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VOLUME
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section
Page
Laminar
Velocity
Flow
Profile
E
08
D
V
Magnetic
Coil
Figure 1-3: Faraday's Law is the Basis of the Magnetic Flowmeter
Wedge Flow
Element
H L
16
A) Segmental Wedge
B) V-Cone
Mechanical Flowmeters
2nd Detector
Flow Tube
Displacer
1st Detector
34
Flow
Calibrated
Volume
Figure 3-7:
1.00
Electronic Flowmeters
Magnetic Flowmeters
Vortex Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
K = 1 Asymptote
For Flat Profile
0.95
0.90
K
46
0.85
0.80
0.75
K = 0.75 For Laminar Flow
0.70
10
100
1,000
10
10
10
10
Re
Figure 4-6:
Support
(Typical)
Mass Flowtube
Enclosure
Mass Flowmeters
Support
Flanges
NOTE:
Distance Between
Pipe/Flowtube
Junction and
Support
Must Not
Exceed 15 Inches
Flow
Direction Arrow
A)
'U' Rest
C)
Flow
Direction
Arrow
Pipe/Flowtube Junction
'V' Rest
'V' Bolt
Clamp
B)
58
Inverted Pipe
Hanger Clamp
Figure 5-5:
04
Volume 4
TRANSACTIONS
REFERENCE SECTIONS
Editorial
About OMEGA
Section
Page
Level %
100
Vertical
Sphere
72
50
Horizontal
Cylindrical
50
100 Volume %
Figure 6-3:
Bimetallic
Temperature
Compensator
Pneumatic
Relay
Range
Spring
Liquid
Fill
Feedback Bellows
Air
Supply
76
Output
Fulcrum & Seal
Force Bar
Low Pressure
Side
High Pressure
Side
High Pressure
Side
Liquid Filled
Diaphragm
Capsule
Low Pressure
Side
A)
B)
Figure 7-3:
Level
Kv
#1
Theory of Operation
Probe Designs
Installation Considerations
- -- -- ---
- -- ---
+ ++
++
+
+ ++
++
++
+
#2
Kl
+ ++
++
++
++
+
+ ++
+
C= KA
D
C=Capacitance
K=Dieletric Constant
A=Area of Plates
D=Dist. Between Plates
Voltmeter
Electron
Flow
87
RF
Ammeter
A)
B)
Figure 8-2:
Reflection
Microwave
Detector
Microwave
Transmitter
Microwave
Window
Microwave
Window
A)
Reflected
Beam
Transmitted
Beam
Absorbed
Beam
Microwave
Receiver
93
Microwave
Window
B)
Figure 9-6:
10
Thermal Switches
Vibrating Switches
Optical Switches
LED
Receiver
Light
from
LED
Prism
LED
Receiver
102
Prism
Light
Lost in
Liquid
Liquid Immersing
the Sensing Prism.
Figure 10-4:
TRANSACTIONS
Volume 4
05
RecoveryPercent of Differential
08
Volume 4
TRANSACTIONS
Static Pressure
PPT
PRT=PVC
PFT
(0.35-0.85)D
Flow
2.5D
PCT
8D
Flow
Orifice
Figure 1-2: Conversion of Static Pressure Into Kinetic Energy
Laminar
Velocity
Flow
Profile
E
D
V
Magnetic
Coil
E = BVDC
Figure 1-3: Faraday's Law Is the Basis of the Magnetic Flowmeter
TRANSACTIONS
Volume 4
09
are used at very low flowrates (capillary flowmeters) or when the viscosity of the process fluid is high.
In the case of some flowmeter
technologies, more than a century
elapsed between the discovery of a
Conventional
Magnetic Flowmeters
% Rate Accuracy
Performance of Pulsed
DC Magnetic Flowmeters
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0
-0.5
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
10
50
100
% Full Scale
Figure 1-4: Magmeter Accuracy
Volume 4
Flow measurement options run the gamut from simple, economical paddle wheels (shown) to
sophisticated high-accuracy devices.
TRANSACTIONS
Coefficient of Discharge
Concentric
Square-Edged
Orifice
Target Meter
(Best Case)
Integral
Orifice
Magnetic
Flowmeter
Eccentric
Orifice
Flow
Nozzle
Target Meter
(Worst Case)
10
102
103
104
Venturi Tube
Quadrant-Edged
Pipeline
Reynolds
Orifice
Number
105
106
11
lay
sit
Po
A
ion
e
Tim
e
nB
tio rt Pip
i
s
o
Po
p
ns
Tra
De
n(t)
w
Flo
m(t)
A
Upstream
Transducer Signal
m(t)
Time. t
Transit
Time
n(t)
Downstream
Transducer Signal
Time. t
Figure 1-6: The Ultrasonic Transit-Time Flowmeter
12
Volume 4
STEAM
CLEAN
DIRTY
HIGH
PRESS
LOW
CLEAN
HIGH
VISCOUS
LOW
DIRTY
CORROSIVE
VERY CORROSIVE
FIBROUS
SLURRIES
ABRASIVE
REVERSE FLOW
PULSATING
FLOW
HIGH TEMPERATURE
CRYOGENIC
SEMI-FILLED
PIPES
NON-NEWTONIANS
OPEN CHANNEL
GASES
(VAPORS)
TRANSACTIONS
X
?
X
?
X
X
?
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
X
X
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
X
SD
?
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
?
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
SD
X
?
X
X
X
X
SD
X
X
X
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
?
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
?
X
?
X
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
SD
SD
?
?
X
X
X
SD
SD
SD
?
?
X
?
?
X
?
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
?
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
?
X
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
?
?
?
X
?
?
X
X
X
SD
SD
X
SD
SD
X
X
?
?
X
?
X
?
X
X
X
URV = Upper Range Value
X = Not applicable
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
X
X
?
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
X
X
X
?
X
?
?
Process temperature
to 1000F (540C):
Transmitter limited
to -30-250F (-30-120C)
psig
To 4,000
(41,000 kPa)
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
>2 (50)
Eccentric
?
?
?
>4 (100)
Segmental
?
0.5-72 (12-1800)
?
V-Cone
?
?
<0.5(12)
Target***
?
?
>2 (50)
Venturi
?
?
?
>2 (50)
Flow Nozzle
X
>3 (75)
Low Loss Venturi
?
X
X
>3 (75)
Pitot
?
SD
>1 (25)
Averaging Pitot
?
X
?
>2 (50)
Elbow
?
0.25-16.6 (6-400)
?
X
Laminar
LINEAR
SCALE TYPICAL RANGE
10:1 (Or better)
0.1-72 (2.5-1800)
X
X
X
X
X
Magnetic*
Positive Displacement
Gas
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
<12 (300)
Liquid
?
X
?
X
X
X
X
X
<12 (300)
Turbine
Gas
0.25-24 (6-600)
SD
X
X
X
X
X
X
Liquid
0.25-24 (6-600)
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
?
Ultrasonic
X
SD
SD
SD
SD
?
?
X
Time of Flight
>0.5 (12)
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
Doppler
>0.5 (12)
?
X
X
X
?
X
?
Variable-Area (Rotameter)
3 (75)
Vortex Shedding
1.5-16 (40-400)
?
X
?
?
?
?
X
?
X
?
Vortex Precession (Swirl)
<16 (400)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
?
Fluidic Oscillation (Coanda)
>1.5 (40)
Mass
?
?
?
?
Coriolis
0.25-6 (6-150)
X
?
?
?
Thermal Probe
<72 (1800)
X
X
X
X
X
X
SD
X
?
X
Solids Flowmeter
<24 (600)
Correlation
X
X
X
X
X
X
Capacitance
<8 (200)
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
Ultrasonic
>0.5 (12)
? = Normally applicable (worth consideration)
cP = centi Poise
= Designed for this application (generally suitable)
cS = centi Stokes
SD = Some designs
?
?
X
TYPICAL
TYPICAL
Accuracy, uncalibrated
Reynolds number
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
(Including transmitter)
or viscosity
F (C)
psig (kPa)
X
1-4% URV
RD > 10,000
X
1% URV
R
>
10,000
D
X
2-5% URV
RD > 10,000
X
0.5% URV
RD > 500
X
2-4% URV
RD > 10,000
X
2-4% URV
RD > 10,000
X
0.5-1% of rate
RD : 8,000-5,000,000
700 (370)
600 (4,100)
X
0.5-5% URV
RD > 100
X
0.5-2% URV
RD > 75,000
X
1-2% URV
RD > 50,000
X
1.25% URV
RD > 12,800
X
3-5% URV
RD > 100,000
X
1-2% URV
RD > 40,000
X
5-10% URV
RD > 10,000
X
1% of rate
RD < 500
30 (225)
150 (66)
RD > 4,500
1,500 (10,800)
360 (180)
?
0.5% of rate
X
1% of rate
1,400 (10,000)
-
250 (120)
X
0.5% of rate
1,400 (10,000)
No RD limit 8,000 cS
600 (315)
?
0.5% of rate
3,000 (21,000)
-
-450-500 (268-260)
?
0.5% of rate
3,000 (21,000)
Rp > 5,000, 15 cS
-450-500 (268-260)
?
