Roseller T. Lim and Emmanuel Pelaez. It was
now possible for students to be exempted from using the
unexpurgated edition of the Noli and Fili on grounds of religious
beliefs. By virtue of Republic Act No. 1425, the Rizal Bill was signed
as a law on August 26,1956.
President Magsaysay, who was hoping for reelection died in a
fatal airplane crash at Mt. Manunggal in Cebu on March 17,1957.
The next day, March 18th, Vice-President Carlos P. Garcia was
inducted into office to complete the last eight months of Magsaysay
in office.
In the presidential elections of November 12,1957, Garcia ran
under the Nacionalista Party with Jose Laurel, Jr. as his running
mate. Jose Yulo and Congressman Diosdado Macapagal of the
Liberal Party; Manuel Manahan and Vicente Araneta of the
Progressive Party; and Senator Claro M. Recto and Lorenzo Tariada
of the Lapiang Makabarisa (Nationalist Citizens Party) ran for
President and Vice-President, respectively.
The election of 1957 was recorded in history as one of the
noisiest and most expensive. Garcia won his four-year term as
president, but his Liberal Party rival defeated his running mate.
Voters were allowed to split their votes for president and vicepresident.

4. Garcia Administration (1957-61)

On December 30, 1957, President Carlos P. Garcia and VicePresident Diosdado Macapagal were inducted into office.
Underscoring the socioeconomic problems that confronted the
country, President Garcia anchored his program of government in
austerity, which involves temperate spending, less imports, and less

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extravagant consumption. He was instrumental in pressing the

Philippine case in the United States for war damage claims arising
from World War II.
President Garcia expressed himself as against alien domination
in the national economy. On August 28,1958, the National
Economic Council passed Resolution No. 204, officially
promulgating the Filipino First policy of the administration. The
resolution called for the adoption of guidelines giving preferential
treatment to Filipino businessmen. Despite pressure from the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), President Garcia refused to
liberalize import controls.
Not surprisingly, Garcia's nationalistic policies caused
disapproval from foreign business quarters. The American
Chamber of Commerce vehemently opposed the measure. A. V. H.
Hartendorp, editor of the American Chamber of Commerce Journal,
mentioned that the passage of the NEC resolution would willfully
destroy existing industry. The
Filipino Chamber of Commerce resigned from the International
Chamber of Commerce because of the latter's opposition to the
policy.
On November 16,1958, a coup d' etat plan of a group of military
men was revealed by Bartolome Cabangbang, Congressman from
Garcia's home province of Bohol. According to Cabangbang, the
initial steps consisted of a propaganda campaign to brand Garcia as
a communist supporter and to build up Defense Secretary Jesus
Vargas as the heroic defender of the Philippine democracy in the
1951,1953,1955, and 1957 elections.
Garcia's administration was also criticized for graft and
corruption. Cabangbang claimed that the coup planners had not
gone beyond the first stage of their schemes because they could not
get the support of the armed forces.

As a result of the publications of Cabangbang's revelations, a

libel suit was filed against him by Colonel Nicanor Jimenez, one of
those alleged to have been involved. Cabangbang won the case.
Secretary Vargas and the Chief of Staff, General Alfonso Arellano,
later resigned.
Nevertheless, a considerable number of accomplishments may
be attributed to the Garcia administration. International goodwill
by state visits to Japan, the United States, South Vietnam, and
Malaysia were also made stronger.There was the revival of Filipino
culture. Filipino folk dance groups like the Bayanihan Dance
Troupe were encouraged. The government sponsored the annual
Republic Cultural Heritage Awards for Filipino scientists, artists,
musicians, fiction writers, and historians. The Dr. Jose Rizal
Centennial Commission was created to supervise the compilation of
writings of Dr. Rizal.
From the 1950s to 1969, Carlos "Botong" Francisco, a modernist
became popular for his work on paintings and murals. He
portrayed scenes from history and characters from Philippine
folklore such as Mariang Makiling. He did the mural for the Manila
City Hall. Hernando R. Ocampo, Vicente Manansala, and Cesar
Legaspi also became known in the art scene. In sculpture, Napoleon
Abueva became a byword among art enthusiasts. He uses a wide
variety of materials like wood, stone, metals, and a combination of
these. Comic strips reflected the concerns of the times as in Kenkoy
by Tony Velasquez, Darna and Captain Barbell by Mars Ravelo,
Kalabog en Bosyo and Asyong Aksaya by Larry Alcala.
In the presidential election of November 14,1961, the results
showed that Garcia's zealous campaign had not garnered adequate
electoral support. Graft and corruption in the bureaucracy
continued to plague the society. The administration failed to stop
inflation, smuggling, and criminality. President Garcia lost his bid
for reelection. The Liberal Party once again mounted into power.

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5. Macapagal Administration (1961-65)

On December 30, 1961, Diosdado Macapagal with his running
mate Emmanuel Pelaez were inducted into office. In addressing the
Congress on January 22,1962, President Macapagal targeted the
following areas for his administration: self-sufficiency in the staple
food of the people, conditions that will provide more income and a
well-formulated socioeconomic program. He promised to
strengthen the sense of morality of government by instituting
modes of reform and set the example of honest and simple living.
On the eve of the turnover of Malacanang to him, Garcia
appointed more than 200 of his followers to some important
positions in the government. One of these was that of the Central
Bank Governor. It was given to former Secretary of Finance
Dominador Aytona by outgoing President Garcia. Macapagal
appointed Andres Castillo to the said position. Both appointees
held office at the same building. On January 2, 1962, the Philippine
Constabulary Rangers, called in by Castillo through Defense
Secretary Macario Peralta, besieged the building to throw out
Aytona.
Aytona then filed with the Supreme Court an appeal for the
issuance of a writ of prohibition and mandamus with preliminary
injunction to pull out Castillo from the Central Bank Governor's
chair. The Supreme Court in its decision, upheld Castillo as the
legitimate governor of the Central Bank.
When Macapagal occupied Malacanang, he vowed that he
would root out graft and corruption in the government. High
government officials, from cabinet to congressman were constantly
the focus of public attention owing to rumors of illegal transactions
involving million of pesos.

On March 3, 1962, Secretary of Justice Jose W. Diokno ordered

the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) agents to raid the offices
of the Industrial and Business Management Corporation on San
Luis Street (now Teodoro M. Kalaw St.). Arrested were Harry S.
Stonehill and his associates John L. and Robert P. Brooks. The NBI
raided some forty widely scattered business establishments owned
by Stonehill.
Seized during the raids were huge amounts of cash, electronic
devices, which included telephone-tapping instruments and
telephone-jamming device, and most importantly, the so-called Blue
Book, a small orange book containing the names of persons in and
outside the government, who allegedly received various sums from
Stonehill.
During the congressional investigation of the Stonehill case,
President Macapagal ordered the immediate deportation of
Stonehill and Robert P. Brooks since their presence constitutes a
menace to the welfare and security of the country. The order was
severely criticized by many. Senator Arturo M. Tolentino, a
Nacionalista, called the presidential order a dangerous precedent.
Six months after his election, President Macapagal issued an
executive order shifting Philippine Independence Day from the
traditional July 4 to June 12, the day, when in 1898, Philippine
Independence from Spain was proclaimed at Kawit, Cavite by
Emilio Aguinaldo. Former President Aguinaldo was the guest of
honor during the first Independence Day celebration in 1962. July 4
was then declared Philippine-American Friendship Day.
In continuing his campaign for nationalism, President
Macapagal encouraged the use of the Filipino Language in
diplomatic passports, diplomatic credentials, school diplomas,
traffic signs and stamps as well as naming of typhoons. It was d
uring his term that the Philippines officially filed her claim over
North Borneo (Sabah) on June 22,1962.

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President Macapagal, who loved to call himself the "poor boy

from Lubao," saw the need of beneficial changes in the countryside.
He was called the "Champion of the Common Man" because of his
accomplishments in improving the plight of the masses. On August
8, 1963, Republic Act No. 3844 or the Agricultural Land Reform
Code was signed into a law after stormy debates in the Congress.
Under the Code, share tenancy system in agriculture had to be
replaced with agricultural leasehold system. It provided for the
purchase of private farmlands and distribution of lots to landless
tenants on easy terms of payment. Experiment in leasehold system
was conducted in 12 towns in Central Luzon, declared as land
reform areas by President Macapagal. Plaridel, Bulacan became the
first land reform area. The new system had reportedly improved
the living conditions in the land reform areas.
The President also sponsored notable projects like the
construction of the North and South Expressway, housing for
soldiers and government employees, beautification of Rizal Park,
and the establishment of the Philippine Veterans Bank.
In external affairs, the Philippines had been cultivating closer
relations with Asian countries. President Macapagal proposed a
conference among the leaders of the Philippines, Indonesia, and
Malaya. The conference held in Manila from June 7 to 11,1963
resulted to a 16-point agreement known as the Manila Accord
approved on July 31 and was signed by President Macapagal,
President Sukarno of Indonesia, and Prime Minister Tunku Abdul
Rahman of the Federation of Malaya. Then, on August 6, the three
national leaders issued the Manila Declaration, which laid down
the principles that would direct their countries known as
MAPH1L1NDO (Malaya, Philippines, and Indonesia).
In preparation for the creation of Malaysia in 1963, which
would include Federation of Malaya and former British crown
colonies North Borneo (Sabah) and Sarawak, President Macapagal

refused to recognize the establishment of Malaysia to force the

latter to recognize the country's territorial claim to Sabah.
In the 17th century, Sabah was given to the Philippines as a part
of the agreement between the sultan of Sulu and sultan of Brunei
until it was leased in 1878 to British North Borneo Company, which
had no authority to bestow Sabah to Malaysia. The contract of lease
of 1878 used the word "padjack," which means "lease" according to
Dutch, American, and Spanish scholars. The British had translated
it to "cession."
The Philippines, in an attempt to resolve the Sabah issue
suggested that the question be elevated to World Court for decision,
but the Malaysian leaders refused. The Cobbold Commission
formed by the British and Malayan government determined that
about two-thirds of Sabah residents wanted to join Malaysia. A
United Nations mission sent to Borneo held a poll regarding the
Sabah territorial claim issue. It had a similar finding. The Federation
of Malaysia was established. On September 16, 1963, the Philippines
severed diplomatic ties with Malaysia. Malaysia closed its embassy
in Manila as well. MAPHILINDO ceased to operate.
The President's integrity and impressive record of
accomplishments made it possible for him to lead his people and
withstand the pressing needs of the nation. Despite the
government's concern to solve the problem of peace and order, graft
and corruption as well as inflation, the Nacionalista Party took
advantage of public displeasure on some issues like the
administration's decontrol policy, which favored foreign investors
and the floating rate of the peso. Instead of P2 to $1, the peso
devaluated to the dollar at a P3.90.
Many hopeful candidates exercised various political schemes in
upcoming elections. Senate President Ferdinand E. Marcos had his
film biography shown titled Iginuhit ng Tadhana (Written by Fate). It

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did a lot to project a good image of the leading character in the

movie. People came to know the life story of Marcos.
Senate President Marcos was born in Sarrat, Ilocos Norte in
1917. While he was still a law student he was incriminated in a
politically motivated murder in 1937. Marcos was convicted in
November 1939 for the assassination of Assemblyman Julio
Nalundasan, one of his father's political rivals. In the Laoag
Provincial Jail he spent time preparing his defense. Released on bail,
he graduated at the University of the Philippines (U.P.), topped the
bar, appealed his own case before the Supreme Court, and won
acquittal. During World War II, he served as an intelligence officer
of the liberation forces. In 1949, he was elected to the House of
Representatives and to the Senate in 1959 under the Liberal Party.
In 1964, he joined the Nacionalista Party and became the party's
presidential bet. His wife Imelda and her circle of "Blue Ladies"
gave him full support. His popular maxim, "This nation can be great
again," won the hearts of the Filipino people. In the presidential
election of November 9, 1965, the Liberal Party lost. The
Nacionalista Party once more became the party in power. Marcos
won a big majority.

6. Marcos Administration (1965-1986)

For more than 40 million Filipinos, what they wanted to see at
that time was whether or not the present government can provide
the leadership necessary to restore peace and harmony in the
society. During the first term of his administration (1965-1969),
President Ferdinand E. Marcos met the enormous task of
restructuring the country's social and economic conditions.
Prior to his term of office, the national treasury was primarily
empty due to heavy government spending. The government-owned
bank itself, the Philippine National Bank (PNB) was nearly

insolvent, due to unpaid loans to government corporations, which

amounted to more than P400 million. President Marcos was able to
stabilize the government finances by means of effective collection of
taxes and getting loans from foreign banks and governments.
To achieve self-sufficiency in rice and corn, financial aid and
technological assistance were extended to farmers. More aid to
agriculture was offered by the government through the
construction of more irrigation systems, cultivation of a rice variety
called LR8 better known as Miracle Rice and other fast growing rice
seeds. This Miracle Rice propelled the Green Revolution in rice
production in many Third World countries.
Building of more roads, bridges, schoolhouses, and other
structures like the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP)
complex in 1969, which consists of a theater for the performing arts,
museum, and an art library were likewise done to best serve the
needs of a growing population.
Vigorous campaign against smuggling, kidnapping, drug
trafficking, and other crime syndicates was also given emphasis,
since the peace and order situation was quite alarming owing to the
rising incidence of criminality.
Rapid development and economic progress characterized
President Marcos' first term. In general, the people were satisfied by
the President's performance, thus resulting to his reelection in 1969.
He was the only President of the Philippines to be reelected for a
second term. On December 30,1969, he took his oath of office in the
native language, the first ever for a Philippine president.
President Marcos also met opposing views during his first term
in office. The people were surprised when he allowed the
Philippines to give military support to the United States in the
Vietnam War. Late in 1964, when Marcos was still the Senate
President, he opposed the bill providing for the sending of a
military engineering battalion to Vietnam. He made clear that the

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sending of Philippine combat troops to war is unconstitutional.