1% of rate to 5% URV
RD > 10,000
-300-500 (-180-260)
Pipe rating
X
1% of rate to 5% URV
RD > 4,000
-300-500 (-180-260)
Pipe rating
Glass:
350 (2,400)
X
1% of rate to 10% URV
No RD limit, < 100 cS
Glass: 400 (200)
Metal: 1,000 (540)
Metal: 720 (5,000)
1,500 (10,500)
X
0.75-1.5% of rate
RD > 10,000, < 30 cP
400
(200)
X
0.5% of rate
RD > 10,000, < 5 cP
536
(280)
Pipe rating
X
2% of rate
RD > 2,000, < 80 cS
350
(175)
720 (5,000)
X
0.15-10% of rate
No RD limit
-400-800 (-224-427)
5,700 (39,900)
X
1-2% URV
Pipe rating
No RD limit
1,500 (816)
X
0.5% of rate to 4% URV
-
580 (4,000)
750 (400)
X
No data available
580 (4,000)
No data available
300 (149)
X
6% of ??
Pipe rating
No data available
-300-250 (-180-120)
* Liquid must be electrically conductive
According to other sources, the minimum
** Range 10:1 for laminar, and 15:1 for target
Reynolds number should be much higher
*** Newer designs linearize the signal
Process temperature
to 1000F (540C):
Transmitter limited
to -30-250F (-30-120C)
psig
To 4,000
(41,000 kPa)
FLOWMETER
PIPE SIZE, in. (mm)
SQUARE
ROOT SCALE: MAXIMUM SINGLE RANGE 4:1 (Typical)**
Orifice
X
>1.5 (40)
Square-Edged
X
0.5-1.5 (12-40)
Honed Meter Run
?
X
<0.5 (12)
Integrated
<12 (300)
Segmental Wedge
Volume 4
13
Orifice
(plate or integral cell)
Segmental
Wedge
H SR 3:1
M SR 3:1
V-Cone
Flowmeter
Target
Meters
Venturi Tubes
20/5
2/5
A SR 15:1
20/5
H SR 3:1
15/5
Flow Nozzles
H SR 3:1
20/5
Pitot Tubes
M SR 3:1
30/5
Elbow Taps
M SR 3:1
25/10
Laminar Flowmeters
10:1
15/5
N 30:1
5/3
15/5
20:1
10:1
N
N
10:1
20/5
Positive Displacement
Gas Meters
SR 3:1 to 15:1
SD
10:1 to
200:1
Positive Displacement
Liquid Meters
Turbine Flowmeters
H 10:1
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Time of Flight
Doppler
Variable Area (Rotamater)
Vortex Shedding
SD
Mass Flowmeters
Thermal Probe
Solids Flowmeters
SD
Weirs, Flumes
= Non-standard Range
L = Limited
SD = Some Designs
H = High
A = Average
M = Minimal
N = None
SR = Square Root
Volume 4
M
SD
10:1
N
N
A
A
10/1
12/1
N
20:1
20:1
SD
N
5:1 to 80:1
10
102
103
1.0
cc/min
2.8
28.3
102
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
0.1
1.0
103
102
10
102
103
102
103
103
102
103
Solids
Flow
Units
Gas
Flow
Units
104
104
105
Liquid
Flow
Units
104
m3/hr
104
105
106
gpm
gpmm3/hr
SCFMSm3/hr
gpmm /hr
3/hr
gpmm
3/hr
ACFMSm
gpmm3/hr
3
SCFMSm /hr
3/hr
gpmm
SCFMSm3/hr
gpmm3/hr
3
/hr
SCFMSm
3/hr
gpmm
3/hr
SCFMSm
3
gpmm /hr
SCFMSm3/hr
3
gpmm /hr
3
SCFMSm
/hr
3
gpmm
/hr
gpmm3/hr
SCFMSm3/hr
gpmm3/hr
SCFMSm3/hr
5/3
M
SD
100:1
M
4/1
= The data in this column is for general guidance only.
is substantially greater than shown. Value used reflects
of primary device
= Inherent
rangeability
limitations
pressure
sensing
of
device when 1% of rate accuracy is desired. With
differential
multiple-range intelligent transmitters, rangeability can reach 10:1.
= Pipe size establishes the upper limit.
= Practically unlimited with probe type design.
gpmm /hr
ACFMSm3/hr
3
20/5
20/5
gpmm3/hr
SCFMSm3/hr
20/5
20/5
M/H
N
M
106
10
105
Sm /hr or Am /hr
10
104
1.0
10
104kgm/hr
-5
10
10
-4
10-3
10-2
0.1
10
-6
-2
-6
-5
-4
-3
10
10
10
10
10
0.1
1.0
cc/min
.004
0.04
0.4
3.8
38
379
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
0.1
1.0
20/5
Magnetic Flowmeters
14
1.0
0.1
0.05 0.3
TYPE OF DESIGN
FLOW RANGE
0.1
SCFMSm3/hr
lbmkgm/hr
gpmm /hr
SCFMSm3/hr
lbmkgm/hr
gpmm3/hr
TRANSACTIONS
15
Line
Pressure
Vena Contracta
unrestricted pipe. The pressure differential (h) developed by the flow element is measured, and the velocity (V),
the volumetric flow (Q) and the mass
flow (W) can all be calculated using
the following generalized formulas:
V = k (h/D)0.5
or Q =kA(h/D)0.5
or W= kA(hD)0.5
k is the discharge coefficient of the
element (which also reflects the
units of measurement), A is the crosssectional area of the pipes opening,
and D is the density of the flowing
Flow
Flow
Laminar
Turbulent
Volume 4
transition between laminar and turbulent flows can cover a wide range
of Reynolds numbers; the relationship with the discharge coefficient is
a function of the particular primary
element.
Today, many engineering societies
and organizations and most primary
ADVANTAGES
LIMITATIONS
Easy to install
Low cost
Easy to replace
17
7 Pipe Diameters
Swirl Reducer
Flow
Profile Concentrator
A
Settling Distance
(4 Pipe Diameters)
Volume 4
Pipe Taps
2 21 D
8D
Flange Taps
1 in.
1 in.
Flow
Corner Taps
D/2
19
Vent Hole
Location
(Liquid
Service)
Flow
Pipe
Drain Hole
Internal
Location
Diameter
(Vapor
Service)
A) Concentric
Bevel Where
Thickness Is
Greater Than
1/8 in (3.175 mm)
or the Orifice
45
Diameter Is Less
Than 1 in (25 mm)
Orifice
Upstream
Sharp Edge
1/8 in (3.175 mm)
Maximum
1/8 in - 1/2 in
(3.175-12.70 mm)
B) Eccentric
C) Segmental
Volume 4
Flow
Flow
45
A) Quadrant-Edged
B) Conical
21
Orifice Performance
Although it is a simple device, the
orifice plate is, in principle, a precision instrument. Under ideal conditions, the inaccuracy of an orifice
plate can be in the range of 0.75-1.5%
AR. Orifice plates are, however, quite
10
80
20
Orifice Plate
70
30
ASME Flow
Nozzle
60
40
50
50
40
60
30
70
Standard
Venturi
20
80
Long Form
Venturi
10
0.1
90
Low Loss
Venturi
0.2
0.3
0.7
0.8
0.9
Volume 4
RecoveryPercent of Differential
90
D.1D .5D.1D
Flow
Throat Outlet
Inlet Inlet
Cone
Cone
A) Short-Form Venturi Tube
B) Universal Venturi
C) Flow Nozzle
Flow Nozzles
The flow nozzle is dimensionally
more stable than the orifice plate,
particularly in high temperature and
high velocity services. It has often
been used to measure high
flowrates of superheated steam.
The flow nozzle, like the venturi,
has a greater flow capacity than the
orifice plate and requires a lower
initial investment than a venturi
Wedge Flow
Element
H L
A) Segmental Wedge
B) V-Cone
remove buildup from interior openings, even while the meter is online.
Lead lines can also be replaced with
button-type seal elements hydrauli-
23
Tubing Adaptor
Pt
Static Pressure
Connection
Vp ~ Pt - P
Volume 4
Venturi-Cone Element
The venturi-cone (V-cone) element
(Figure 2-8B) is another proprietary
design that promises consistent performance at low Reynolds numbers
and is insensitive to velocity profile
distortion or swirl effects. Again, however, it is relatively expensive. The Vcone restriction has a unique geometry
TRANSACTIONS
Impact
(High Pressure)
Connection
Pt
P
Packing Nut
Static
(Low Pressure)
Connection
Stuffing Box
Corporation Cock
Static
Opening
Flow
Impact
Opening
Pitot Tubes
Although the pitot tube is one of the
simplest flow sensors, it is used in a
wide range of flow measurement
applications such as air speed in racing cars and Air Force fighter jets. In
industrial applications, pitot tubes
are used to measure air flow in pipes,
ducts, and stacks, and liquid flow in
pipes, weirs, and open channels.
While accuracy and rangeability are
relatively low, pitot tubes are simple,
reliable, inexpensive, and suited for a
variety of environmental conditions,
including extremely high temperatures and a wide range of pressures.
The pitot tube is an inexpensive
alternative to an orifice plate.
Accuracy ranges from 0.5% to 5% FS,
which is comparable to that of an
orifice. Its flow rangeability of 3:1
(some operate at 4:1) is also similar
to the capability of the orifice
plate. The main difference is that,
Theory of Operation
Pitot tubes were invented by Henri
Pitot in 1732 to measure the flowing
velocity of fluids. Basically a differential pressure (d/p) flowmeter, a
pitot tube measures two pressures:
the static and the total impact pressure. The static pressure is the operating pressure in the pipe, duct, or
the environment, upstream to the
pitot tube. It is measured at right
angles to the flow direction, preferably in a low turbulence location
(Figure 2-9).
The total impact pressure (PT) is
the sum of the static and kinetic
pressures and is detected as the
flowing stream impacts on the pitot
opening. To measure impact pressure, most pitot tubes use a small,
Rectangular Stack
(Measure at Center of at
Least 9 Equal Areas)
Circular Stack
(10-Point Traverse)
0.916 R
0.837 R
0.707 R
0.548 R
0.316 R
Volume 4
25
Pt = PH
PL = P
Low
Pressure
Profile
High
Pressure
Profile
Velocity
Profile
Average
Velocity
PH
PL
DP
Average High
(Impact) Pressure
Average Low
(Static) Pressure
Volume 4
requires an adjustment of the insertion depth. Pitot tubes are recommended only for highly turbulent
flows (Reynolds Numbers > 20,000)
and, under these conditions, the
velocity profile tends to be flat
enough so that the insertion depth is
not critical.
In 1797, G.B. Venturi developed a
short tube with a throat-like passage that increases flow velocity
and reduces the permanent pressure
drop. Special pitot designs are available that, instead of providing just
an impact hole for opening, add a
single or double venturi to the
impact opening of the pitot tube.
The venturi version generates a
higher differential pressure than
does a regular pitot tube.
TRANSACTIONS
averaging medium.
Pitot tubes also can be used in
square, rectangular or circular air
ducts. Typically, the pitot tube fits
through a 5/16-in diameter hole in
the duct. Mounting can be by a
flange or gland. The tube is usually
provided with an external indicator,
so that its impact port can be accurately rotated to face directly into
the flow. In addition, the tube can be
designed for detecting the full velocity profile by making rapid and consistent traverses across the duct.
In some applications, such as EPAmandated stack particulate sampling,
it is necessary to traverse a pitot
sampler across a stack or duct. In
these applications, at each point
noted in Figure 2-11, a temperature
and flow measurement is made in
addition to taking a gas sample,
which data are then combined and
taken to a laboratory for analysis. In
such applications, a single probe
contains a pitot tube, a thermocouple, and a sampling nozzle.
A pitot tube also can be used to
27
Area Averaging
Area-averaging pitot stations are
used to measure the large flows of
low pressure air in boilers, dryers, or
HVAC systems. These units are available for the various standard sizes of
circular or rectangular ducts (Figure
2-13) and for pipes. They are so
Installed
Drill
Thru
Valve
Inserted
Volume 4
Installation
Pitot tubes can be used as permanently
installed flow sensors or as portable
monitoring devices providing periodic
data. Permanently installed carbon
steel or stainless steel units can operate at up to 1400 PSIG pressures and
are inserted into the pipe through
flanged or screw connections. Their
installation usually occurs prior to
plant start-up, but they can be hottapped into an operating process.
In a hot-tap installation (Figure
2-14), one first welds a fitting to the
pipe. Then a drill-through valve is
attached to the fitting and a hole is
drilled through the pipe. Then, after
partially withdrawing the drill, the
valve is closed, the drill is removed
and the pitot tube is inserted. Finally,
the valve is opened and the pitot
tube is fully inserted.
The velocity profile of the flowing
stream inside the pipe is affected by
the Reynolds number of the flowing
fluid, pipe surface roughness, and by
upstream disturbances, such as
valves, elbows, and other fittings.
Pitot tubes should be used only if the
minimum Reynolds number exceeds
20,000 and if either a straight run of
about 25 diameters can be provided
TRANSACTIONS
Vibration Damage
Natural frequency resonant vibrations can cause pitot tube failure.
spring is used to return the flow element to its resting position when the
flow lessens. Gravity-operated meters
(rotameters) must be installed in a vertical position, whereas spring operated
ones can be mounted in any position.
100
90
80
Gravity
70
Equilibrium
60
50
Float
40
30
Flow
20
10
R
Scale
Tapered Tube
(Rotameter)
Tapered Plug
Piston in
Perforated
Cylinder
Flexing Vane,
Disc, or Flapper
All variable area flowmeters are available with local indicators. Most can
also be provided with position sensors
and transmitters (pneumatic, electronic,
digital, or fiberoptic) for connecting to
remote displays or controls.
Purge-Flow Regulators
If a needle valve is placed at the
inlet or outlet of a rotameter, and a
d/p regulator controls the pressure
difference across this combination,
the result is a purge-flow regulator.
Such instrumentation packages are
used as self-contained purge
flowmeters (Figure 2-16). These are
among the least expensive and most
widely used flowmeters. Their main
application is to control small gas or
liquid purge streams. They are used
to protect instruments from contacting hot and corrosive fluids, to
Volume 4
29
Flow at
P0 Outlet Pressure
Tube
Spring #1
Float
Diaphragm
P2
Regulator
Valve
Flow Control
Valve (V)
Spring #2
Flow at
P1 Inlet Pressure
Figure 2-16: Purge Flowmeter Design
Volume 4
Rotameters
The rotameter is the most widely
used variable area flowmeter
because of its low cost, simplicity,
low pressure drop, relatively wide
rangeability, and linear output. Its
operation is simple: in order to pass
through the tapered tube, the fluid
flow raises the float. The greater the
flow, the higher the float is lifted. In
liquid service, the float rises due to a
actual flow to a standard flow. For liquids, this standard flow is the water
equivalent in gpm; for gases, the standard flow is the air flow equivalent in
standard cubic feet per minute (scfm).
Tables listing standard water equivalent gpm and/or air scfm values are
provided by rotameter manufacturers.
Manufacturers also often provide
slide rules, nomographs, or computer
software for rotameter sizing.
Design Variations
A wide choice of materials is available
for floats, packing, O-rings, and end
fittings. Rotameter tubes for such
safe applications as air or water can
be made of glass, whereas if breakage
would create an unsafe condition,
they are provided with metal tubes.
Glass tubes are most common, being
precision formed of safety shielded
31
rm
rc
50
10
5
10
Water Equivalent Flow (GPM)
50
100
used for hot and strong alkalis, fluorine, hydrofluoric acid, hot water,
steam, slurries, sour gas, additives,
and molten metals. They also can be
used in applications where high
operating pressures, water hammer,
or other forces could damage glass
tubes. Metal-tube rotameters are
available in diameter sizes from K in
to 4 in, can operate at pressures up to
750 psig, temperatures to 540C
(1,000F), and can measure flows up
to 4,000 gpm of water or 1,300 scfm
of air. Metal-tube rotameters are
readily available as flow transmitters
for integration with remote analog or
digital controls. Transmitters usually
detect the float position through
magnetic coupling and are often provided with external indication
through a rotatable magnetic helix
that moves the pointer. The transmitter can be intrinsically safe, microprocessor-based, and can be provid32
Volume 4
Accuracy
Laboratory rotameters can be calibrated to an accuracy of 0.50% AR over a
4:1 range, while the inaccuracy of
industrial rotameters is typically 1-2%
FS over a 10:1 range. Purge and bypass
rotameter errors are in the 5% range.
Rotameters can be used to manually set flow rates by adjusting the
valve opening while observing the
scale to establish the required process
flow rate. If operating conditions
TRANSACTIONS
Volume 4
33
Mechanical Flowmeters
Disc
Vane
Housing
Vane Slot
Ball
Rotor
Inlet
A) Nutating Disc
Outlet
Outlet
Inlet
B) Rotating Valve
Volume 4
Mechanical Flowmeters
Measuring Chamber
Cylindrical
Abutment
Control Roller
Piston
Hub
Slide
Valve
Piston
Inlet Port
Piston
Outlet Port
Partition
Plate
Follower Magnet
Magnet Assembly
Housing
Piston
Cylindrical Abutment
A) Oscillating
Measuring
Chamber
Control Roller
Inlet
Cover
B) Single-Piston Reciprocating
performance of the meter deteriorates. The maximum allowable pressure drop across the meter constrains the maximum operating flow
in high viscosity services.
Liquid PD Meters
Nutating disc meters are the most
common PD meters. They are used as
residential water meters around the
world. As water flows through the
metering chamber, it causes a disc to
wobble (nutate), turning a spindle,
which rotates a magnet. This magnet
is coupled to a mechanical register
or a pulse transmitter. Because the
flowmeter entraps a fixed quantity
of fluid each time the spindle is
rotated, the rate of flow is proportional to the rotational velocity of
the spindle (Figure 3-1A).
TRANSACTIONS
35
Mechanical Flowmeters
A) Oval-Gear
B) Rotating Lobe
C) Rotating Impeller
Piston Meters
Oscillating piston flowmeters typically are used in viscous fluid services
such as oil metering on engine test
stands where turndown is not critical
(Figure 3-2). These meters also can be
used on residential water service and
can pass limited quantities of dirt,
such as pipe scale and fine (viz,-200
mesh or -74 micron) sand, but not
36
Volume 4
TRANSACTIONS
Helix Meters
The helix meter is a positive displacement device that uses two radially pitched helical gears to continuously entrap the process fluid as it
flows. The flow forces the helical
gears to rotate in the plane of the
pipeline. Optical or magnetic sensors
are used to encode a pulse train proportional to the rotational speed of
the helical gears. The forces required
to make the helices rotate are relatively small and therefore, in comparison to other PD meters, the
pressure drop is relatively low. The
best attainable accuracy is about
0.2% or rate.