Based on the 1935 Philippine Constitution, the country renounces
war as an instrument of national policy.
No less than 3,000 members of the youth sector demonstrated
on the first day of the Manila Summit scheduled from October 24 to
25,1966. They rallied near the American Embassy and the Manila
Hotel, where the U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson was billeted.
They denounced the participation of the country in the Vietnam
War as well as condemned the abuses and brutality of the police
who lost their temper at the height of the political protest.
The police reacted by filing charges against 41 students for
breach of peace and assault. President Marcos ordered the
dropping of the charges against the students to put the situation in
order.
The Summit was held regarding the settlement of the war in
Vietnam. Delegates from the United States, Thailand, Australia,
New Zealand, South Vietnam, and South Korea were invited. The
conference resulted to the preparation of three documents: a joint
communique; a declaration of peace and progress in Asia and the
Pacific; and the goals of freedom.
The joint communique pertained to the summary of the
discussions of the seven nations, with emphasis on conditions in
South Vietnam, the search for peace, economic stability, and
progress. The declaration of peace and progress included the
following ideals: that aggression must not succeed; that the bonds
of poverty, illiteracy and disease be broken; that the economic,
social, and cultural cooperation within the Asian and Pacific region
be strengthened; and that there would be reconciliation and peace
throughout Asia. The third document, "The Goals of Freedom,"
contained a commitment to achieve the ideals contained in the
second document.

President Marcos succeeded in including in the communique

that aid to South Vietnam refers not to military but to the economic
and social assistance. Any Philippine effort to increase her aid to
South Vietnam shall be subjected to constitutional and
congressional ethics.
Be that as it may, Marcos was reelected to an unprecedented
second full term in 1969. He based his campaign on his
achievements, which include the increase of gross domestic
product, expansion of infrastructure, and the breakthrough in rice
production in which made us an exporter of the product. His
popularity started to decline due to perceived dishonesty in the
1969 campaign, alleged government corruption, and worsening
peace situation.
With the global economic crisis brought about by the rising oil
price, the Philippine economy was adversely affected in the 1970s.
Aside from economic recession, civil unrest caused by the
ascendancy of dirty politics, graft and corruption continued to
afflict the nation. There was also the upsurge of communism and
subversion. The increasing gap between the rich and the poor
became more evident. The 1935 Philippine Constitution was seen
by the Marcos administration as unable to cope with the new
socioeconomic problems of the country.
Due to the deplorable conditions of the country, student
militarism became intense. Realizing the need for unification and
the importance of knowing the issues, student organizations,
councils, and fraternities were formed.
Among the militant groups were the Kabataang Makabayan (KM)
and the National Union of Students of the Philippines (NUSP).
Professors and other intellectuals played a major role in providing
support. Some had formed and headed their own organizations
and provided some radical ideas through lectures, meetings,
symposia, and classroom discussions. Aside from them, various

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labor groups closely associated themselves with student

movements.
In January 1970, President Marcos met NUSP President Edgar
"Edjop" Jopson of the Ateneo de Manila and other student leaders
in a dialogue at Malacanang. This took place four days after a riot
took place following the State of the Nation Address of the
President on January 26.
These youth leaders were calling for a nonpartisan
Constitutional Convention. They wanted an assurance that the
president would not run for a third term for this is sanctioned by
the present constitution. However, the dialogue was unproductive.
Another confrontation occurred between riot police and about
2,000 demonstrators outside the Palace. The demonstrators were
attempting to ram a fire truck through Gate 4 of Malacanang. This
is now known as the "Battle of Mendiola." By dawn, six students
had already been killed. The press dubbed these events as the
beginning of the First Quarter Storm.
Protests and riots continued. After holding a People's Congress
in Plaza Miranda, around 3,000 youths and militant groups
attacked the U.S. embassy in Manila in February. They were
accusing the United States with being a fascist imperialist power
supporting the Marcos administration. Various schools in Manila
became nurseries of student activism.
The following month, the Movement for a Democratic
Philippines organized a People's March, a 23-kilometer march from
Quezon City- Manila Rotonda along the streets of Manila and
ending at the Post Office building (Plaza Lawton) in Manila.
Tt was in the 1960s that President Marcos allegedly created a
military force composed of Muslim youths to forcibly take Sabah.
The invasion did not take place. The Muslim young recruits were
killed by their commanders after they have discovered the real

reason of their training. The marchers were prevented from

entering the U.S. embassy.
By the early 1970s two separatist groups, the Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF) and the communist New People's Army
(NPA) waged guerrilla warfare against the Marcos administration.
Nur Misuari, a respected intellectual and campus radical at the
University of the Philippines (in the mid-1960s), formally
established the MNLF in an island off the coast of Perak, Malaysia
in 1971. Muslim secessionist movement in Mindanao was gaining
ground. Misuari was among the first group of 90 trainees who
worked for the independence of the Moro nation (Bangsa Moro).
Founded two years thereafter was the National Democratic
Front (NDF), serving as the political arm of the Communist Party of
the Philippines (CPP). It was given the duty to make strategic
alliances with militant, government, and other opposition groups.
The NPA became the military force (Hukbo) of the CPP.
The political dissension reached its peak in the so-called "Plaza
Miranda Massacre" on the evening of August 21, 1971 during the
proclamation rally of the Liberal Party (LP) candidates for the local
elections scheduled on November 8,1971.
Unidentified men on the platform hurled two fragmentation
grenades and killed 8 persons and injured 120, including most of
the opposition senatorial candidates. Among those injured were
Jovito Salonga, John Osmena, Eddie llarde, Ramon Mitra, and Eva
Estrada Kalaw. (The CPP-NPA under the direction of Jose Maria
Sison admitted decades after that they had caused the bombing.
Sison had anticipated that the split of political leadership in a
revolutionary situation would lead to a communist takeover).
President Marcos blamed the communists for the bombing
incident. He vowed to impose martial law if the communist attacks
persist. On the same day, President Marcos issued Proclamation
No. 880, suspending the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus in

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order to maintain peace and order and preserve the au thority of

the State. However on January 12, 1972, the President restored this
constitutional right, except for those who were already in detention.
Terrorist bombings of public and private property and
residences ensued. On September 11, two explosions hit the main
office of the Manila Electric Company. Assassination attempts on
President Marcos, Congressman Eduardo Cojuangco, Senator Jose
Roy, and Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile were allegedly to be
carried out by the rebels. These destabilization efforts would
ostensibly warrant the imposition of martial law in the country.
Senator Ninoy Aquino who became the most outspoken critic
of the Marcos administration in various issues, mentioned in his
privileged speech, that sources in the Armed Forces had revealed to
him plans for Oplan Sagittarius, which would place Manila and its
environs under martial law. Soon this revelation became a dismal
reality.
Facing leftist insurgency and mass unrest, Marcos declared
martial law. On September 23, 1972, at 7:30 p.m., President Marcos
appeared on nationwide radio and television to formally announce
that he had placed the entire Philippines under martial law as of 9
p.m. of the previous day.
The implementation of martial law in the country was pursuant
to Proclamation No. 1081, which he had signed on September
21,1972. This law was declared by the President "to save the
Republic" from lawlessness and civil strife. Some sectors believed
that President Marcos declared martial law as his second term was
about to end. The constitution was suspended. The Congress was
dissolved and President Marcos governed by issuing presidential
decrees, letters of instruction, and other rules deemed favorable to
the society.
Under martial law, President Marcos being the Chief Executive
had emergency powers. The President suspended the writ of habeas

corpus and curtailed the freedom of speech, press and assembly. He

also imposed strict implementation of curfew.
Political opponents and detractors were arrested and detained.
Among them were Senators Ninoy Aquino, Jose Diokno and
Ramon Mitra, Teofisto Guingona, Jose Nolledo, Jose Mari-Velez
(radio-television commentator), and journalist Maximo Soliven.
Mass media were closed and placed under military control.
Some of them were later permitted to reopen but under strict
censorship. Even public utilities and industries were seized and
placed under.government control. These included the Manila
Electric Company (Meralco), Philippine Long Distance Telephone
Company, and the Iligan Integrated Steel Mill.
Student demonstrations, public political meetings, and labor
strikes were strictly prohibited. All schools were closed for one
week. Curfew was imposed from midnight to 4 a.m. Travel ban was
imposed on Filipinos who wanted to go abroad, except on official
missions. The ban was lifted on August 22,1977, together with the
curfew.
A force of nearly 1,000 men attacked Marawi City on October
21,1972. The assailants called themselves the Mindanao
Revolutionary Council for Independence, led by a former police
chief of Marawi City. After the incident, Nur Misuari and his
Bangsa Moro Army (BMA) likewise initiated armed struggle in
Sulu, Cotabato, and Zamboanga. Muslim separatist movement in
South began in the 1970s. After the country gained independence,
the Filipino government has encouraged non-Muslims to move to
Mindanao. The Filipino-Muslims view this policy as designed to
de-Islamize the region and to take control of the island's resources.
This resulted to years of bloody encounters between the
government and the separatist groups.
Amidst confusion in the country, President Marcos outlined his
land reform program in accordance to Presidential Decree No. 27.

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This law provides that all tenants whose landlords own more than
seven hectares of rice and corn lands are to be sold at a price twoand-a-half times the average annual production. The eligible tenant
would receive a Certificate of Land Transfer (CLT) identifying his
cultivated area and promising him the right to purchase the land.
President Marcos took forceful steps against the heightening
illegal drug trade. On January 3,1973, he ordered the immediate
execution of Lim Seng by firing squad for drug trafficking. The
highly publicized execution, shown on national television was
meant to serve as a warning for drug dealers.
A new constitution was promulgated. The 1973 Constitution
established a modified parliamentary form of government with the
Prime Minister as the head of the government and the President as
ceremonial head of state. Both were to be elected by the unicameral
National Assembly.
In the plebiscite of January 10-15, 1973, the citizen assemblies,
composed of voters (including the 15-year olds) were reported to
have ratified the constitution by 95% positive majority, in open and
group voting by raising their hands. (The assembly could declare a
quorum with 20 percent attendance). At noon of January 17,1973,
President Marcos signed the constitution and thus, such body of
laws was put into effect.
Mr. Marcos ruled as President and Prime Minister under
martial law powers until 1981. The transitory provisions of the
constitution legalized all decrees, proclamations and orders of the
President, and extended his term of office beyond 1973.
President Marcos sought popular sanction of his acts by
referendums. A referendum held on July 27-28,1973, asked the
people to decide whether they wanted President Marcos to
continue beyond 1973. According to the official results, 90% of the
voters voted yes. President Marcos, moreover, continued exercising

his emergency powers under martial law as approved by 92%

voters in a third referendum held on February 27-28, 1975.
The President claimed that martial law was the prelude to
creating a Bagong Lipunan (New Society) based on new social and
political values. HLs proposed reforms for the building of this New
Society are based on the acronym PLEDGES.
P - Peace and Order
L - Land Reform
E - Economic Development
D - Development of Moral Values
G - Government Reforms
E - Educational Reforms
S - Social Services
To check the abuses of the military men, President Marcos
established the military tribunals to try military officers and men
who commit crimes.
The citizen assemblies used to ratify the constitution and
amendments subsequently became the barangays. The Kabataang
Barangay (Youth
Council) was later added at local, provincial, and national levels of
government, headed by Tmee Marcos, the president's eldest
daughter. At the end of 1975, the Sangguniang Bay an was created
in every town council. The National Legislative Advisory Council
(Batasang Bayan) was created in September 1976.
Before conducting the first national election under Martial Law,
President Marcos implemented a new Election Code of 1978.
Marcos formed the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL or New Society
Movement), which fielded candidates in all regions, headed by
Mrs. Imelda Romualdez Marcos in Metro Manila.
The opposition parties of the past, such as the Liberal Party
boycotted the elections. However, Lakas ng Bayan (Laban or
People's Power) led by former Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. became

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the principal contending party of the KBL for the national elections.
This election brought about a landslide victory for the KBL.
In 1975, the Metro Manila Commission was organized through
Presidential Decree No. 824 to supervise community development
and services in the National Capital Region. Its first governor was
Mrs. Marcos, the First Lady.
Mrs. Marcos sought for the construction of edifices for the
Filipino people. In 1975, the Manila Planetarium, a dome-shaped
structure was inaugurated. It was primarily built for students to
ponder on lessons about celestial bodies while seated.
The Philippine International Convention Center (PICC) was
made operational in 1976. The structure was regarded as the most
modern institution in Asia on world conferences and meetings.
To provide low-cost shelter facilities to urban families, the
BLISS program (Bagong Lipunan Improvement of Sites and
Services) was established on June 11,1978.
President Marcos took steps in liberalizing Philippine policy
toward Communist countries such as the People's Republic of
China (June 9,1975) and the Soviet Union (June 2,1976). He opened
diplomatic relations with Romania and Yugoslavia and granted
permission for Communist traders and vessels to enter the country,
thus, ending a ban that had been in force since 1945.
Relations with the United States continued. The status of the US
military bases was redefined when some amendments to the RPU.S. Military Bases Agreement in 1947 was signed on January
6,1979, where the U.S. acknowledged the sovereignty of the
Philippines over the American military bases and reduced their
total area. The contract also provided that the U.S. would pay
rentals to the Philippines for the use of the bases.
In 1979, through the joint cooperation of the Philippine
government and the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), the Philippine Refugee Processing Center