+10
+1.0
Error
Mechanical Flowmeters
0.1
-1.0
>1000cP
300cP
100cP
30cP
10cP
3cP
-10
0.1
1.0
10
Maximum Rated Flow, %
100
As shown in Figure 3-4, measurement error rises as either the operating flowrate or the viscosity of the
Volume 4
37
Mechanical Flowmeters
which also serves to position the tubing. This type of metering pump is used
in laboratories, in a variety of medical
applications, in the majority of envi-
and the required flow rate and discharge pressure. Check valves (or, on
critical applications, double check
valves) are selected to protect
Discharge
Discharge
Adjustable
Outlet Valve
Diaphragm
Piston
Piston
Support
Plates
Packing Gland
(Stuffing Box)
Hydraulic
Oil
Suction
Check Valve
A) Piston
Inlet
Inlet Valve
B) Diaphragm
Suction
Metering Pumps
Metering pumps are PD meters that
also impart kinetic energy to the
process fluid. There are three basic
designs: peristaltic, piston, and
diaphragm.
Peristaltic pumps operate by having
fingers or a cam systematically squeeze
a plastic tubing against the housing,
38
Volume 4
against backflow.
Diaphragm pumps are the most
common industrial PD pumps (Figure
3-5B). A typical configuration consists
of a single diaphragm, a chamber, and
suction and discharge check valves
to prevent backflow. The piston can
either be directly coupled to the
diaphragm or can force a hydraulic
oil to drive the diaphragm. Maximum
output pressure is about 125 psig.
Variations include bellows-type
diaphragms, hydraulically actuated
double diaphragms, and air-operated, reciprocating double-diaphragms.
Gas PD Meters
PD gas meters operate by counting
the number of entrapped volumes
of gas passed, similar to the way PD
meters operate on liquids. The
TRANSACTIONS
Displacement
Flowmeter
High-Precision PD Systems
High-precision gas meters are usually
a hybrid combining a standard PD
Displacement
Flowmeter
DC Motor
Gas Flow
Mechanical Flowmeters
PDC
Low
Sensitivity
Leaf
Displacement
Transducers
PDC
High
Sensitivity
Leaf
Differential
Pressure
Detection Piston
Zeroing Solenoids
A) Gas Service
B) Liquid Service
meter and a motor drive that eliminates the pressure drop across the
meter. Equalizing the inlet and outlet
Volume 4
39
Mechanical Flowmeters
1st Detector
2nd Detector
Displacer
Flow Tube
Flow
Calibrated
Volume
Volume 4
PD Meter Accessories
PD meter accessories include strainers, filters, air/vapor release assemblies, pulsation dampeners, temperature compensation systems, and a
variety of valves to permit dribble
cut-off in batching systems.
Mechanical registers can be
equipped with mechanical or electronic ticket-printers for inventory
control and point-of-use sales.
Batching flow computers are readily
available, as are analog and intelligent digital transmitters. Automatic
meter reading (AMR) devices permit
the remote retrieval of readings by
utility personnel.
Turbine Flowmeters
Invented by Reinhard Woltman in the
18th century, the turbine flowmeter
is an accurate and reliable flowmeter
for both liquids and gases. It consists
TRANSACTIONS
One Pulse
Per Blade
Mechanical Flowmeters
Per
Revolution
One Unit
Volume
Permanent
Magnet
Coil
Cone
Coil
Meter
Body
Meter
Blade
Body
Rotor
N
Permanent
Magnet
B)
41
Mechanical Flowmeters
99
Nominal K Factor
98.50
+0.25%
98
-0.25%
100
Calibration Curve
97
Minimum Flow Rate for 0.25% Linearity
96
A
0
100
B
200
300
400
500
Flow Rate - Gal./Min.
600
700
800
Volume 4
This innovative turbine meter trades out a transmitted signal for local LCD indication.
TRANSACTIONS
Concentric
Cone
Nominal Size
D Inches
10 X D
2.5 D
Alternative Flow
Straightening Vanes
D Bore
Dia.
Bundle of Tubes
Element
Mechanical Flowmeters
Concentric
Cone
5XD
5XD
Flow
Meter and Straightener
Connections
Radial Vane
Element
from one to the other as the measured flow changes. Naturally, the Kfactor is applicable only to the fluid
for which the meter was calibrated.
Barstock turbine meters typically
are linear to 0.25% AR over a 10:1
flow range. The linearity of larger
meters is 0.5% AR over a 10:1 flow
range. Turbine meters have a typical
nonlinearity (the turbine meter
hump, shown in Figure 3-9) in the
lower 25-30% of their range. Keeping
the minimum flow reading above this
region will permit linearity to within
0.15% on small and 0.25% on larger
turbine meters. If the range of 10:1 is
insufficient, some turbine flowmeters can provide up to 100:1 turn-
43
Mechanical Flowmeters
Paddlewheel
Sensor
Locknut
Flow
A) Impeller
B) Paddlewheel
Pipe Tee
Volume 4
New Developments
Dual-rotor liquid turbines increase
the operating range in small line size
(under 2 in) applications. The two
rotors turn in opposite directions.
The front one acts as a conditioner,
directing the flow to the back rotor.
The rotors lock hydraulically and
continue to turn as the flow decreases
even to very low rates.
The linearity of a turbine meter is
affected by the velocity profile (often
dictated by the installation), viscosity,
and temperature. It is now possible to
include complex linearization functions in the preamplifier of a turbine
flowmeter to reduce these nonlinearities. In addition, advances in
fieldbus technology make it possible
TRANSACTIONS
TRANSACTIONS
Mechanical Flowmeters
Volume 4
45
Magnetic Flowmeters
Volume 4
E = KV
The velocity differences at different points of the flow profile are
compensated for by a signal-weighing factor. Compensation is also provided by shaping the magnetic coils
such that the magnetic flux will be
greatest where the signal weighing
factor is lowest, and vice versa.
Manufacturers determine each
magmeters K factor by water calibration of each flowtube. The K value thus
obtained is valid for any other conductive liquid and is linear over the entire
flowmeter range. For this reason, flowtubes are usually calibrated at only one
velocity. Magmeters can measure flow
in both directions, as reversing direction will change the polarity but not
Magmeter Excitation
The voltage that develops at the
electrodes is a millivolt signal. This
signal is typically converted into a
standard current (4-20 mA) or frequency output (0-10,000 Hz) at or
near the flowtube. Intelligent magnetic transmitters with digital outputs allow direct connection to a
distributed control system. Because
the magmeter signal is a weak one,
the lead wire should be shielded and
twisted if the transmitter is remote.
The magmeters coils can be powered by either alternating or direct
current (Figure 4-2). When ac excitation is used, line voltage is applied to
ES
46
The operation of magnetic flowmeters is based on Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Magmeters
can detect the flow of conductive
fluids only. Early magmeter designs
required a minimum fluidic conductivity of 1-5 microsiemens per centimeter for their operation. The
newer designs have reduced that
requirement a hundredfold to
between 0.05 and 0.1.
The magnetic flowmeter consists
of a non-magnetic pipe lined with an
insulating material. A pair of magnetic
coils is situated as shown in Figure 4-1,
and a pair of electrodes penetrates
the pipe and its lining. If a conductive
fluid flows through a pipe of diameter
(D) through a magnetic field density
Electronic Flowmeters
Electrode
ES
Magnetic Coil
Figure 4-1: The Magmeter and Its Components
TRANSACTIONS
Varying Flux
Non-Varying
Flux
ac Excitation
Pulsed dc
Excitation
Electronic Flowmeters
Electrodes
Flowtubes, Liners, & Probes
The face-to-face dimensions of
flanged flowtubes (lay lengths) usually meet the recommendations of the
International
Organization
for
Standardization (ISO). The dimensions
of short-form magmeters usually
47
5
2
1
0.01
0.1 (0.023)
1 (0.23)
10 (2.3)
Gallons per minute
100 (22.7)
)
15
0
8"
m
(2 m)
0
10 0 m
"
m
)
12
"
14
"
16
"
18
"
24
"(
60
42 36
0
"(
m
54 "
m
9
00
)
6 " 48
m
78 6" 60 "
m
90 "
"
)
" 8 72"
95 4"
"
10
)
m
m
50
75
3"
(
2"
(
4"
(
)
m
5m
(2
1"
m
1
2 " (15
(6
.3
4
1"
)
m
m
)
m
m
.5
10
5
32 " (4
1
10 " (2
30
20
6"
(
Electronic Flowmeters
1,000 (227)
10,000 (2,273)
100,000
(m3/hr)
Recent Developments
When a magnetic flowmeter is provided with a capacitance level sensor
embedded in the liner, it can also
measure the flow in partially full
pipes. In this design, the magmeter
electrodes are located at the bottom
of the tube (at approximately 1/10
48
Volume 4
Problem Applications
The magmeter cannot distinguish
entrained air from the process fluid;
therefore, air bubbles will cause the
magmeter to read high. If the
trapped air is not homogeneously
dispersed, but takes the form of air
slugs or large air bubbles (the size of
the electrode), this will make the
output signal noisy or even disrupt it.