(PRPC) was established in Morong, Bataan for the war refugees

from Vietnam, Kampuchea, and Laos. In 1980, the Light Rail Transit
Authority was organized to construct the first light railway transit
(LRT) system in the country. This was to ease the problem of traffic
and congestion from Monumento to Baclaran.
Several opposition groups including the church hierarchy
sought for the end of martial law. Urban insurgents carried out
series of bombings in Manila in defiance to military rule.
Finally on January 17, 1981, President Marcos signed
Proclamation No. 2045 ending martial law in the country. Changes
in 1981 gave birth to the "New Republic," historically speaking, the
Fourth Philippine Republic.
On June 16, 1981, the first presidential election after the lifting
of martial law was held. President Marcos (KBL presidential
candidate) won a new six-year term. He prevailed over other
candidatesAlejo Santos of Nacionalista Party and Bartolome
Cabangbang of the Federal Party. Santos was a former guerrilla
leader and defense secretary while Cabangbang was then the
President of the Statehood USA movement.
Opposition to the Marcos administration persisted as the
conditions during the martial law ensued. Protestations against the
administration continued to be restricted under the provisions of
the Presidential Commitment Order (PCO) and arrest and seizure
without warrant orders (ASSO). These laws allowed the president
to order the detention of anyone suspected of subversion or
rebellion.
Senator Benigno Aquino, Jr., a leading oppositionist to
President Marcos was brutally murdered by a shot from behind
while going down the plane of China Airlines (CAL) on August
21,1983 at around 1:00 p.m. When he decided to come back in 1983,
the government tried to stop him, noting that some people wanted

326

to kill him. Yet he was able to fly back to the Philippines upon
returning home from exile in the United States.
Ninoy Aquino, born in 1932 entered politics at the age of 22 and
became the youngest mayor, then governor, and finally a senator of
the Philippines. He was married to Corazon Cojuangco in 1954. He
was imprisoned in 1972 after martial law was declared. He spent
nearly eight years in a military detention cell at Fort Bonifacio.
President Marcos allowed him to leave the country in 1980 and to
move his family to the United States to undergo a heart bypass
surgery.
Upon Aquino's arrival at the Manila International Airport (now
named the Ninoy Aquino International Airport in his honor), he
was shot dead while in the custody of the guards from the Aviation
Security Command (AVSECOM). Government reports placed the
blame on Rolando Galman, the alleged lone gunman. They laid the
body of the assassin near Aquino on the airport tarmac.
The assassination led the country into the forefront of
international news. Thousands of Filipinos sympathized with
Aquino's bereaved family. Many joined his funeral march. His
assassination became a catalyst that united the Filipinos to fight the
evils of dictatorship openly.
The battlecry "Ninoy, hindi ka nag-iisa" (you are not alone) and
other similar slogans were heard in various demonstrations that
had erupted in Metro Manila and other areas in the country. Many
militant and cause- oriented groups were organized. They called for
an end to Marcos regime. These groups included the following:
August Twenty-One Movement (ATOM), Justice for Aquino,
Justice for All QAJA), and Bagong Alyansang Makabayan (BAYAN).
The opposition members of the Batasan took the step in filing a
case for the impeachment of the President for graft and corruption,
culpable violence of the Constitution, gross violation of his oath of
office, and other high crimes. On August 13, 1985, the impeachment

signatories filed the resolution. On the same date, the pregovernment KBL, with the majority vote of 105 (over 55 opposition
members) decided to reject the resolution to impeach the President.
Investigation of Aquino's death and that of his alleged killer,
was assigned to a five-man independent body created pursuant to
Presidential Decree No. 1886 issued by President Marcos on
October 14,1983. The body known as Agrava Fact-Finding Board
(AFFB) was headed by Mrs. Corazon Juliano Agrava, a retired
Court of Appeals Justice. The four other members were
businessman Dante Santos, labor leader Ernesto Herrera, lawyer
Luciano Salazar, and educator Amado Dizon.
After almost two years of investigation, AFFB submitted two
reports to President Marcos the Minority and Majority Reports. The
Minority Report, written by the Chairman alone, submitted on
October 23,1984, stated that the Aquino Murder was a military
conspiracy. It implicated that only Brig. Gen. Luther Custodio
(commander of the AVSECOM) and six other soldiers. Chairman
Agrava cleared General Fabian Ver and Major General Prospero
Olivas of the crime.
The Majority Report signed by all the four members of the
board confirmed that Aquino's murder was a military conspiracy
with a soldier as an assassin but it implicated 26 men in the crime,
including General Ver, Maj. Gen. Olivas, Brig. Gen. Custodio, and
others.
President Marcos referred the two reports to the
Sandiganbayan for trial of the 26 accused people (including one
civilian). The trial of the Aquino-Galman double murder case,
known as the "Trial of the Century," began in February 1985 and
lasted for seven months. On December 2, 1985, the three-member
Sandiganbayan presided over by Justice Manuel Pamaran, released
its verdict unanimously acquitting all the 26 accused. The people
were skeptical on the outcome of the prosecution.

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In 1985, the Philippine political and economic scenario

worsened. There was a slow down of economic activities largely
brought about by the increase of oil price in the world market. In
contrast, the country's traditional exports such as sugar and
coconut oil were experiencing price decline. The government's
recovery scheme, which started in 1984 through Sariling Sikap
livelihood program suffered a setback due to graft and corruption
in the bureaucracy. Foreign investors were apprehensive to expand
resources because of political instability. Furthermore, the antiMarcos demonstrations affected the tourism industry.
To have enough supply of foreign exchange and to restructure
the country's foreign debts, President Marcos negotiated with
foreign creditors, which include the World Bank, International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF). The country's foreign debt has reached $26
billion.
The country's foreign creditors pressured President Marcos to
institute reforms as a condition for the grant of additional economic
and financial help. Since the President needed a new mandate from
the people to carry out a national economic recovery program, the
Batasang Pambansa enacted a law scheduling a special presidential
election on February 7, 1986. This was to prove that Mr. Marcos was
still in control of the situation.
There were several opposition leaders who would like to run
for presidency and one of them was former Senator Salvador "Doy"
Laurel, son of the late President Jose P. Laurel who was nominated
in June 1985 by the United Nationalist Democratic Organization
(UNIDO).
Majority of the opposition and other anti-Marcos groups
proposed Mrs. Corazon "Cory" Aquino, wife of the slain oppositon
leader, be the presidential standard bearer. Mrs. Aquino agreed to
run if at least one milllion people would sign a petition urging her

to run for that position. Joaquin "Chino" Roces, who organized the
Cory Aquino for President Movement (CAPM), was able to obtain
more than a million signatures nationwide.
The snap presidential election of February 7,1986, witnessed for
the first time, a woman candidate under the joint UNIDO-PDPLaban Party (United Nationalist Democratic Organization-People's
Democratic Party- Lakas ng Bayan). Doy Laurel, upon the advice of
Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin decided to sacrifice his presidential
ambition for the sake of a united opposition. He became the vicepresidential candidate.
In the official tallies made by the Commission on Elections
(COMELEC), as certified by the Batasang Pambansa, the MarcosTolentino ticket won. But as tabulated by the National Movement
for Free Elections (Namfrel), with their Operation Quick-Count,
Aquino and Laurel had a margin of around 800,000 votes to win
against the KBL candidates.
There were reports of fraud, ballot box snatching, vote buying,
and intimidation during the snap elections. Thirty computer
workers walked out of the COMELEC tabulation center at the
Philippine International Convention Center (PICC), protesting that
the results were being manipulated.
On February 15, 1986, the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the
Philippines issued a pastoral letter to be read in all Catholic
churches, saying that the government had lost its moral basis due to
pieces of evidence of electoral fraud.
The following day, Cory Aquino led a rally called Tagumpay ng
Bay an (Victory of the People) at the Luneta Grandstand. Over two
million people attended the assembly. She proclaimed a victory for
the people despite the proclamation of Marcos as the winner. She
vowed to lead a civil disobedience campaign against Marcos. She
also allowed the boycott of crony-owned companies and products.
She presented an initial list of crony enterprises that would be the

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target of consumer boycotts. These included the three major

newspapers, the San Miguel commercial empire (which was then
controlled by Eduardo Cojuangco, her cousin but a strong Marcos
supporter) and a number of banks reportedly managed by Marcos
cronies.
While the anti-Marcos sentiment in the country was becoming
more intense, a group of young officers in the Armed Forces of the
Philippines (AFP) was planning to overthrow the Marcos
dictatorship. The group was known as Reform the AFP Movement
(RAM). This movement started in March 1985.
This group of officers who graduated from the Philippine
Military Academy wanted the restoration of professionalism in the
military and to regain its honor and pride. Minister of Defense Juan
Ponce Enrile secretly sympathized with the RAM. The RAM
soldiers were also known as reformists.
Colonel Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan, chief security officer of
Enrile, together with the reformists decided to stage a coup d' etat
after President Marcos and AFP Chief of Staff Fabian C. Ver
faltered to consider RAM's pleadings. Nonetheless, the President
discovered the coup plot. Many of the reformists were arrested.
Consequently, the RAM soldiers sought refuge at the Ministry
of National Defense building at Camp Aguinaldo in Quezon City.
General Fidel V. Ramos, the AFP vice-chief of staff and Philippine
Constabulary Chief, sided with the reformists. He took control of
the Philippine Headquarters at Camp Crame, located across
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) from Camp Aguinaldo.
On February 22,1986, at 6 p.m., Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and
Deputy Chief of Staff, Lt. Gen. Fidel Ramos, gave a press
conference announcing their withdrawal of support for the
President. Minister Enrile admitted that it was Mrs. Aquino who
won the elections. Marcos had won through fraud. He called on
Marcos to step down from his office. He also asked the people to

support the military defectors. Immediately, Jaime Cardinal Sin

through the Radio Veritas, appealed for public support.
On the same day, thousands of people went to Epifanio de los
Santos Avenue (EDSA) to form a human barricade. These protests
were the culmination of people's resistance against the 20-year
Marcos regime. Now known as People Power Revolution (also
known as EDSA Revolution), these nonviolent mass
demonstrations that lasted for four days involved over 200,000
civilians, as well as political and military figures. Men stood and
served as perimeter guards and set up barricades and makeshift
sandbags in case loyalist troops decided to attack. Priests and nuns
led prayer vigils. The people were armed only with prayers,
rosaries, and statues of Mary, the mother of Jesus. The mood in the
street later on became festive, with a number of them bringing their
whole families. Several groups sang Bay an Ko (My Land) and
frequently flashed the LAB AN (fight) sign, an "L" formed with
their thumb and index finger.
On February 23, the Marcos loyalist troops under General Ver
prepared to attack. At about 8 p.m., of the same day, armored tanks
and carriers under the command of Brig. Gen. Artemio Tadiar,
arrived at EDSA in front of Camp Crame to assault the camp.The
soldiers were not able to carry out the plan because of the people
blocking the way. Guns and tanks were met with statues of Mother
Mary, rosaries, flowers, sandwiches, and even hot coffee from
demonstrators.
At dawn, marines captured the Logistics Command inside
Camp Aguinaldo. The 15th Air Force Strike Wing with seven
helicopter gunships led by Colonel Antonio Sotelo decided to
defect to the rebels' side. Reformist soldiers led by Colonel Mariano
Santiago took over Channel 4, the government television station. At
Villamor Air Base, rebel helicopters had already assaulted.
Malacanang was being fired upon.

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Mr. Marcos, by that time was advised by U.S. Senator Paul

Laxalt to "cut now and cut cleanly" meaning that, he should now
step down and leave. Senator Laxalt, a close confidante of U.S.
President Ronald Reagan, was called up by Marcos earlier that day
to get an indication of mood in Washington. President Ronald
Reagan was said to have offered political asylum in the United
States.
On the morning of February 25, Ferdinand Marcos took his oath
of office at the Malacanang Palace grounds. At around 7 a.m., a
clash between the loyal government troops and the reformists took
place. When the snipers stationed at the government-owned
Channel 9 began shooting at the reformists, many rebel soldiers
surged to the station. Before the end of the ceremonies, some
television channels went off the air after the rebels destroyed their
transmission lines. By 9:00 p.m., of the same day, Marcos and his
family and some friends fled Malacanang Palace and were taken by
four U.S. helicopters to Clark Air Base in Pampanga, then to Guam
and finally to Honolulu, Hawaii by U.S. military planes.
Within minutes after the Marcoses had fled, the palace guards
left their posts. The people in front of the Palace gate stormed into
the building. Many Filipinos celebrated the downfall of despotism
after the four-day People Power Movement that prompted
President Marcos to seek refuge in America. Throughout his 20year tenure, Marcos maintained a close alliance with the United
States. When the Marcoses left the Philippines, the country was
burdened with $27 billion in external debt. Ln 1988, Marcos was
indicted by a US grand jury in New York on federal racketeering
charges relating to his years in office. Before he could stand trial,
Marcos died in Honolulu on September 28, 1989. The Philippine
government allowed Imelda Marcos to return to the Philippines
and place Marcos's remains in a refrigerated crypt in Ilocos Norte in
1991.

7. Aquino Administration (1986-1992)

On February 25,1986, Mrs. Corazon C. Aquino took her oath of
office at Club Filipino in San Juan, Metro Manila simultaneous with
the oath-taking ceremonies taking place at the Malacanang Palace
for Mr. Marcos. After the Marcoses had left the palace, President
Aquino immediately worked for the reorganization of the
government. President Aquino is credited primarily for restoring
democracy in the Philippines. The promulgation of a new
constitution in 1987 gave rise to the Fifth Republic.
At the onset of her administration, she formed a provisional
government, restored civil liberties like freedom of speech and
press, released political detainees, dissolved the Batasang
Pambansa, appointed new Supreme Court justices, and ordered the
resignation of incumbent government officials. She established the
Presidential Commission on Government Reorganization (PCGR)
under Luis Villafuerte. The Presidential Commission on Human
Rights (PCHR) was also created under the leadership of former
Senator Jose W. Diokno.
On May 5, 1987, the Commission on Human Rights replaced
the PCHR pursuant to Executive Order No. 163. Aside from its
primordial task to investigate cases of human rights violations
committed during the previous administration, the Human Rights
Commission has the power to examine the administration and
conditions of jails, prisons or detention facilities. The commission
shall also investigate the violations committed by the present
government, as well as private parties.
The Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG)
was also created to recover the ill-gotten wealth taken by corrupt
government officials. This was chaired by former Senator Jovito
Salonga. The private ownership of media was retained but

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newspapers and radio-television stations that were believed to be

owned by Marcos cronies were sequestered. Media companies that
were taken by Marcos were returned to their owners among them,
the ABS-CBN Network of the Lopezes.
The Constitutional Commission, pursuant to Article V of
Proclamation No. 3 (issued on March 25,1986) was assigned to draft
the 1987 Philippine Constitution. With 48 members, under the
chairmanship of Justice Cecilia Munoz-Palma, the Constitutional
Commission convened on June 2, 1986 at the Batasang Pambansa
Building in Diliman, Quezon City.
The proposed constitution was approved by the Constitutional
Commission on the night of October 12,1986, by a vote of 44-2.
Delegate Decoroso Rosales signed subsequently by affixing his
thumbmark at his sickbed on October 14,1986, in favor of the draft.
Delegate Lino Brocka had resigned earlier.
The plebiscite held on February 2, 1987 led to the ratification of
the proposed constitution after the people voted in favor of it. This
body of laws superseded the Freedom Constitution, which had
repealed the 1973 Charter of the Marcos regime. The 1987
Philippine Constitution included a provision limiting the
presidency to a single six-year term.
On May 11, 1987, the first election under the new Constitution
took place. It was for the Members of the Congress. The election of
all members of the city or municipal council was held subsequently
to that of the Congress. The barangay elections were held on March
28,1989.
To improve the living standards in the rural areas, President
Aquino launched the Community and Employment and
Development Program (CEDP). Infrastructure projects as well as
job opportunities were made possible through this program.
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) pursuant to
Republic Act No. 6657 was implemented on June 10,1988. This was

designed to include all agricultural lands not only to lands devoted

to rice and com. This law instituted the Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Program (CARP) to promote justice and industrialization.
From 1988-1989, the Program for Decentralized Educational
Development (PRODED) was instituted in all public elementary
schools to enhance the quality standard of education in the said
level. In secondary education, the Secondary Education
Development Program (SEDP) was likewise adopted.
The launching of a five-year program by the Department of
Tourism (DOT) known as "Philippines: Fiesta Islands of Asia"
improved the tourism industry. Festive celebrations were made in
different parts of the archipelago to attract more tourists and
generate income not only for the townfolks but for the government
as well.
The Aquino administration intensified the privatization of the
business sector. The 1987 Constitution does not favor an economy
managed or controlled by the state. Regarding the justice system,
death penalty was abolished to give the criminals a chance to
rehabilitate. For capital offenses, the penalty imposed was reclusion
perpetua or life imprisonment.
In 1988, President Aquino made foreign trips to strengthen
friendly relations with other countries, which include China,
Switzerland, Italy, Hong Kong, and Vietnam.
On September 13 of the same year, President Aquino signed
Republic Act (RA) No. 6675 known as the Generic Act. It provided
for the prescription and production of drugs and medicines
identified by their generic names to promote drug safety and
ensure the adequate supply of drugs at the lowest price. The
Department of Health pursuant to Executive Order No. 119
adopted the use of generics. Community Health Service was also
established in every locality to promote the physical state of every
community.

336

Despite the government's popular support, opposition within

the military as well as Communist insurgency continued. Slow pace
of economic development in the country aroused discontent. In
December 1989, a coup attempt was staged against the Aquino
administration. The U.S. Air Force jets assisted the Philippine
government forces in suppressing the mutiny.
It was on May 23, 1989 that former Senator Arturo Tolentino
and former Solicitor General Estelito Mendoza submitted a petition
to the Supreme Court for and in behalf of the petitioners. The
petition prayed that the Supreme Court issue a writ of mandamus
to compel the issuance of travel documents to former President
Marcos and his family. The health of Mr. Marcos has greatly
deteriorated and he was insistent in returning to the Philippines.
The petitioners mentioned that President Aquino has no power
to bar former President Marcos and his family to return home since
the President has neither the power to impair the liberty of abode
nor the power to impair the right to travel.
The Aquino government refused to allow Marcos and his
family to return to the Philippines on the ground that their return
would endanger the national security and the national interest of
the country. Owing to the police power of the state, President
Aquino may bar former President Marcos and his family to return.
Solicitor General Frank Chavez, the counsel for the respondents,
defended the decision of President Aquino based on the provisions
of the Constitution concerned with the protection of the people and
the police power of the government.
Tolentino and Mendoza answered that those constitutional
provisions are not sources of power of the President. They pointed
out, the police power is not properly to be exercised by the
executive but a power exercised by the legislative branch. The
lawyers for the petitioners also claimed that the right to travel was
not only guaranteed by the Constitution but also by international

law. The lawyers for the petitioners argued that even if the
respondents had a discretion to withhold the giving of travel
documents or perform acts that would bar Marcos and his family to
return to the Philippines, this discretion was not allowable because
it would be a grave abuse of discretion.
On October 13,1989, the Supreme Court affirmed its original
decision against the petitioners. The Court declared the power of
the President to bar a Filipino citizen to return to his country a
residual power, which is lodged in the executive power of the
President. Chief Justice Marcelo Fernan labelled it as a presidential
prerogative. The distinction between right to travel and the right to
return made by Justice Cortes in the decision of the Court is the
secondary basis to bar former President Marcos and his family to
return to the Philippines. Although the right to travel is explicitly
provided in the Bill of Rights of the 1987 Philippine Constitution,
the right to return is not.
Mr. Marcos had already died in Honolulu on September 28,
1989. Finally, the Philippine government allowed Imelda Marcos to
return to the Philippines and place Marcos's remains in a
refrigerated crypt in Ilocos Norte, his home province in 1991.
It was in December 1990 that 16 military men were convicted in
the Aquino-Galman double murder case. However, the mastermind
of the military conspiracy was still unascertained. The issue was
reopened and investigated after the Supreme Court had declared a
mistrial of the case.
It was also during the Aquino administration that the review of
the Military Bases Agreement (MBA) between the U.S. and the
Philippines took place. This review was reported to have led to an
agreement increasing to $1.2 billion, the total amount of U.S.
economic and military aid to the Philippines during the last two
years of the RP-US Military Bases Agreement.

338

On September 16, 1991, the Philippine Senate, by a vote of 1211, rejected the RP-US Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and
Security, which will take the place of the RP-US Military Bases
Agreement upon its expiration. The eleven votes in favor of the
treaty's ratification were below the two-third votes needed to ratify
a treaty, as prescribed by the Constitution.
Those who voted for the retention of these bases were Senators
Heherson Alvarez, Edgardo Angara, Neptali Gonzales, Ernesto
Herrera, Joey Lina, John Osmena, Vicente Paterno, Santanina Rasul,
Alberto Romulo, Leticia Shahani, and Mamintal Tamano.
Those who voted "no" to bases were Senators Jovito Salonga,
Juan Ponce Enrile, Agapito Aquino, Joseph Estrada, Teofisto
Guingona, Sotero Laurel, Ernesto Maceda, Orlando Mercado,
Aquilino Pimentel, Rene Saguisag, Wigberto Tanada, and Victor
Ziga.
The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, which spewed lahar to nearby
provinces in Luzon affected the possible extension of the bases
agreement. With the Clark Air Base in Pampanga covered with
heavy tons of volcanic ashes, the U.S. government decided to
move its servicemen and their families out of the country. Not far
from Clark Air Base, the Subic Bay Naval station was also closed
in 1992.
The series of volcanic eruptions caused by Mount Pinatubo
took place from July 12 to 15, 1991. Its ashfalls reached as far as
Metro Manila, Mindoro, and Palawan to the South and Cambodia
to the east. Considered as the world's worst volcanic eruption in
the 20th century, the Mt. Pinatubo eruption has caused great loss
of lives and properties.
The country was once again visited by an environmental
disaster after it had a dreadful one a year earlier, which took place
on July 16,1990 at 4:26 in the afternoon (DST), where two strong
earthquakes struck Luzon.

Typhoons and floods had caused the wear and tear of many
roads and highways. Due to deforestation and illegal logging
practices, which had started in the past administrations, even mild
typhoons caused some flash floods and devastation such as
typhoon "Uring" in Ormoc, Leyte on November 5,1991.
The Philippines likewise suffered economic losses from El
Nino in 1990-1992, P4.1 B ($158 M) in damage was recorded
mostly in agriculture. As expected, the El Nino phenomenon
extended a long dry spell, which has resulted in the drying up of
water sources, reduction of water supply, the consequent damage
to livestock and agricultural crops nationwide, and the rise of
various diseases aggravated by the long drought. In the midst of
these natural disasters, the government managed to mobilize its
regional, provincial, urban, and municipal subunits to coordinate
operations in badly affected areas.

8. Ramos Administration (1992-1998)

President Corazon Aquino, prohibited by the Constitution to
run for a second term, endorsed Defense Minister Fidel V. Ramos
in the 1992 presidential elections. Ramos won under a new
political party, the Partido Lakas Tao, based on his long-held
political doctrine of people empowerment. Many of its members
called themselves non-traditional politicians like their leader.
Elected Vice-President was former movie star, San Juan Mayor
and senator, Joseph "Erap" Estrada.
Upon his assumption of office, he worked on an Agenda for
Reforms to make the Philippines a New Industrialized Country
(NIC) by the year 2000. Five days after President Ramos assumed
office, he announced the creation of a "Malacanang of the South,"
to "bring Malacanang closer to the people."

340

At the onset, President Ramos had encountered problems,

which were remnants of the previous two administrations and
these were as follows: mass poverty, ailing economy, power crisis,
high crime rate, graft and corruption, environmental problems, and
insurgency. These difficulties triggered President Ramos to
formulate his agenda for reforms to achieve progress and stability.
To secure the economy, President Ramos ordered the dismantling
of monopolies and cartels. Legislative measures were also
approved to increase domestic and foreign investments, improve
human resources, and enhance the country's links with other
nations in the global economy.
In 1992, around 781,000 new jobs became available in the
country. The national unemployment rate from 9.8 percent in 1996
was reduced to 8.4 percent as of 1997. From 1992 to 1997, the
country's per capita income increased from $800 to $1,240. Overseas
Filipino Workers (OFWs) were able to receive protection with the
enactment of the Migrant Workers Act of 1995. Ten additional labor
attaches were deployed in the countries where there are large
concentrations of OFWs.
On July 8,1992, President Ramos created the Presidential AntiCrime Commission (PACC) and appointed the Vice-President as its
head. After a year of its operations, the PACC had encountered
various crime syndicates, arresting over 150 of their suspected
members and forcing 58 others to voluntarily surrender.
On health care services, the government pursued preventive
health care programs, which have gained popular recognition.
Delivery of medical services to distant areas was made possible
through the "doctors to the barrio program." The average life
expectancy gained a new ceiling from 67.5 years in 1992 to 69.1
years in 1995.
While the Ramos administration has been promoting artificial
methods of birth control, the Catholic Church continues to promote

abstinence or natural birth control methods among couples. The

Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) in a
pastoral letter read in churches nationwide said that the
government's birth control program would destroy family ties. It
also virtually endorses abortion.
President Ramos launched the Social Reform Agenda (SRA) on
June 17, 1994, "to help the poorest of the poor help themselves."
Twenty provinces from the most depressed category have been the
beneficiaries of poverty-alleviation measures that include housing
projects, agrarian reform programs, employment opportunities,
and health care initiatives.
The Smokey Mountain, once the center of abject poverty, was
transformed into a model, affordable, and clean area for residential
and commercial purposes, in terms of public infrastructure, from
1992 to 1998, the government has completed the construction and
upgrading of 36,050 kilometers of roads and 45,464 lineal meters of
bridges.
The Philippine National Railways (PNR) main south line
(Albay), was rehabilitated. It used to be nonoperational since 1986.
The Pasig River Ferry service was also revived to promote the use
of inland waterways as an alternative means of transport.
In Metro Manila, more infrastructure were also built - the
circumferential road known as C-5, two more Light Rail Transit
(LRT) systems, the Manila Skyway, and the New Ninoy Aquino
International Airport Terminal (NAIA II). In other parts of the
country, additional international airports were opened like Subic,
Clark, General Santos, and Zamboanga.
The administration started the interlinking of the major island
grids into one national power grid with the completion of the
Leyte-Cebu
interconnection
in
1997
and
Leyte-Luzon
interconnection in 1998.