Therefore, in applications where air
entrainment is likely, the meter
should be sized so that the flow
velocity under normal flow conditions is 6-12 ft/sec.
Coating of the electrodes is another common magmeter problem.
Material build-up on the inner surfaces of the meter can electrically isolate the electrodes from the process
fluid. This can cause a loss of signal or
a measurement error, either by changing the diameter of the flowtube or
by causing span and zero shifts.
Naturally, the best solution is prevention. One preventive step is to size the
meter such that, under normal flow
conditions, the flowing velocity will
be relatively high: at least 6-12 ft/sec,
or as high as practical considering the
possibility of erosion and corrosion.
Another method of prevention is
to use electrodes that protrude into
the flow stream to take advantage of
the turbulence and washing effect. In
more severe service, a mechanical
cleaning system can be installed and
used intermittently or continuously
to eliminate coating and build-ups.
Installation
The magnetic flowmeter must
always be full of liquid. Therefore,
the preferred location for magmeters is in vertical upward flow lines.
TRANSACTIONS
Electronic Flowmeters
liner wear. Liner protectors are available to protect the leading edge of
the liners from the abrasive effects of
process fluids. If the magmeter is
installed in a horizontal pipe exceeding 30 ft in length, the pipe should be
supported on both sides of the meter.
The magnetic flowmeter must be
electrically grounded to the process
liquid. This is because the magmeter
is part of the path for any stray current traveling down the pipeline or
through the process liquid. Bonding,
by grounding the meter at both ends
to the process fluid, provides a short
circuit for stray currents, routing
them around the flowtube instead of
through it. If the system is not properly grounded, these currents can
create a zero shift in the magnetic
flowmeter output.
Electrical bonding to the process
High Velocity Fluid
Flow
Alternative
Vortices
Still Fluid
Shear Layer
d
V
1D
l
Figure 4-4: Vortex Meter Calculation of Flow Velocity
49
Electronic Flowmeters
liquid. Straps are used when the piping is electrically conductive. When
the pipe is non-conductive or lined,
grounding rings are used. The grounding ring is like an orifice plate with a
bore equal to the nominal size (inside
diameter) of the flowtube. It is
installed between the flanges of the
flowtube and adjacent process piping
on the upstream and downstream
sides. The flowtube is bonded to the
process fluid by being connected to
the metallic grounding rings, and is
grounded by being wired to a good
conductor, such as a cold water pipe.
In larger sizes and in exotic materials, grounding rings can become
expensive; grounding electrodes (a
Sensor
Force on Sensor
Flow
Vortex Shedder Force
Pivoting Axis
Shedder Bar
Vortex Flowmeters
As a young person fishing in the mountain streams of the Transylvanian Alps,
50
Volume 4
Electronic Flowmeters
Q = AV = (A f d B)/St
St = f(d/V)
where B is the blockage factor,
defined as the open area left by the
bluff body divided by the full bore
Vortex
Meter
Upstream
Straight
Pipe Run
Concentric
Reducer
Downstream
Straight
Pipe Run
Concentric
Expander
h
h>0
h
h>0
Flow
Flow
Flow
B) Upward
C) Downward
D) Horizontal
51
Electronic Flowmeters
Upstream
Transducer (T1)
Particles in
Flowstream
Transmit Transducer
(Typical)
fo a
Flow
Direction
fl a
Receive Transducer
(Typical)
A) Doppler Shift
Flow
Profile
a = Refraction Angle
B) Transit Time
Downstream
Transducer (T2)
Volume 4
Recent Developments
Smart vortex meters provide a digital output signal containing more
information than just flow rate. The
microprocessor in the flowmeter
can automatically correct for insufficient straight pipe conditions, for
differences between the bore diameter and that of the mating pipe, for
thermal expansion of the bluff
body, and for K-factor changes
when the Reynolds number drops
below 10,000.
Intelligent transmitters are also
provided with diagnostic subroutines
TRANSACTIONS
Transmitting
Element
Electronic Flowmeters
Receiving
Element
Flow
Direction
Reflectors
53
Electronic Flowmeters
Installation Recommendations
When installing a vortex flowmeter in
an existing process where the flow
range is not known, it is recommended
Transducer B
Flanged
End
Flanged
End
L
Chordal
A)
Transducer A
Diametric
B)
Volume 4
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
The speed at which sound propagates in a fluid is dependent on the
fluids density. If the density is constant, however, one can use the time
of ultrasonic passage (or reflection)
to determine the velocity of a
flowing fluid.
Some manufacturers produce
transducer systems that operate in
the shear-mode, sending a single
pulse and receiving a single pulse in
return. Narrow-beam systems are
commonly subject to walk-away (the
TRANSACTIONS
signal completely missing the downstream transducer). Wide-beam systems overcome beam refraction and
work better in changing liquid density and temperature. With the advent
of digital signal processing, it has
become possible to apply digital signal coding to the transmitted signal.
This can eliminate many of the problems associated with noise and variations in liquid chemistry.
TRANSACTIONS
Flow
Electronic Flowmeters
Volume 4
55
Electronic Flowmeters
1.00
K = 1 Asymptote
For Flat Profile
0.95
0.90
K
0.85
0.80
0.75
K = 0.75 For Laminar Flow
0.70
10
100
104
1,000
105
106
107
Re
Figure 4-11: K-Factor Variation with Reynolds Number
Design Variations
Clamp-on ultrasonic meters come in
either single or dual-sensor versions.
56
Volume 4
crystal is in another.
Clamp-on transit time meters have
been available since the early 1970s.
Their aim is to rival the performance
of wetted spool-piece designs, but
without the need to break the pipe or
stop the process to install the meter.
This goal has not yet been reached.
Clamp-on Doppler flowmeters are
subject to interference from the pipe
wall itself, as well as from any air
space between the sensor and the
wall. If the pipe wall is made of stainless steel, it might conduct the transmit signal far enough so that the
returning echo will be shifted
enough to interfere with the reading.
There are also built-in acoustic discontinuities in concrete-lined, plastic-lined, and fiberglass-reinforced
pipes. These are significant enough
to either completely scatter the
low-flow sensitivity.
Originally, ultrasonic flowmeters
were divided into those using the
Doppler-shift principle and those
using the transit-time principle. More
recently, flowmeters are capable of
measuring the flow of both clean fluids and of slurries with entrained
solids or other acoustical discontinuities. Microprocessors have made it
possible to switch automatically
from clean fluid mode to particulate
mode based on the "correlation factor". This figure of merit dramatically
improves the accuracy of overall
performance. In some carefully engineered applications, installed accuracy to within 0.5% of reading has
been reported.
Electronic Flowmeters
57
Mass Flowmeters
Process
Fluid
Annular Space
Spring
Y
Field Coil
Electrode
Gamma
Source
Detector
Magnetic
Field
Field Coil
Y
Constant
Speed Motor
Impeller
Section YY
Turbine
B) Angular Momentum
Volume 4
ar
dm
T
r
TRANSACTIONS
Tube Designs
Mass Flowmeters
59
Mass Flowmeters
Inner
Frame
Flow
Detector
(B2)
Exciter
Counter
Pendulum
Measurng
Tube
Drive (A)
Flow
Detector
(B1)
Fi = Inertial Force
Fd = Drive Force
No Flow
Fd
No Flow
Fd
Fd
Fd
Flow
Fi
Fi
Fd
Secondary
Containment
v=0
Fd
Flow
Fi
Electrodynamic
Nitrogen
Sensors
Flow Tube
Fe
v>0
Fi
v
v
Fi
A)
Fd
Fi
Fi
Fd
Fi
Fe
B)
Volume 4
Transmitter Designs
Transmitters can operate on either ac
or dc power and require separate
wiring for the power supply and for
their output signals. The Coriolis
flowmeter transmitter can be integrally
or remotely mounted (Figure 5-4). The
transmitter controls the operation of
the driver and processes and transmits the sensor signals. The calibration factor (K) in the transmitters
memory matches the transmitter to
the particular flow tube. This calibration factor defines the constant of
proportionality between the Coriolis
force and the mass flow rate for the
dynamic spring constant of the particular vibrating tubes.
The transmitter does more than
convert sensor inputs into standardized output signals. Most transmitters also offer multiple outputs,
including mass flow rate, total mass
flow, density, and temperature.
Analog and/or pulse outputs are
both available, and intelligent transmitters can generate digital outputs
for integration into DCS systems.
Transmitters are often provided
with a local displays and keypads to
allow easy access to process data.