342

Programs and projects were also implemented to protect the

country's environment and conserve its natural resources. Critical
areas such as the Tubbataha and Apo reefs, Boracay, and the Ifugao
rice terraces were protected and rehabilitated under the National
Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS).
The government embarked on an intensive foreign relation
campaign based on economic diplomacy. President Ramos
expanded global linkages by building and strengthening
partnerships through foreign trips, which have been much
criticized.
The United States continued to be the country's top trading
partner, accounting for 26.78 percent of the total trading partners in
1990 and 26.66 percent in 1991. The country's trade with Japan had
been on an uptrend, with 19.84 percent of the country's total trade
during the year.
The People's Republic of China (PROC) continued to be the
country's leading communist trading partner. The increase of
Philippine exports to PROC in 1991 was attributed to the huge
demand for manufactured fertilizers.
In the pursuit of peace and in nation building, the Ramos
administration was able to forge a just and honorable peace with
the Repormang Alyansang Makabansa (RAM) and the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF) by initiating dialogues and
agreements. This won the respect of the world as evidenced by the
1997 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) peace prize awarded to the country. Peace
talks were also held with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF),
Communist
Party of the Philippines (CPP) and National Democratic Front
(NDF) so that they may "rejoin the mainstream of civil society."
It was on September 15, 1993 when President Fidel V. Ramos
signed Executive Order No. 125, Defining the Approach and

Administrative Structure for the Government's Comprehensive

Peace Efforts. It directed the government to pursue a
comprehensive peace process along the Six Paths to Peace as
recommended by the National Unification Commission (NUC). The
NUC recommended the creation of the Office of the Presidential
Adviser on the Peace Process (OPAPP), which managed and
implemented the mandate of the government.
Likewise in 1993, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono
apologized for Japan's having coerced some women into
prostitution during the Pacific War. Three years later, on the 50th
anniversary of Japan's surrender, Prime Minister Tomiichi
Murayama acknowledged the damage and suffering caused by
Japan to many Asian countries.
The Philippines once regarded as "the sick man of Asia" has
transformed into a nation towards the path of peace and
sustainable development. Under his management, President Ramos
devised a new plan, which he called "Philippines 2000," his
blueprint for national economic recovery to transform it into a tiger
economy by the next millennium.
The program intended to have economic development that will
be propelled and sustained through the promotion of efficiency in
the marketplace and the advancement of social equity in terms of
asset reforms. It also included just sharing of the benefits of growth
and effective people participation in the political and economic
mainstream.
Despite the reversal of economic interests in Asia since late 1996
and 1997, the Ramos administration managed to keep the local
economy stable. The large number of overseas Filipino workers
(OFWs) and Filipinos who do business abroad provided a steady
supply of dollar remittances supporting the local currency against
the exchange rate shifts.

344

Likewise, President Ramos repealed the anti-subversion law to

bring the communist leaders to the negotiating table. This has
resulted to forging of several agreements between the NDF and the
government and the subsequent decrease in bloody clashes with
government troops. Many communist leaders had also returned to
the fold of law after Ramos approved an amnesty program. From
26,000 members in 1987, the rebels decreased to 10,000.
In the early 1990s, militant activities by Muslim separatist forces
continued in Mindanao. In 1996, the Government of the Republic of
the Philippines (GRP) finally reached a peaceful settlement with
one of the largest rebel groups in the country, the Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF). The signing of the GRP-MNLF Peace
Agreement on September 2, 1996 in Malacanang Palace formally
ended the armed conflict in Mindanao. The Final Peace Agreement
was signed in the presence of the leaders of the Organization of
Islamic Conference (OIC). The signing was considered a "crucial
step" in the arduous process of constructing peace in Mindanao.
The GRP-MNLF peace accord specifically provided for the
establishment of a Special Zone of Peace and Development in
Southern Philippines (SZOPAD), consisting of 14 provinces; the
Southern Philippines Council for Peace and Development (SPCPD);
and a Consultative Assembly. It also called for the integration of
MNLF forces into the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and
the Philippine National Police (PNP). The peace agreement also
included economic assistance to the region.
In 1997, Ramos's supporters sought to amend the constitution;
however such Charter Change (Cha-Cha) movement was
denounced by different sectors including the Catholic Church. It
was viewed as a scheme to allow the president a second term,
which the 1987 Philippine Constitution had forbidden.
In 1999, President Ramos, through Executive Order 137
declared the month of July every year as the National Disaster

Consciousness Month. During the month, national and local

government agencies have to implement disaster awareness
campaigns and would also allow for the consolidation of the Civil
Defense Deputization Program or Tanggol Patrols by the local
government units, who serve as focal points of civil protection and
disaster management programs.
In late 1997 to early 1998, the Philippines was in the forefront of
the worldwide campain to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases
leading to global warming and eventual change. International
concerns were presented at the UN Conference convened in Kyoto,
Japan to discuss this phenomenon.
The Kyoto Conference identified three major sources of
greenhouse. gases consisting of carbon dioxide compounds in the
atmosphere that cause warming: Electric power generation, still
principally coal-fired around the world; emissions of factories
without decarbonising systems; and millions of motor vehicles
spouting deadly exhaust fumes. Climate-friendly, renewable
technologies like wind, solar, cellulosic ethanol, and hydrogen are
opted to be used by countries to protect the environment from
further disaster.
At the end of President Ramos's term, the observance of the
first Centennial of Philippine Independence was carried out
through the National Centennial Commission (NCC) and other
nongovernment organizations (NGOs). The NCC through a fiveyear plan, assigned themes for every year for five years from 1994
to 1998, each one laying the foundation for the success of the major
celebrations on June 12,1998 until January 23,1999.
The Centennial Programs had the following objectives: revive
love of country, restore appreciation for the true Filipino identity,
relearn the values of the country's historic struggle for
independence and use these for development of the future; and
generate greater active participation in the centennial

346

commemorative celebration to accelerate nation-building. The

desired effects of the Philippine Centennial gave birth to its slogan,
"Kalayaan, Kayamanan ng Bayan."
In the May 1998 presidential elections, President Ramos and the
ruling coalition supported Jose de Venecia, the House Speaker.
However, it turned out that the opposition had the popular support
for the presidency. Joseph Estrada, vice-president under the Ramos
administration became the next head of the state.

9. Estrada Administration (1998-2001)

President Joseph "Erap" Estrada from the Lapian ng Masang
Pilipino (LAMP) took his oath of office on June 30, 1998 at the
historic Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan. On the same date,
he gave his inaugural address at the Quirino Grandstand where he
promised to bring peace to the people and harmony to the society.
He also pledged to fight corruption within the government and
continue the economic reforms of the past administration. Elected
Vice-President was Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo from the LAKASNUCD.
Erap Para Sa Mahirap became the campaign slogan of former
Vice- President Estrada. He drove his election campaign vehicle
JEEP, which contains his pro-poor program of government. It
meant Justice, Economy, Environment, and Peace. JEEP covered
Mr. Estrada's vision of government. It revealed his 10 "steps"
toward a dynamic and progressive Philippines, namely:
Efficient bureaucracy to generate more income with less
expenses Economic recovery through fiscal reforms
Check all forms of criminality, particularly kidnapping,
bank robberies, drug trafficking, and other heinous crimes
Stronger infrastructure to unify the nation

Encourage private business as government's partner in

nation building
Delivery of basic social services to the people
Food security through better agricultural technology
Providing education to ever)' Filipino
Harnessing Filipino talents in science and technology
Sustainable development through a comprehensive
environmental program
(Source: MagNegosyo, May 1999)
It was Mr. Estrada's identity with the masses that launched him
to the presidency in the May 1998 elections. He won over his
opponents that included former Speaker Jose de Venecia, former
Defense Secretary Renato de Villa, former Manila Mayor Alfredo
Lim, Senators Raul Roco, and Miriam Defensor-Santiago.
Tn the midst of economic turbulence in the Asia-Pacific region,
President Estrada stirred high hopes to institute reforms aimed at
the development of the country's social, economic, and political
well- being. Government support was given to ERAP (Enhanced
Retail Access for the Poor) sari-sari stores and Lingap sa Mahirap
stores under the National Food Authority (NFA) component. These
retail stores provided livelihood assistance to indigent families
especially in remote barangays, in view of the administration's goal
to weed out poverty.
In Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, President Estrada received
assurances of economic aid amounting to $5 billion from the
assistance to be extended by developed economies from the Asia
Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.
President Estrada was designated as the spokesman of Third
World countries in the Sixth APEC meeting in Malaysia. He voiced
the concerns of developing economies. APEC leaders later
approved the proposal of President Estrada calling for greater
multilateral aid to crisis-hit Asian economies.

348

Twenty-one APEC member States include Australia, Brunei

Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong,
Indonesia, Korea, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua
New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, the
United States of America, and Vietnam. Many of the Southeast
Asian countries facing the challenge of how all economies of the
APEC member states can benefit from the opportunities presented
by globalization.
The Philippine and U.S. governments had signed on October 9,
1998 the counterpart agreement on the Visiting Forces Agreement
(VFA), which sought to define the legal treatment of Filipino troops
visiting the United States. Domingo Siazon and Thomas Hubbard
signed the US-RP Visiting Forces Agreement. The Philippine
government lobbied for Senate concurrence by mentioning military
and economic benefits from doing so. The VFA was submitted to
the Philippine Senate on October 6, 1998.
The VFA in the eyes of the Philippine government provided for
the mechanism for regulating the circumstances and conditions of
US armed forces and defense personnel in the Philippines. The
government also stressed that much could be gained from the
military technology and equipment that will be given to the AFP.
Joint exercises were perceived to help improve the skills of Filipino
troops in military operations.
US Defense Secretary William Cohen emphasized that the VFA
was not directed against any country, particularly China, which has
an existing territorial conflict with the Philippines over the Spratlys.
The US Department of Defense stressed that they were not seeking
military facilities or bases.
Facing the task of reform, President Estrada made moves
towards the actualization of his visions. The administration had
successful negotiations regarding the Subic controversy. The
congressional pork barrel, seen as a source of graft, was abolished.

There was the lowering of interest rates, promotion of savings, and

reduced dependence on foreign borrowings. A presidential task
force against crime was established. There was also the peaceful
resolution of the Philippine Airlines' labor strike.
The ground crew union of the Philippine Airlines (PAL) ended
its five-day strike after signing an agreement with the management,
under the auspices of the National Conciliation and Mediation
Board (NCMB) of the Department of Labor and Employment
(DOLE).
The end of the strike, the second to hit PAL in a span of two
months came about after nearly 15 hours of nonstop negotiations
between the two sides. The PAL Employees Association (PALEA)
agreed to cease all pickets and the strike within 24 hours from the
signing of the agreement. The management guaranteed not to
commit any retaliatory action against the striking PALE A
members.
PAL and PALEA agreed to reduce the airline's workforce by
1,800 employees, all PALEA members. This became effective on
August 16,1998. But the affected employees were given privileges
and benefits like travel privileges for them and their dependents;
opportunity to attend livelihood seminars organized by PAL for a
period of three years; separation benefits in two installments;
benefits from the PAL Dependents Medical Plan for three years;
and first preference in hiring, in the event PAL increases its
manning complement in the future.
The agreement came after President Estrada personally took
direct hand in solving the conflict, together with the efforts of the
DOLE particularly Labor Secretary Bienvenido Laguesma. The PAL
management was guided by the directions of PAL Chairman Lucio
Tan and President Jose Antonio Garcia. The PALEA board, headed
by its President Alex Barrientos signed for the union.

350

The government intensified its drive against illegal recruiters.