Coriolis transmitters provide more
than just flow information and ancillary functions. Batch control functions, percent Brix or percent HFCS
monitoring, viscosity, percent solids,
PID, API gravity, and specific gravity
TRANSACTIONS
FLOW VARIABLES
Mass Flow Rate
Mass Flow Total
Volumetric Flow Rate
Volumetric Flow Total
Density
Temperature
% Solids
Dry Solids Mass
Flow Rate
Dry Solids Total
Mass Flowmeters
F1
F2
F3
F4
CONFIGURE METER
Mass, Volume,
Timebase Units
Meter Constants
Configure Outputs
Scale Outputs
Configure Inputs
DIAGNOSTICS &
SIMULATION
CONFIGURABLE
INPUTS/OUTPUTS
KEYBOARD SECURITY
ANALOG & FREQUENCY
OUTPUTS
RS-485/422
CONTACT INPUTS
OUTPUT ALARMS
Batch Control
Capability
High/Low Limit
Alarms:
Flow Rate
Flow Total
Density
Temperature
% Solids
Flow Direction
Malfunction Alarm
FUNCTION COMMANDS
Reset Total
Zero Flow Calibration
Display Mode
Clear Alarm
Stop Measurement
Start Measurement
DISCRETE OUTPUTS
Coriolis Evolution
The first generation of Coriolis
meters consisted of a single curved
and a thin-walled tube, in which high
fluid velocities were created by
reducing the tube cross-sectional
area in relation to the process pipe.
The tube distortion was measured in
61
Mass Flowmeters
velocities (up to 50 ft/sec) still resulted in premature meter failure, including potentially catastrophic spills
A) Torsional Bending
Figure 5-5: Coriolis Design Improvements
when the meter was used on corrosive and erosive services. In addition,
the unrecovered head losses were
high (sometimes over 50 psid), and
accuracy was not high enough to
allow users to convert batch processes
into continuous ones.
More recent design improvements include the introduction of a
variety of new tube shapes, including ones that do not split the flow
(Figure 5-3B) and the use of multiple
drivers (Figure 5-5A). Thick-walled
tubing (five times thicker than early
designs), the use of full bore diameters and heavy manifolds to isolate
the tube structure from stresses
induced from piping connections,
and flowtube housings that double
as secondary containment vessels
have all contributed to improved
performance.
In some designs, torsional stresses
replaced bending, in order to prevent
the concentration of stresses that
can lead to tube cracking (Figure 55B). In other designs, the effects of
pipeline vibration have been minimized by mounting the tube structures transverse to the pipeline.
These improvements increased
62
Volume 4
Interferences
The effect of the Coriolis force on
the vibrating tube is small. Full-scale
flow might cause a deflection of
only 0.001 inch. To obtain a flow
rangeability of 100:1, sensors must
be able to detect deflections to an
accuracy of 0.000001 inch in industrial environments where the
process pressure, temperature, and
fluid density are all changing, and
where pipe vibration interferes with
measurement.
The elasticity of metal tubes
changes with temperature; they
become more elastic as they get
warmer. To eliminate the corresponding measurement error, the
Flanges
Flow
Direction
Arrow
Pipe/Flowtube Junction
NOTE:
Distance Between
Pipe/Flowtube
Junction and
Support
Must Not
Exceed 15 Inches
Flow
Direction Arrow
A) Horizontal
'U' Rest
C) Pipe Supports
Support
(Typical)
Mass Flowtube
Enclosure
Support
Mass Flowmeters
'V' Rest
'V' Bolt
Clamp
Inverted Pipe
Hanger Clamp
63
Mass Flowmeters
Air
Eliminator
Check
Valve
Pump
Tank
Meter
Bidirectional
Flow
Valve
C) Typical Installation
Load
Back Pressure
Valve
Unload
Check Valve
Valve
Volume 4
flow can occur, making the meter output unpredictable. If a slug-flow recovery feature is provided in the transmitter, it will stop the measurement when
slug flow is detected by the excessive
drive power drawn or by the drop in
process density (reduction in sensor
output amplitude).
The amount of air in the process
fluid that can be tolerated by a meter
varies with the viscosity of the fluid.
Liquids with viscosities as high as
300,000 centipoise can be metered
with Coriolis meters. Gas content in
such highly viscous liquids can be as
high as 20% with the small bubbles
Temperature
Difference
Indicator
Mass Flowmeters
Installation Recommendations
There are no Reynolds number limitations associated with Coriolis
meters. They are also insensitive to
velocity profile distortion and swirl.
Therefore, there is no requirement
for straight runs of relaxation piping
upstream or downstream of the
meter to condition the flow.
The meter should be installed so
that it will remain full of liquid and
Flow
Mass Flow
Rate
Film
Constant
Power
Source (q)
Resistance
Thermometer
Resistance
Thermometer
Resistance
Heater
T1
A) Immersion Heater
Upstream
Temperature
Sensor
Measures Tf
T2
Heater
Supplies
Downstream
q
Temperature Sensor
Measures Tw
B) Externally-Heated Tube
65
Mass Flowmeters
Temperature of Tube
Meter
Bypass
Orifice
Zero
Flow
Small
Flow
TC-1
TC-2
Main
Orifice
0
L/2
L/2
Length of Tube
A) Bypass Uses Small Percent of Stream
B) Temperature Profile
Volume 4
Temperature Sensor
0.125" Dia.
Mass Flowmeters
Flow
0.25" Dia.
.125"
.125"
.938
A) Probe Configuration
Inlet
Screens
Flow Element
(Heated)
Temperature
Compensator
B) Venturi Insertion
67
Mass Flowmeters
Holder
Needle
Hot Wire
Element
Gas Stream
Theory of Operation
Thermal mass flowmeters are most
often used for the regulation of low
68
Volume 4
Heated-Tube Design
Heated-tube flowmeters were developed to protect the heater and sensor elements from corrosion and any
coating effects of the process. By
mounting the sensors externally to
the piping (Figure 5-8B), the sensing
elements respond more slowly and
the relationship between mass flow
and temperature difference becomes
nonlinear. This nonlinearity results
from the fact that the heat introduced is distributed over some portion of the pipes surface and transferred to the process fluid at different
rates along the length of the pipe.
The pipe wall temperature is
highest near the heater (detected as
All-in-one mass flow controller provides both measurement and control of relatively low mass flow rates.
the basis of the measured temperature difference (T2 - T1), the meter
coefficient (K), the electric heat rate
(q), and the specific heat of the fluid
(Cp), as follows:
of the process fluid must stay constant when using this design.
Bypass-Type Design
The bypass version of the thermal
mass flowmeter was developed to
measure larger flow rates. It consists
of a thin-walled capillary tube
(approximately 0.125 in diameter) and
two externally wound self-heating
resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs) that both heat the tube and
measure the resulting temperature
rise (Figure 5-9A). The meter is placed
in a bypass around a restriction in the
main pipe and is sized to operate in
Mass Flowmeters
6
5
4 4
60
60
1 2 3
5 6
4
3
1
3
2
1
B)
A)
Figure 5-12: Circuling and Rectangular Measuring Stations
69
Mass Flowmeters
Volume 4
Air velocity probe provides 1.5% accuracy for local flow rate measurement.
applications. Thermal mass flowmeters are well suited for high rangeability measurements of very low
flows, but also can be used in measuring large flows such as combustion air, natural gas, or the distribution of compressed air.
Hot-Wire Anemometers
The term anemometer was derived
from the Greek words anemos,
wind, and metron, measure.
Mechanical anemometers were first
developed back in the 15th century
to measure wind speed.
A hot-wire anemometer consists
of an electrically heated, fine-wire
element (0.00016 inch in diameter
and 0.05 inch long) supported by
needles at its ends (Figure 5-11).
Tungsten is used as the wire material because of its strength and high
temperature coefficient of resistance. When placed in a moving
stream of gas, the wire cools; the
TRANSACTIONS
Mass Flowmeters
Volume 4
71
Level %
100
Vertical
Sphere
50
Horizontal
Cylindrical
50
100 Volume %
Figure 6-1: Relationship Between Level and Volume for Different Tanks
developed because the level controls turned off the coolant flow to
the reactor when they detected the
presence of cooling water near the
top of the tank. Unfortunately, the
water reached the top of the reactor vessel not because there was
too much water in the tank, but
because there was so little that it
boiled and swelled to the top. From
this example, we can see that level
measurement is more complex than
simply the determination of the
presence or absence of a fluid at a
particular elevation.
Volume 4
"Middle" Pressure
Temperature
PT RTD
"Bottom" Pressure
PT
Mass 0.2%
Density 0.3%
Volume 0.28%
Intelligent Multi-Transmitter Package
Figure 6-2:
X
X
X
X
X
X
than that.
The relationship between level
and tank volume is a function of the
cross-sectional shape of the tank.
With vertical tanks, this relationship
is linear, while with horizontal or
spherical vessels, it is a non-linear
relationship (Figure 6-1).
If the level in a tank is to be
inferred using hydrostatic pressure
measurement, it is necessary to use
TRANSACTIONS
P
F
F
F
G
P
P
G
P
F
E
F
E
G
P
P
F
F
G
G
F
G-L
L
P
F-G
F
F
G
F-G
P
G
G
P
F-G
F
P
L
F
F
F
F
F
STICKY
SOLIDS
CHUNKY
F
G
G
G
F
G
G
F
F
F
L
F
F
G
P
F
E
F
F
F
L
F
F
G
F
P
G
G
G
LIMITATIONS
Introduces foreign substance into process;
high maintenance
P
Interface between conductive layers
and detection of foam is a problem
L
Can detect interface only between
conductive and nonconductive liquids.
Field effect design for solids
P
Switches only for solid service
Only extended diaphragm seals or
repeaters can eliminate plugging.