Administrator Rey Regalado mentioned that the Philippine
Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) closed 11 illegal
recruitment agencies in the year 2000 on 13 closure orders he had
issued. More than 400 cases of illegal recruitment were brought to
the POEA's legal assistance division, 80 percent of which had
already been duly filed with the special prosecutors.
The deregulation reforms initiated during the past
administration opened up an abundance of business opportunities
for the industrial machinery and materials industry. With the
liberalization of foreign exchange, reforms followed in
telecommunications, shipping, aviation, and automotive industriesall of which required industrial machinery and materials, including
metal and steel manufactures.
Laws intended to create business environment conducive to
local and foreign investment were enacted in the year 2000. They
included the Retail Trade Liberalization Act (liberalizing foreign
ownership of retail firms), the General Banking Law of 2000
(reforming the financial system), the Electronic Commerce Act
(establishing regulations promoting E-commerce), and the
Securities
Regulation
Code
(enhancing
capital
market
competitiveness).
In infrastructure, President Estrada's three-year-building
program included the installation of 316 steel bridges in 78
provinces. The bridge program was funded through the assistance
of the Austrian government. One of the* steel bridges undertaken
by the program was installed in the country in the remote barrio of
Masalipit, San Miguel, Bulacan. This 50-meter long bridge cost P16
million.
Senior Deputy Executive Secretary Ramon Cardenas, who
chaired the President's Bridge Program's Technical Working Group,
indicated that 61 steel bridges had been completed in the

Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) since the

project started last 1999. Fifty-one more bridges had been opened
under, the "Tulay ni Erap"- Salam (Peace) Bridge Project in four
provinces of ARMM, namely: Maguindanao, Lanao del Sur, TawiTawi, and Sulu. The project was likewise expected to spur
socioeconomic investments in the whole of Southern Philippines
and convert the region into the next food basket of Asia.
The Metrostar or the MRT III along the stretch of EDSA was
finally made operational after three years of construction. This rail
system has provided not only speedy transportation for commuters
to their destinations but also helped ease the heavy flow of traffic
along EDSA particularly on peak hours.
The government had provided measures to pursue its housing
program. To intensify its housing project, the government had
required subdivisions being developed to have a portion for
socialized housing.
Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council
(HUDCC) spearheaded the government's low-cost housing project.
HUDCC Chairwoman Leonora Vasquez de Jesus introduced the
multi-window lending system endorsed by President Estrada, to
make the housing finance system more accessible to the
marginalized sector. Such system placed under the President's
National Shelter Program, planned to build 350,000 shelter units per
year until the end of Estrada's term in 2004.
In the commitment of providing shelter for the homeless,
President Estrada did raise funds for the new building of the
orphanage of the Asociacion de Damas de Filipinas, which was
destroyed by a dawn fire in 1998, killing at least 24 children and
injuring others. He also provided the equipment and facilities
needed by this institution for efficient management.
One of the events that rocked the country was the hostage
drama in Mindanao, which involved foreign nationals as well as

352

Filipinos. The Abu Sayyaf, a group of Muslim extremists, abducted

21 western vacationers in an island resort in Sipadan, Malaysia and
one Filipino resort worker, Roland Ilia.
The rebels brought the hostages to jungle camps in Jolo. This
was followed by the kidnapping of two French journalists and two
local TV reporters and 13 "prayer warriors" of a religious group
including its leader. The hostage crisis, which lasted for several
months, projected the Abu Sayyaf to international notoriety.
All hostages were able to return to their families except Roland
Ulla, still being held captive by the Muslim extremists. Task Force
Comet, an operational arm of the military, was assigned to launch
offensives against the Abu Sayyaf to rescue remaining captive Ulla
and to neutralize the terrorist group.
Taking into account the peace condition in Mindanao, a
Philippine travel ban was issued by the German government to its
nationals. Nevertheless, the ban had been finally lifted after five
months. Tourism Secretary Gemma Cruz Araneta disclosed on
October 20, 2000 that the German government had issued a new
travel advisory stating that travel to the Philippines is safe.
However, the advisory still discouraged German tourists from
going to some parts of Mindanao, specifically Jolo and Sulu, where
military operations continued against the Abu Sayyaf. They were
allowed to travel to Northern Philippines with comfort and safety.
The United States government was the first to issue a travel
advisory advising its citizens to skip the Philippines because of the
bombing incidents that hit Mindanao and some areas of Metro
Manila.
Abu Sayyaf leader Ghalib Andang also known as Commander
Robot told chief government negotiator and Flagship Secretary
Robert Aventajado that his group was not in any manner involved
with the kidnapping of the American Jeffrey Craig Edwards
Schilling in Zamboanga City.

Schilling was in the Philippines for several months and married

to Ivy Osani, a cousin of Abu Sabaya, another Abu Sayyaf leader.
Osani, a widow of a former Abu Sayyaf member, happened to be
the nephew of the slain founder of the Abu Sayyaf, Abdurajak
Janjalani.
Abu Sabaya tagged Schilling as an agent of the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA), which the US Embassy denied
vehemently. The authorities had verified reports that Schilling
stayed in Zamboanga for six months. There were also reports that
Schilling himself had been seeking out this rebel group.
One rebel group that opposed the administrations of the past
wanted to return to the negotiating table. Muslim leaders
subsequently approved a manifesto urging the Estrada
administration and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) to
resume the peace negotiations that were scrapped following the
outbreak of hostilities in Mindanao. It was also supported by at
least 100 groups comprised of organizations from the religious,
professionals, farmers, and other sectors of the Bangsamoro people.
Lawyer Macapanton Abbas, Jr. of the Royal Houses in
Mindanao pointed out that for the peace process to proceed anew,
it was necessary for the government to declare a cease-fire.
Criminal charges and warrants of arrest against MILF chairman
Ustadz Salamat Hashim, vice-chairman for Military Affairs, A1 Haj
Murad and MILF spokesman Eid Kabalu were also asked to be
dropped.
Manila was once again shuddered by inconsiderable
demonstrations and strikes, which loudly protested on injustice,
stunted growth and progress of the country's economic life, and the
perpetuating poverty of the great masses of the country's
population. The public had also given their views about
Malacanang's proposal to amend the constitution and allow

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foreigners to own land in the country. These problems had been the
issues of most debatps in the land.
While Cardinal Sin demanded for President Estrada's
resignation, Cebu Archbishop Ricardo Cardinal Vidal maintained
his silence and refused to join the movement to remove the
President from office. He merely advised the President to change
and reform his ways.
Senate President Franklin M. Drilon and 10 of his colleagues in
the Senate rejected the call for holding a snap presidential elections
as an answer to the current political agitation brought about by the
jueteng gambling payoff charges leveled against President Estrada.
They gave varied reasons discarding the Senate resolution filed by
Senator Juan Ponce Enrile asking both the Senate and the House of
Representatives to pass a law authorizing the holding of snap
elections.
Secretary Lim cautioned the people to be vigilant. He clarified
that economic recovery program of the administration had already
made concrete gains. He also added that, if the constitutional
process or the rule of law would not be followed there would be
chaos, anarchy and violence; and the country would be
transformed into a banana republic instead.
The Office on Muslim Affairs Executive Director Acmad M.
Tomawis expressed hope that the Muslims and other Filipinos
would remain steadfast in their support to President Estrada amid
the expose' on jueteng.
According to him, the administration prioritizes the plight of the
poor and the marginalized people in running the affairs of the
nation.
Just a day before 2000 year end, 14 people were killed instantly
and more than 60 others were wounded in five bomb explosions in
Metro Manila. The Philippine National Police (PNP) Command
under PNP Chief Director General Panfilo Lacson directed all PNP

units in Metro Manila to assist and provide security and maintain

peace and order in the wake of these bomb attacks.
The first bomb blasted at around 12 noon in a coach of the Light
Railway Transit (LRT) at Blumentritt station on its way to
Monumento. Fifteen minutes later, another explosion hit Plaza
Ferguson in Ermita, some 200 meters away from the United States
embassy. The third bomb blew up and ripped off the roof of Edsa
bus at the northbound lane of EDSA in Cubao, Quezon City in front
of the Superlines bus terminal. Another bombing incident followed
at the NALA cargo terminal area in Parariaque. Then, at around
2:20 p.m., another bomb explosion took place at a Petron gasoline
station located across EDSA from Dusit Hotel in Makati City.
Four officials of the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (M1LF),
headed by Chairman Hashim Salamat were charged of multiple
frustrated murder by the Department of Justice (DOJ) in connection
with the December 30 bombings in Metro Manila. The MILF
officials have also pending cases with the DOJ in connection with
the May 17 and 21, 2000 bombings of malls in Metro Manila.
According to PNP Senior Supt. Raul Bacalzo, the December 30
bombings had been conceived by the MILF and the plots were
unearthed in an undated document coded "Feasibility Project" that
detailed the bombings and economic sabotage in Metro Manila. The
document was taken from Camp Bushra in Lanao del Sur and
detailed the plots to bomb malls, the Light Railway Transit, water
districts, provincial trains, and other structures.
President Estrada condemned these bombing incidents that
rocked Metro Manila and said that those behind it have resorted to
acts of desperation and cowardice in order to satisfy and advance
their political agenda.
With the ongoing impeachment trial, President Estrada
continued his provincial visits particularly in Mindanao and in the
depressed areas in Metro Manila. The government has released

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more infrastructure funds through the regional offices of the

Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) for the
President's Mindanao's development projects. This was part of
Malacanang's confidence-building measures to push his campaign
against poverty.
While the staging of another People Power revolt was being
contemplated by some sectors in the society, the President himself
cited another evident emergency situation, i.e., the sight of
uncollected garbage in the Metro Manila. The dumpsite at San
Mateo, Rizal was closed at the end of that year when its operating
contract expired. The Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City was earlier
blocked in July 2000 after a landslide killed more than 200 people
living in the area. San Mateo and Payatas have been receiving some
6,000 tons of solid waste a day, from Metro Manila's 12 million
population.
In the midst of a garbage crisis, President Estrada ordered on
January 11,2001 the reopening of the San Mateo Landfill. The
residents of San Mateo and Antipolo however, vehemently rallied
against this memorandum by preventing trucks from unloading
tons of garbage from Metro Manila. With no alternative site for
garbage, the government tried to dispose some of the metropolis'
trash on Semirara Island, 45 kilometers (30 miles) from Boracay, a
premier tourist destination. This proposal was also thwarted by
public protest.
On the other hand, the Department of Trade and Industry,
earlier sought the delay of the implementation of the Clean Air Act,
which intended to improve the environmental compliance of
industries. This was to give the industries more time to raise money
and acquire new technology to ensure compliance. Majority of the
industries had to retool their operations.
As the future of the country became more uncertain, Senator
Pimentel resigned his post as Senate head on the evening of

January 16, 2001 after the motion to have the second sealed
envelope opened was defeated in an 11-10 vote by the Senate
impeachment tribunal. The political allies of the President in the
Senate voted not to open the second envelope that was said to
contain incriminating evidence against the President. The second
envelope from Equitable PCI Bank allegedly contained bank
records of President Estrada alias Jose Velarde totaling some P3.3
billion.
The 11 senator-judges, which included Senate President ProTempore Bias Ople, Senate Majority Leader Francisco Tatad,
Senators Teresa Aquino- Oreta, Robert Jaworski, Nikki Coseteng,
Ramon Revilla, Gregorio Honasan, Juan Ponce Enrile, Miriam
Defensor-Santiago, and Vicente Tito Sotto rejected the prosecution's
motion to open the second envelope. For them, the trial should be
limited to the articles of impeachment as specified by the House of
Representatives. The so-called Velarde account was not in the
articles of impeachment.
The 10 senator-judges who voted that the second envelope be
opened in the interest of truth were Senators Rodolfo Biazon, Raul
Roco, Franklin Drilon, Teofisto Guingona, Juan Flavier, Loren
Legarda-Leviste, Rene Cayetano, Serge Osmena, Jun Magsaysay,
and Nene Pimentel.
The 11-man House prosecution panel, headed by Minority
Leader Feliciano Belmonte walked out of the impeachment court in
protest of the Senate decision. Joker Arroyo, a member of the
prosecution panel, hinted a potential constitutional crisis due to the
stalemate that emerged following the irrevocable resignation of the
House prosecutors. However, Senate Majority Leader Francisco
Tatad conveyed to the public that the impeachment court had not
been disbanded. It had simply recessed to allow the House to
address the problem presented by the resignation of prosecutors.

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Malacafiang expressed optimism that President Estrada's

impeachment trial would resume soon. His lawyers were ready to
present their pieces of evidence to prove false the prosecution's
charges against him. Acting Press Secretary Michael Toledo
asserted that if the case would close following the resignation of the
prosecutors, it would not be the fault of the defense panel. House
Speaker Arnulfo Fuentebella made clear that they have developed
certain options on the impeachment prosecutors' resignation as he
assured all the decisions they would make in the process would be
the decision of the House as a whole.
House Assistant Majority Leader Francis Joseph Escudero (1st
district of Sorsogon) pointed out that one way to resolve the
deadlock at the Senate impeachment tribunal was for the House
minority to choose another set of 11 congressmen to serve as
prosecutors in the impeachment trial against the President.
Nevertheless, Governor Singson avowed before the Integrated Bar
of the Philippines (IBP) regional convention, that if he would not be
satisfied with the decision of the Senate in the impeachment case,
he would surely bring the fight to the highest court, which is the
people.
Shortly after the evidence against President Estrada was
blocked at the Senate, thousands of Filipinos went out of the streets
to show protest. The demonstrators stayed at EDSA Shrine for four
days (January 16 to 20, 2001) demanding the President to step down
from the office.
The Church once again lived up its role as the moral guardian
of the society. Jaime Cardinal Sin initiated the prayer rally at the
shrine with Vice-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, and former
Presidents Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos were present in the
area. After the resignation of the prosecution panel, more Filipinos
trooped to EDSA. Text messages were instrumental in drawing a
mammoth crowd at EDSA Shrine. Countless mobile phones were

buzzing with the latest text messages about Malacanang and the
protest rally. Nearly two million people went to the streets.
At the same time, pro-Estrada rallyists gathered at Mendiola
Bridge near Malacanang as early as 12 noon of January 17 to
denounce the 10 senators who voted for the opening of the second
envelope. The pro-Erap supporters stayed in the Mendiola area to
secure all entry points leading to Malacanang.
President Estrada intended to finish his term until 2004. He
appealed to those exercising their right to expression and assembly
for calm and sobriety and assured the public that the government is
in control of the security situation. He even ruled out the possibility
of resignation as called for by his political opponents. He asked the
Filipino people to allow the constitutional process to take its course.
Nonetheless, the last-minute defections of politicians even gave
more tension to these tumultuous days. They, too, aligned
themselves with the people demanding Estrada to step down from
office.
Mass resignation of the Cabinet was triggered by the defection
of the Armed Forces led by the Chief of Staff, General Angelo
Reyes. The military announced through media that they had
already withdrawn their support for the Estrada presidency,
invoking Article 2, Section 3 of the 1987 constitution, wherein the
Armed Forces of the Philippines shall protect the people and the
State. Likewise, Director General Panfilo M. Lacson, chief of the
Philippine National Police announced at a press conference that the
PNP had also withdrawn support for President Estrada, stressing
that the police organization respects the decision of the citizenry.
The pronouncement of the military was a powerful blow to the
President. Nonetheless, President Estrada still refused to resign and
insisted on a snap presidential election. However, the President
together with his family, reportedly left Malacanang after knowing

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that the Supreme Court had already issued en banc resolution

declaring the seat of the presidency vacant.
The Supreme Court declared President Estrada unable to rule in
view of mass resignations from his government. The High Court
likewise through its resolution authorized Chief Justice Davide to
administer the oath of office of then Vice-President Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo as the 14th President of the Republic, succeeding
President Estrada. However, the deposed President insisted that he
did not resign but merely left Malacanang Palace to prevent
bloodshed as protesters were already close to Malacanang to
physically eject him from his post.