Purging and sealing legs are also used
Not recommended for sludge or
slurry service
Moving parts limit most designs to
clean service. Only preset density
floats can follow interfaces
F
Limited to cloudy liquids or bright solids in
tanks with transparent vapor spaces
Glass is not allowed in some processes
F
Thick coating is a limitation
F
Refraction-type for clean liquids only;
reflection-type requires clean vapor space
P
Interference from coating, agitator
blades, spray, or excessive turbulence
E
Requires NRC license
Limited to liquids under near-atmospheric
pressure and temperature conditions
P
Limited to detection of dry, non-corrosive,
low-pressure solids
An unsafe manual device
F
Only the inductively coupled float is suited
for interface measurement. Float hangup is
a potential problem with most designs
Foam and interface detectiom is limited by
the thermal conductives involved
INTERFACE
F
F-G
P
F
G-E
P
P
G
F
G
F
G
E
G
P
F
F
F
G
G
SLURRY/SLUDGE
G
G
F
G
E
E
G
L
G
G
G
G
G
G
F
E
G
F
F-G
F
POWDER
1-2% FS
1-2% FS
1/ in
8
0.5% FS
0.1% AS
0.5% FS
1% FS
0.5 in
0.25 in
0.5 in
0.25 in
0.12 in
0.25 in
0.5 in
1 in
0.5 in
0.1 in
0.5 in
3 in
1% FS
0.2 in
APPLICATIONS
LIQUIDS
FOAM
VISCOUS
Bubblers
UL
Air
2,000
Capacitance
Conductivity Switch
1,800
Diaphragm
350
Differential Pressure
1,200
Displacer
850
Float
500
Laser
UL
Level Gages
700
Microwave Switches
400
Optical Switches
260
Radar
450
Radiation
UL
Resistance Tape
225
Rotating Paddle Switch
500
Slip Tubes
200
Tape-Type Level Sensors
300
Thermal
850
TDR/PDS
221
Ultrasonic
300
Vibrating Switches
300
CLEAN
INACCURACY
(1 in. = 25.4 mm)
AVAILABLE AS
NONCONTACT
TYPE
73
Condensing
Chamber
Slope
Steam Drum
LP
HP
LT
(Reverse)
Thermal Insulation
in the "Cold Box"
Superheated
N2 Vapor
N2
Liquid
LP
Boiling
Liquid
LT
HP
Sonic Echo
Gages
Electromechanical
Beam Breaker
Bubbler
Capacitance
Conductive
Differential Pressure
Diaphragm
Displacer
Float
Float/Tape
Paddlewheel
Weight/Cable
Glass
Magnetic
Inductive
Microwave
Radiation
Sonar
Sonic
Ultrasonic
Thermal
Vibration
74
Volume 4
P
-
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
-
3
1
1
-
1
1
-
1
1
1
2
C
-
1
1
-
1
1
2
-
1
-
1
1
1
-
1
1
-
1
2
-
-
LIQUID/
LIQUID
INTERFACE
P
C
-
-
-
-
1
1
2
-
2
2
2
-
2
2
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
2
3
3
2
2
1
-
3
-
FOAM
P
C
2
-
-
-
2
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3
3
3
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
SLURRY
P
C
-
-
3
2
2
1
1
-
2
2
2
2
3
2
3
-
-
3
3
-
-
1
3
3
3
3
2
-
1
1
1
1
-
3
1
1
1
2
2
-
2
-
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
P
C
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
2
2
1
1
-
-
1
-
POWDERY
SOLIDS
P
C
1
-
-
-
2
2
3
-
3
3
1
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
2
2
1
2
1
1
-
-
-
3
-
3
-
-
1
-
GRANULAR
SOLIDS
P
C
1
-
-
-
1
2
3
-
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
2
2
1
1
1
1
-
-
1
1
2
2
-
-
1
-
CHUNKY
SOLIDS
P
C
3
-
-
-
2
2
3
-
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
2
2
1
1
1
1
-
-
1
1
1
2
-
-
2
-
STICKY
MOIST
SOLIDS
P
C
1
-
-
-
1
2
1
-
-
-
2
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
3
3
1
1
1
1
-
-
2
1
2
2
-
-
1
-
TRANSACTIONS
1:1 Repeater
Pv
To
Controller
Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
A) Level Switch
B) Continuous Detection
Figure 6-5: Level-Instrumentation Design For Sludges, Slurries, & High Viscosity
TRANSACTIONS
Volume 4
75
leg enables the d/p cell to compensate for the pressure pushing down on
the liquids surface, in the same way as
the effect of barometric pressure is
canceled out in open tanks.
It is important to keep this reference leg dry because accumulation of
condensate or other liquids would
cause error in the level measurement.
When the process vapors condense at
normal ambient temperatures or are
corrosive, this reference leg can be
filled to form a wet leg. If the process
condensate is corrosive, unstable, or
undesirable to use to fill the wet leg,
this reference leg can be filled with an
inert liquid.
In this case, two factors must be
dp = h (SG)
Dry
Leg
LI
LI
LI
LT
LT
dp = h (SG)
A) Local
B) Remote
Pneumatic
Supply
C) Compensation
Pneumatic
Supply
Volume 4
vapor column above the liquid is negligible. On the other hand, the pressure in the vapor space cannot be
neglected, but must be relayed to the
low pressure side of the d/p cell.
Such a connection to the vapor space
is called a dry leg, used when process
vapors are non-corrosive, non-plugging, and when their condensation
rates, at normal operating temperatures, are very low (Figure 7-1C). A dry
Relay
Vent
To Vacuum Source
Atmospheric Air
20# Air Supply
Low
Pressure
Side
Zero
Process
Tank
Zero
High
Pressure
Side
Repeated
Positive
Pressure
Repeated
Vacuum
Pressure
A) Positive Pressure
B) Vacuum
d/p Cells
Because the designs of the various
d/p cells are discussed in detail in
another issue of Transactions, only a
brief overview is provided here.
The motion balance cell is well
suited for remote locations where
instrument air or electric power are
not available. If a bellows is used as
the sensing element in a motion balance d/p cell, an increase in the pressure on either side causes the corresponding bellows to contract (Figure
7-3A). The bellows is connected to a
Volume 4
77
linkage assembly that converts the linear motion of the bellows into a
rotary indicator motion, which can be
Bimetallic
Temperature
Compensator
Liquid
Fill
Range
Spring
Pneumatic
Relay
Feedback Bellows
Air
Supply
Output
Fulcrum & Seal
Force Bar
Low Pressure
Side
High Pressure
Side
Low Pressure
Side
A) Motion Balance
High Pressure
Side
Liquid-Filled
Diaphragm
Capsule
B) Force Balance
Figure 7-3:
Differential Pressure Cell Designs
Volume 4
Bubbler Tubes
Bubbler tubes provide a simple and
inexpensive but less accurate (1-2%)
level measurement system for corrosive or slurry-type applications.
Bubblers use compressed air or an
inert gas (usually nitrogen) introduced through a dip pipe (Figure 7-4A).
Gas flow is regulated at a constant
rate (usually at about 500 cc/min). A
differential pressure regulator across
a rotameter maintains constant flow,
while the tank level determines the
back-pressure. As the level drops, the
L1
SS
dPCV
F1
PCV
P1
Remotely
Located
Components
N2
Diaphragm
Spring
#1
Tube
Float
SS
F1
Equalizing Line
Transmission Line
P2
Regulator
Valve
Flow Control
Spring
Valve (V)
Flow @ P1
#2
Inlet Pressure
PNEUMATIC
SUPPLY
(N2)
A) Open Tank
dPCV
L1
Manometer
Dip Tube
B) Closed Tank
back-pressure is proportionally
reduced and is read on a pressure
gage calibrated in percent level or on
a manometer or transmitter. The dip
pipe should have a relatively large
diameter (about 2 in.) so that the pressure drop is negligible. The bottom
TRANSACTIONS
79
h1
Steaming
Rate
h3
Tank Farms
h2
120F
Feed
Water
LT
Steam Drum
Volume 4
Special Applications
When the process fluid is boiling,
such as in a steam drum, a wet reference leg is maintained by a condensate pot, which drains back into the
steam drum so that the level of the
wet leg is kept constant. Changes in
ambient temperature (or sun exposure) will change the water density in
the reference leg and, therefore,
temperature compensation (manual
or automatic) is needed.
Figure 7-5 describes a typical
power plant steam drum level application. The differential pressure
detected by the level d/p cell is:
d/p = h1SG1 + h2SG2 - h3SG3
d/p = 0.03h1 + 0.76h2 - 0.99h3
Note that the SG of the saturated
steam layer (0.03) and that of the
Computerized tank farm systems usually accept level signals from several
tanks through field networks. These
systems perform the level monitoring
tasks using a variety of compensation
and conversion algorithms. The algorithms provide density corrections,
volumetric or mass conversions, and
corrections to consider the shapes of
horizontal, vertical or spherical tanks.
These systems can perform safety
functions, such as shutting off feed
pumps to prevent overfilling.