10. Arroyo Administration (2001-2010)

President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was catapulted into power
by the People Power Revolution II at EDSA, which ended on
January 20, 2001. Facing the task of leading 76 million Filipinos in
rebuilding the nation towards peace and progress, the President
urged the people to help her in the "healing process" of the country.
For her, healing should be with justice.
The Supreme Court had its deliberation on four petitions filed
in its office involving the presidency of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo.
Two petitions sought clarification from the tribunal on whether
Mrs. Arroyo is the Acting President or President. Another petition
asked the High Court to declare Mrs. Arroyo as the duly
constituted President. The fourth petition pleaded for the
nullification of Mrs. Arroyo's oath as the President and to declare
her as the Acting President.
On March 2, 2001, the Supreme Court upheld the legitimacy of
the Arroyo government in a unanimous decision vote. The High
Court ruled out that President Estrada had effectively resigned his
post with his acts and statements and declared Mrs. Gloria

Macapagal-Arroyo the duly constituted President of the

Philippines. Nine justices voted without reservation, while four
justices reserved their votes on the loss of immunity from suit of
Mr. Estrada. The High Court gave Ombudsman Aniano Disierto
the legal authority to file the cases of the former President, which
include plunder, perjury, and illegal use of alias before the
Sandiganbayan.
Regarding the Estrada impeachment trial, the Senate had
officially concluded on February 7, 2001 its role as an impeachment
court. This was based on Senate Resolution 927 filed by Senate
President Pimentel. The resolution also contained that the pieces of
evidence in impeachment case No. 001-2000, including the second
envelope be sent to the Senate archives.
The Senate by 18-0 vote, unanimously confirmed the
designation of Sen. Teofisto Guingona jr. as the new vice-president
following a resolution sponsored by Sen. Loren Legarda confirming
the nomination of Sen. Guingona for the position.
In her first few days as the Chief Executive, President Arroyo
directed government officials to forbid her family and relatives
from entering or influencing directly or indirectly official
transactions with the government. These transactions include the
procurement or purchase of property, supplies and materials,
appointment of government personnel, and recommendations for
positions in all government agencies and offices.
In an effort to make the new President more accessible to the
general public, Malacanang came up with a scheme to allow
everyone to send their suggestions and opinions to the Chief
Executive via Short Messaging Service (SMS) called "Text GMA
Service." President Arroyo also placed in one of her
administration's priority programs the installation of modern
telecommunications facilities in every municipality. The
Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) was

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assigned to provide these telecenters, which include a telephone

line, a personal computer, a scanner, a printer or copier, and an
Internet connection.
The Arroyo government at the onset was constrained by the
country's fiscal condition, with P225 billion budget deficit inherited
from the previous administration. The President and the Congress
leaders agreed to reactivate last year's national budget to finance
government expenditures. To trim the ballooning budget deficit,
the President imposed frugality on all government agencies.
President Arroyo established her priorities and set the direction
for economic recovery. Efforts in poverty reduction and promoting
good governance were among the pillars of her administration.
Mrs. Arroyo likened her style of government to that of her father,
the late President
Diosdado Macapagal, with concern for the poor, the reliance on free
enterprise, fight against poverty, and the emphasis on social equity
and land reform. One of the major thrusts of the government was
the intensified program of opening new job opportunities by
attracting more venture capital from overseas as well as local
entrepreneurs.
As referred to in the State of the Nation Address on July 23,
2001, President Arroyo pointed out that the government financial
institutions had about P20 billion available for mass housing
programs. In the first 100 days of Housing and Urban Development
Coordinating Council (HUDCC) Chair Michael T. Defensor, shelter
was generated for more than 100,000 families, with P450 million in
housing loans released for employees in the Armed Forces and
police, teachers, local government employees, and private sector
workers. Implementation of the community mortgage program was
done where landowners were persuaded to sell their lands to
squatters residing on the land. The government provided the
financing to the beneficiaries who in turn should pay at least P400

to P500 per month for a number of years until such the full
payment to the lot purchased has been paid in full.
Solid Waste Management Act, Republic Act (RA) 9003 was the
first piece of legislation that Mrs. Arroyo signed as President. This
law sought to institute mechanisms of waste minimization,
resource recovery, appropriate collection and transport services,
and treatment and disposal of garbage. The law also empowered
the local government units to pursue their respective solid waste
management systems in their area of jurisdiction. RA 9003
symbolized the reforms that the new administration would like to
implement.
In the second quarter of 2001, the country's Gross National
Product (GNP), which was 3.5 percent, was higher than the
market's estimate of about 2.25 percent growth. The economy
showed sufficient resiliency in the midst of political turmoil. It was
during this period when the government faced destabilization
attempts, including the May attack on the presidential palace by
people supporting detained former President Joseph Estrada.
A year after the second People Power Revolution, President
Arroyo affirmed that she had shown capable leadership during her
first year of administration. The GNP growth rate in 2001 was 3.7%.
The country benefitted from its electronics industry, (IT-enabled
services, tourism, transport and telecommunications, among
others) due to structural reform measures designed to enhance
productivity and market competition, such as the liberalization of
retail trade, telecommunication and utilities. NEDA noted the
return of investor's confidence for the increase of gross domestic
capital formation by 4.3 percent from 2.3 percent in 2000. This was
augmented by investments in public construction and breeding
stock and orchard development.
The President focused on the economy and implemented propoor programs to provide jobs, food, education, and housing for

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Filipinos at the end of her term. This included her Kapit-bisig Laban
sa Kahirapan (Kalahi) program for poverty alleviation projects and
services and the Ahon Kabuhayan Project of the Ginintuan at
Makabayang Alay (GMA) Foundation. Economic growth is aimed
not only at increased productivity, but also at the proper use of the
country's resources and positive changes in the social structure of a
country.
In an effort to stabilize the country, President Arroyo supported
the passage of legislations in congress such as the Power Reform
Act and the Anti-Money Laundering Law. To improve rice
productivity and generate thousands of jobs between 2002 and
2004, the Department of Agriculture (DA), Department of Trade
and Industry (DTI), the National Food Authority (NFA), and their
respective agencies promoted the large-scale use of the hybrid rice
technology. This was pursuant to Administrative Order No. 25 (AO
25), which targeted 135,000 hectares (ha.) in 2002; 200,000 ha. in
2003; and 300,000 ha. in 2004. The hybrid rice program was adopted
by the administration under the GMA CARES Rice Program. In
other highly populated countries like China and India, the hybrid
rice technology was proven to be successful.
To fulfill the vision of promoting economic growth and
agricultural modernization in Mindanao, the Philippine
government entered into an agreement with the World Bank (WB)
for its $289.5 M loan funding the 12-year program in the area. The
Mindanao Rural Development Program is in charge of the
implementation of the project envisioned to address Mindanao's
need for food security by improving agricultural productivity,
mobility for goods and services, and local capabilities in using and
managing its own resources.
To refurbish the educational system, the Department of
Education (DepEd) has provided the Basic Education Curriculum
(BEC), otherwise known as the millennium curriculum. The BEC

was pursuant to Republic Act No. 9155, "An Act Instituting a

Framework of Governance for Basic Education, Establishing
Authority and Accountability, Renaming the Department of
Education, Culture and Sports as the Department of Education, and
for other purposes."
RA 9155 transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission, the
sports promoting functions of the DepEd. It also gave the National
Commission for Culture and the Arts, the culture promotion
functions of the department. The collegiate and higher studies
functions were given to the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED).
The 2002 restructured BEC focuses on the 3Rs, namely: reading,
writing, and arithmetic, as well as science and patriotism. It
includes the integration of values in all learning areas from
elementary to secondary levels. The curriculum consists of the
following subjects: Filipino, English, Math, Science, and
Makabayan.
The millennium curriculum decongests the overcrowded
subject areas. It seeks to prepare the students' readiness for lifelong
learning. BEC stresses integrative and interactive teaching-learning
approaches. These involve group learning and sharing of ideas
between teachers and students, and among students. President
Arroyo had outlined that one of the pillars towards winning the
war against poverty is quality education. Education offers
opportunities for people to acquire skills and become more
productive.
The Arroyo administration with an ardent regard to peaceful
settlement, extended amnesty to NPA guerrillas who wish to rejoin
the society. It also avowed to resume aborted peace talks with the
secessionist groups. President Arroyo expressed concern to restore
peace and order through negotiations with both the communists
(NDF/NPA) and Muslim separatists (MILF). She ordered the

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immediate suspension of offensive military operations against them

as a prelude to the administration's conciliatory move.
The Muslim leaders wanted the full implementation of the 1996
Peace Agreement signed on Sept. 2,1996 between the Government
of the Republic of the Philippines (GRP) and the Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF). On the other hand, the National
Democratic Front (NDF) discarded the peace negotiations with the
Philippine government two years ago following the approval of the
Senate of the Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA), which allowed US
forces to hold training exercises in the country.
The GRP peace panel left for Oslo, Norway via Paris to resume
formal peace talks with their counterparts in the NDF, which began
on April 27, 2001. President Arroyo sent off a five-man team headed
by former Justice Secretary Silvestre Bello III. The GRP peace panel
included Agrarian Reform Secretary Hernani Braganza, Riza
Hontiveros, Rene Sarmiento, and Atty. Chito Gascon. The President
expressed the government's willingness to discuss the NDF's
political demand with an open mind.
Regarding the military strikes in Afghanistan, President Arroyo
offered to the United States the use of its former military bases in
the Philippines for refueling US jets. This was in support of the war
against terrorists harboring Osama bin Laden and his al-Qaeda
organization, primary suspects in the September 11 attacks on the
World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington,
D.C. The fourth jetliner, which crashed in Pennsylvania, was
believed to be the handiwork of these terrorists. The separatist
MILF denied any link with international terrorist Osama bin Laden,
the prime suspect of the series of attacks in America that left nearly
6,000 people dead and several others wounded. Muslims in the
country called for moderation in the continuing campaign to wage
war against terrorism.

In an attempt to end terrorist elements in the country, the

Department of National Defense cited support for the military
exercises between the United States and the Philippines, which was
officially opened on January 31, 2002. The exercises dubbed as
Balikatan 02-1 or Freedom Eagle was expected to take place for a
period of six months. This was sanctioned under the RP-US Visiting
Forces Agreement duly ratified by the Philippine Senate in 1998.
The command structure of the Balikatan (shoulder to shoulder) was
under the command of the Armed Forces.
Some 660 US military personnel and Filipino soldiers had been
directed to participate in joint military training exercises held in
Basilan, Mactan Air Base in Cebu, Zamboanga del Sur, and Camp
Enrile in Zamboanga City. US forces were not allowed to operate
independently in the Philippine territory at any time. However, the
American troops were allowed to fire back and take a defensive
position against an assault during the training.
The government made its staunch commitment against
terrorism. Mindanao, particularly, had suffered much from decades
of local insurgency. In her second State of the Nation Address
(SONA), President Arroyo described terrorists and criminals as
enemies of the State. She brought her call for a strong Republic,
declaring total war against criminals and terrorists. She pointed out
that a strong republic must be able to win the twin battles against
terrorism and poverty. It should efficiently deliver basic services to
the people and uphold the law. Furthermore, it should be
autonomous of dominant classes and sectors to represent the
people's interests.
To strengthen the society and the family, President Arroyo and
former President Aquino headed the campaign for peace by their
Prayer Power Campaign 2002. The campaign sought to consecrate
families to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Immaculate Heart of
Mary. Praying the rosary and masses were held in big churches and

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campuses around the country. This was part of preparations for the
4th World Meeting of Families (4WMF) on January 22 to 26, 2003
with the Philippines as the host.
The WMF is held every three years upon the invitation of the
Pope, the pontifical head of the Catholic Church. It is a reunion
where families gather to pray and deepen their understanding of
how the Christian family can fulfill its role as the initiator of
evangelization in the modern world.
The Holy Father Pope John Paul II named the Third
Millennium, the Asian Millennium because it is the millennium for
the proclamation of the Name and Gospel of Jesus in Asia (with
four billion people). The Pope chose the Philippines as the venue
for the 4WMF. Seventy million out of 120 million Christians in Asia
are in the Philippines. Despite the eagerness of the Pope to attend
the WMF assembly, his doctors shove aside his travel to the
Philippines due to his frail condition. The Holy Father sent Alfonso
Cardinal Lopez Trujillo to the country.
One of the top priorities of the Arroyo administration is its
renewed and intensified campaign against illegal drugs. Interior
and Local Government Secretary and Dangerous Drugs Board
(DDB) OlC-Chairman Jose D. Lina ordered the mobilization of antiabuse councils nationwide and the monitoring of drug testing
centers by the local chief executives (LCEs). The DDB's
implementing arm, the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency
(PDEA), created by Republic Act No. 9165 and established in July
2002, is expected to crush the PI 50 billion or more or so illegal drug
business in the country. The Philippine National Police (PNP) AntiIllegal Drug Task Force has been assigned to validate the arrest and
file appropriate charges on drug pushers and drug-users.
To restrict the addiction to smoking, the Congress likewise
passed the 2003 Tobacco Regulation Act (Republic Act No. 9211),
which imposes an absolute ban on smoking in public places and

restricts the packaging, use, sale, distribution and advertisement of

cigarettes and other tobacco products. President Arroyo signed this
law as part of her administration's commitment to a cleaner,
healthier, and safer world. The increasing prevalence of smoking in
the Philippines with around 20,000 Filipinos who die every year
due to tobacco-related diseases, prompted many Filipino legislators
to regulate the distribution and use of cigarettes in the country.
Peace agreements with rebel groups as well as closure of
wounds caused by divisions due to EDSA 1 and 2 are also being
targeted by the Arroyo administration. On the other hand, the
separatist MILF seeks to solve through peaceful means the problem
in Mindanao with the pre-condition for signing a final peace
agreement with the Philippine government that must be just,
lasting, and comprehensive.
The perennial attempted coups in the military could be
manifestations of power struggles among the members of the
conservative elites and discontent brought about by slow pace of
economic and political change in the country. Antonio Trillanes
(elected Senator in the 2004 elections) together with the Magdalo
group of junior military officers and 300 soldiers staged a mutiny
against the Arroyo administration in the former Oakwood Premier
Hotel in Makati in July 2003. The soldiers were allegedly planning
to attack Batasang Pambansa a day before President Arroyo
delivers her State-of-the-Nation Address on July 24. For the Arroyo
administration, this was another destabilization attempt against the
government. Eleven of the Magdalo group were charged with coup
d' etat.
Amidst political turmoil, President Arroyo completed the
remaining term of former President Estrada and ran for reelection
against Fernando Poe, Jr., a.k.a. FPJ, a popular actor, in May 2004.
Mrs. Arroyo and her running mate Noli de Castro were eventually
proclaimed the winners of the Presidential and Vice-Presidential

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elections. FPJ made his electoral protest; however it was later

junked by the Supreme Court shortly after he died in December of a
stroke.
This 2004 presidential election was widely seen as a test of
legitimacy for the presidency of Mrs. Arroyo. The President
credited her victory to public approval of her pro-poor, pro-growth,
and pro-peace agenda. She delivered her inaugural address at the
Quirino Grandstand, Rizal Park, Manila then later flew to Cebu
City where she took her oath. President Arroyo and Vice-President
Noli de Castro took their oath before Supreme Court Chief Justice
Hilario Davide Jr. Shortly after, the President hosted the vin d'
honneur, the traditional reception for the diplomatic corps led by
ambassadors from different countries
President Arroyo would like to uplift the economy and unify
the nation by the end of her term in 2010. Her administration aims
for the creation of six to 10 million jobs by tripling loans for small
business owners and development of one to two million hectares of
land for agricultural business. Regarding education, the
construction of new school buildings, classrooms, provision of
books and computers for students, and scholarships to poor
families are being envisioned.
Likewise, the government intends to balance the national
budget in view of the country's debilitating deficit and to
decentralize progress and development across the country through
the development of transportation networks like the roll-on, roll-off
ferries and digital infrastructure.
The provision of power and water supply to all barangays is
also a priority project of the government. The administration would
also work for the decongestion of Metro Manila by forming new
cores of government and housing centers in Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao. The government would likewise take steps for the

development of Clark and Subic as the logistics center in Asia.

Automation of the electoral process is also being considered.
Phase 1 of the President's economic reform agenda centered on
revenue reforms topped by the passage of higher taxes on tobacco
and alcohol products, the Attrition Law, and the Expanded Value
Added Tax (E-VAT). On fighting poverty, the administration's
micro-finance program hopes to generate jobs and uplift the lives of
the poor. The economic reform program would somehow trim the
country's unemployment rate and help create six to 10 million jobs.
President Arroyo would like to see the day that the job abroad is an
option and not longer a necessity.
Some people may not be readily able to find available work or
may earn wages too low to support a family. For these reasons,
numerous NGOs in the Philippines were quick to adopt the
Grameen Bank model (Bangladesh) in poverty eradication schemes.
Peasants, fisherfolk, and upland farmers whose daily earnings are
insufficient have availed of the microfinance services from host
providers. The entrepreneurial poor who operate microenterprises
and depend on microfinance services run by NGOs and Credit
Cooperatives are able to pay on time and save regularly on a
weekly basis.
In 2005, demonstrations calling for President Arroyo to resign
took place in various areas of the country. A tape recording of
President Arroyo talking with a Commission of Elections official
through telephone surfaced, suggesting that she might have
influenced the outcome of the 2004 elections. Former National
Bureau of Investigation (NBI) deputy director Samuel Ong made
his expose' of the so-called "mother of all tapes," which according to
him, contains the alleged original wiretapped telephone
conversation between COMELEC Commissioner Virgilio
Garcillano and Mrs. Arroyo.

372

The President publicly apologized for what she called lapse of

judgment for calling an unidentified election official before
Congress could proclaim the winner of the election She denied
accusations of cheating and expressed her intention to serve until
the end of her term on June 2010.
The probe on the wiretapped conversation was jointly
conducted by five committees in the House led by Gilbert Remulla
of Cavite. During the probe, Environment and Natural Resources
Secretary Mike Defensor presented findings of an American expert
on the tape that would discredit the charges that the President
rigged the May 2004 presidential elections. Based on the findings of
American forensic audio/video identification expert Barry Dickey,
the two tracks submitted to him have several anomalies, which
include the alteration of words in the conversation.
The Hyatt 10, a group of Cabinet officials who called for
President Arroyo to resign and accused the President of using
charter change initiatives to evade persistent questions about her
credibility is composed of former Secretaries Cesar Purisima of
Finance; Corazon "Dinky" Soliman of Social Service; Juan Santos of
Trade; Emilia Boncodin of Budget; Florencio Abad of Education;
Rene Villa of Land Reform; Teresita Deles, adviser on the peace
process; Guillermo Parayno of the Bureau of Internal Revenue; and
Alberto Lina of the Bureau of Customs.
Party-list groups and other organizations seeking the ouster of
President Arroyo organized the "Bantay Impeachment" information
bureau to provide the people with an alternative news source on
the impeachment case against the President. The groups are
Anakpawis, Bayan Muna, and Gabriela Women's Party. The other
Bantay Impeachment organizers are the Bagong Alyansang
Makabayan, Kilusang Mayo Uno, Kilusang Magbubukid ng
Pilipinas, Kalipunan ng Damayang Mahihirap, Youth Demanding
for Arroyo's Removal, Migrante International, Promotion of

Church-People's Response, Gloria Step Down Movement, and

Anakbayan.
The pro-impeachment group of Congressmen include
Representatives Rolex Suplico (LDP, Iloilo), Alan Peter Cayetano
(Taguig-Pateros), Ronaldo Zamora (San Juan), Joel Villanueva
(Party List, Citizens' Battle Against Corruption), Benigno Aquino III
(Tarlac), Rodolfo Plaza (Agusan del Sur), and Mujiv Hataman
(Party List, Anak Mindanao).
Citing technical grounds, Atty. Pedro Ferrer, the lawyer for
President Arroyo asked the House Committee on Justice to strike
out all other impeachment complaints filed against her aside from
the first one filed by lawyer Oliver Lozano. The House Committee
on Justice junked the impeachment complaint against President
Arroyo. The committee voted to declare the petition "insufficient in
substance" and to dismiss it. Pro-impeachment lawmakers alleged
that the original complaint was weak. They also suspected that the
Lozano complaint was filed so the administration can apply the
one-year ban rule on Mrs. Arroyo's case. The Lozano complaint
accuse the President of betraying public trust when she allegedly
cheated in the May 2004 elections.
President Arroyo, from the start, was not affected by the
impeachment complaints filed against her, and even dared the
opposition to prove its claims that she bribed lawmakers to stop the
process. Unfazed by political intrigues, the President showed no
sign of retreat. She vowed not to waver her commitment to institute
fiscal and economic reforms.
In the 8th SON A of the President before the joint session of
Congress, the National Welfare Program became the main thrust to
protect the people and the economy from increasing costs of oil and
food. The President called on Congress to extend the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) for another five

374

years. She sought for the inclusion of the use of farmland as loan
collateral in the CARP extension bill.
President Arroyo asked the Congress to pass a Consumer Bill of
Rights promoting the rights of consumers against price gouging,
false advertising, and other marketing malpractices. However, the
President did not endorse the reproductive health bill in Congress
but instead defended the government's policy on natural family
planning and female education.
The government spent P8.6 billion of revenues from Expanded
Value- Added Tax (E-VAT) on social services and infrastructure in
the first six months of 2006. Important infrastructure projects,
particularly railways and rural electrification projects, as well as
education and health initiatives that enhance the skills of our
workforce were prioritized. Supplemental budget for the
rehabiliation of typhoon-hit provinces in Western Visayas was
obtained from the proceeds of the E-VAT.
The Arroyo administration launched an energy efficiency and
conservation program to cushion the adverse impact of oil price
increase. The government drafted its energy independence
program, which includes increasing the indigenous oil and gas
reserves, developing the renewable energy, and increasing the use
of alternative fuels. Coco diesel, ethanol or alcogas, and compressed
natural gas (CNG) are among the alternatives that could be
combined with gasoline to reduce oil purchases. Ethanol is an
alternative energy resource produced from crops such as corn,
grain sorghum, wheat, sugar, and other agricultural feedstocks. The
use of ethanol as an additive would encourage sugar planters that
shifted before to planting other crops to go back to sugar
production. Under the government's National Fuel Ethanol
Program, private entities are encouraged to invest in the production
of bio-fuels and distribution of bio-fuel blends.

In the midst of facing the challenges of the times, President

Arroyo asked Congress to begin the process of rewriting the
constitution, changing the presidential system of government into a
federal-parliamentary system. In her State of the Nation Address in
2005, the President said she favored Charter change via the
constituent assembly. For the President, charter change is the best
way to respond to widespread dissatisfaction with Philippine
politics. The political system is the same as that designed by the
American colonial government and is not anymore capable of
responding to the needs of the country of the 21st century.
President Arroyo emphasized the benefits of the parliamentary
system for local government units since it will give more power
and autonomy to local officials under the federal system. For the
President, the federal- parliamentary form of government will
improve the political interface between the executive and the
legislature.
Proponents of federalism believe that it is the answer to the ageold problems of inequitable distribution of wealth, slow pace of
development in the countryside, and the peace and order situation
in Mindanao. At that time, Speaker Jose de Venecia called Charter
Change (Cha-Cha) the country's last chance for change to break the
deadlock in our democracy. He said that the shift to a
parliamentary system and a unicameral assembly would install in
the Philippines a political structure free from destabilizing coup
attempts or frequent impeachment crisis.
For Secretary Ignacio Bunye, the parliamentary system is also
more politically stable as a simple vote of no-confidence is enough
to remove an ineffective leader. For former President Fidel Ramos,
the proposed parliamentary system will also provide proportional
representation for the country's leaders in Philippine politics since
members of the parliament will be elected in their respective
district, including the prime minister. The Muslim Movement for

376

Federal Philippines appealed to the nation to support President

Arroyo and former President Ramos' proposal to change the form
of government to improve its performance and eradicate
corruption.
The country registered its highest economic growth in three
decades in 2007. However, the benefits of the growth have been
slow in trickling down to the poor. The latest Index of Economic
Freedom, prepared by the Washington based Heritage Foundation
with the Wall Street Journal ranked the Philippines 104th among 183
countries in terms of economic freedom. The index gave the
country the lowest score in freedom from corruption.
The Arroyo administration has taken strides to address the
problem of graft and corruption in the public sector. Part of the
campaign against corruption include the allotment of additional
funds for the Office of the Ombudsman, the Presidential Anti-Graft
Commission, and other investigative arms of the government.
Lifestyle checks have led to the dismissal and / or prosecution of
some officials. There are a number of graft-related issues still
waiting to be resolved, which include $329-million broadband
project deal with ZTE Corp., the P728-million fertilizer scam, and
alleged cash gifts distributed to some politicians.
The country is in need of feasible solutions to achieve lasting
peace and prosperity. The government alone could not carry out the
arduous tasks. The Philippines, naturally blessed with bountiful
resources and a historic past, has withstood the difficult times. It is
resilient yet staunch like a bamboo. The nation has been striving for
its primary concern, its people from its foremost strength, the
Almighty God.
At the beginning of 2009, the 42nd World Day of Peace was
celebrated with the theme, "Fighting Poverty to Build Peace." In the
message of Pope Benedict XVI, he highlighted the need for human
family to find an urgent response to the serious question of poverty,

which is not only a material problem, but above all, a moral and
spiritual one.

Study Guides
A.

B.

Terms / Concepts to Understand

Bell Trade Act
Coup d' etat
Parity Rights
Blue Book
Military Bases Agreement
Oplan Sagittarius
Bell Mission
AVSECOM
Melby Mission
APEC
Rizal Bill
Visiting Forces Agreement
Filipino First Policy
SONA
Questions to Answer
1.
Cite incidents under various political administrations
wherein the following qualities were evident:
a.
creativity and resourcefulness
b.
faith and religiosity
c.
dishonesty and treachery
d.
loyalty and bravery
2.
What brought about the People Power 1 and 2? Discuss the
results of these mass actions.
3.
What should the Filipinos do to achieve a sustainable
economic growth?
4.
Is there a need to change the 1987 Philippine Constitution?
Why?

378

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