(SG) of the process fluid. For clean liquids a 0.1 SG difference might suffice,
while for viscous or dirty applications,
Switching Element
Pivot
Bias Spring
Reed Switch
Float
Magnet
B)
Float
Permanent
Magnet
1/2 NPT
(13 mm)
Level Differential
Rising Level
Falling Level
A) Magnetic Piston
B) Reed Switch
C) Mecury Switch
On
x
85
Off
Volume 4
81
Top Mounted
B)
C)
A)
Side
Mounted
Float
Cage
Volume 4
Guard
Cage
TRANSACTIONS
Displacer Switches
Torque
Arm
Torque Tube
Flange
Torque
Arm
Block
Torque
Rod
Torque
Tube
Testing
Cable
Limit
Stop
Knife
Edge
High Level
Flexible
Cable
Nozzle
Flapper
Displacer
Displacers
Low Level
A) Switch
B) Continuous Transmitter
83
standpipes with level gages and isolating valves (Figure 7-11). This way it
is possible to recalibrate or maintain
the displacer without interrupting
the process.
Interface Applications
Pressure Vessel
Overlapping
Gage Glasses
1 1/2" or Larger
Gate Valve
Reducer to 3/4" Pipe
These Assemblies
May Be Elbows
Volume 4
Magnet
Indicator
Wafers
A)
Float
Crank
Assembly
B)
Follower
Magnet and
Gaging Rod
Head
Float
Cross
Section
Float and
Magnet
Front
View
Guide
Tube
C)
D)
involving small flows and small pressure drops across the valve. This is
because the force available to throttle the valve is limited to that provided by the buoyant force acting on
the float, multiplied by the lever
action of the float arm. This does not
suffice to close large valves against
high pressure differentials.
Volume 4
85
86
Volume 4
TRANSACTIONS
Theory of Operation
A capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated from one another by a nonconductor (dielectric). When the
two conductors are at different
potentials (voltages), the system is
capable of storing an electric
TRANSACTIONS
Level
- -- -----
+ ++
++
++
++
++
++
+
A) Capacitor
- -- --A
#1
Kv
#2
Kl
+ ++
++
++
++
++
++
+
Voltmeter
C= KA
D
C=Capacitance
K=Dieletric Constant
A=Area of Plates
D=Dist. Between Plates
Electron
Flow
RF
Ammeter
B) Capacitance Circuit
Volume 4
87
K1
--
++
--
++
A1
Insulation
A2
K2
---
++
++
---
++
++
A = A1 + A2
Probe Designs
The most common probe design is a
stainless steel rod of G in. or H in.
diameter, suitable for most non-conductive and non-corrosive materials.
The probe is insulated from the
housing and bin wall by an lowdielectric insulator, such as Nylon or
Ryton. These polymers have maximum operating temperatures of 175230C (350-450F). Ceramics can be
used for higher temperature applications or if abrasion resistance is
required. For applications where the
process material is conductive and
corrosive, the probe must be coated
with Teflon or Kynar.
Some point level sensors are available with build-up immunity, or coating rejection functionality. This is
Volume 4
Driven
Shield (+5 V)
Insulation
No Current Flow
Measuring
Section (+5 V)
Vessel Wall
Current Path
Through Level
Capacitance probes typically are coated with Teflon (shown), Kynar, or polyethylene
1-14" NPT
25 mm
(1")
D
Pipe Section
Steel Plates
175 mm
(7")
D
Flexible Cable
95 mm
(3.75")
115 mm (4.5")
15 m (50') Max.
Customer
Specified
Length
Cable Weight
200 mm (7.8")
1-14" NPT
A) Horizontal
50 mm
(2") Flange
3
4"
NPT
Vessel Wall
B) Vertical
C) Low Profile
TRANSACTIONS
Volume 4
89
Volume 4
Recommended
A
Not Recommended
In Main Flow
Application Considerations
Probes
Do Not
Touch the
Vessel Structure
Probes
Touch the
Vessel Structure
C
Complete Probe
Protruding into Material
Portion of Probe
Within Mounting Neck
D
Material
Will Fall Away
Material Can
Build Up, Creating
A False Signal
TRANSACTIONS
91
Installation Considerations
The capacitance probe should be
mounted in such a way that its
operation is unaffected by incoming or outgoing material flow
(Figure 8-5A). Material impacts can
cause false readings or damage to
92
Volume 4
TRANSACTIONS
Large Size
Parabolic Dish
Antenna
Small Size
Horn
Antenna
Datum Point
A)
B)
93
V = c/(dc)0.5
Volume 4
Cutaway View of
Horn Antenna
Process
Seal
Process
Seal
Tank Nozzle
A) Non-Contact
Tank Ceiling
Impulse
Cutaway View of
Parabolic Dish
Antenna
B) Contact
The origin of ultrasonic level instrumentation goes back to the echometers used in measuring the depth of
wells by firing a blank shell and timing the return of the echo. SONAR
detectors used in naval navigation
also predate industrial applications
of this principle.
The frequency range of audible
sound is 9-10 kHz, slightly below the
20-45 kHz range used by industrial
level gages. The velocity of an ultrasonic pulse varies with both the substance through which it travels and
with the temperature of that substance. This means that if the speed
of sound is to be used in measuring a
level (distance or position), the substance through which it travels must
Reflection
Microwave
Detector
Microwave
Window
A) Reflection
Microwave
Transmitter
Microwave
Window
Reflected
Beam
Ultrasonic Transducers
The transducer that generates the
ultrasonic pulse is usually piezoelectric, although in the past electrostatic
units also were used. An electrostatic
transducer is constructed of a thin,
flexible gold-plated plastic foil,
Transmitted
Beam
Absorbed
Beam
Microwave
Receiver
Microwave
Window
B) Beam-Breaker
Figure 9-3: Microwave Switches Send Pulses Through a Window or Tank Wall
95
Ground Level
Casing
Brine Pipe
Cavity
Hydrocarbon
Interface
Brine
Transducer
A) Returned Echo Timing
B) Signal Absorption
C) Contact
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Special Features
Level Switches
100
80
60
50
40
SG=0.5
% Transmission
30
20
Water
SG=1.0
10
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
Steel
SG=7.6
SG=1.5
SG=2.0
Aluminum
SG=2.8
Lead
SG=11.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
12
14
16
18
Thickness - Inches
20
22
24
26
28
30
97
Nonionizing Ionizing
Photon Energy eV
10-10
10-5
100
105
1010
Ultraviolet
Electric
Waves
Radio Waves
105
Infrared
Gamma
Rays
Visible
X-Rays
100
10-5
10-10
Cosmic
Rays
10-15
Wavelength cm
Radiation Sources
Volume 4
Radiation Safety
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) limits radiation intensity to a
maximum of 5 milliroentgens per hour
(mr/hr) at a distance of 12 in from the
nuclear gage. If it is more, the area
requires Radiation Area posting. The
distance of 12 in is critical, because radiation intensity decreases by the inverse
square of distance. Nuclear level gages
are sized to provide radiation intensity
at the detector that exceeds the minimum required, but is under the 5 mr/hr
maximum. For ion chamber detectors,
the minimum is 1 mr/hr. For GeigerMueller switches, it is 0.5 mr/hr. And
for scintillation detectors, it is 0.1-0.2
mr/hr. Because the nuclear gage is
basically measuring the vapor space
TRANSACTIONS
Source Sizing
A point source of 10 mCi Cesium 137
(source constant for Cesium 137 is
K=0.6) is installed on a high-pressure
water tank having H-in steel walls
(Figure 9-9). Usually, two criteria need
to be satisfied: First, the radiation
intensity at the detector must drop by
at least 50% as the level rises from 0100%. The second and more important
criterion is that the maximum radiation
dose at the detector (when the tank is
empty) must not exceed the safety
limit (say, 2.4 mr/hr). It must exceed 1.0
mr/hr, however, in order to actuate the
intended ion chamber detector.
First the in air intensity (Da in
250
200
150
Accumulated Rems
s/
em
Unsafe
te:
Ra
100
5R
Safe
50
0
Yr
10
20
30
40
Operator's Age
50
60
70
99
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Detector Options
The simplest and oldest type of radiation detector is the Geiger-Muller
tube. This instrument is most often
identified with the Geiger counters
that make a loud and dramatic clicking
sound when exposed to radiation. The
working component of this detector is
a metal cylinder that acts as one of the
electrodes and is filled with an inert
gas. A thin wire down the center acts
as the other electrode. Glass caps are
Vessel
Clips and
Support
Plate
Vessel
Clip
Radiation
Path
"U" Bolt
Source
and
Holder
Plan View
Detector
Radiation
Path
Platform
30"
48"
Elevation
Nuclear Applications
Radiation gages typically are considered when nothing else will work, or
when process penetrations required
by a traditional level sensor present a
risk to human life, to the environment, or could do major damage to
property. The liquids and bulk solids
101
10
102
Volume 4
Unheated
Probe
Heated
Probe
O + DC Voltage
To
Switch
Heated Probe
Heater
Unheated Probe
Figure 10-1: Thermal Conductivity Level Switch
Thermal Switches
Thermal level switches sense either the
difference between the temperatures
of the vapor space and the liquid or,
more commonly, the increase in thermal conductivity as a probe becomes
submerged in the process liquid.
TRANSACTIONS
10
Paddle
Driver End
Node
Vibrating Switches
Vibrating level switches detect the
dampening that occurs when a
vibrating probe is submerged in a
process medium. The three types of
vibrating sensorsreed, probe, and
tuning forkare distinguished by
their configurations and operating
frequencies (120, 200-400, and 85 Hz,
respectively). Their methods of operation and applications are similar.
The reed switch consists of a paddle,
a driver and a pickup (Figure 10-2).
The driver coil induces a 120-Hz
vibration in the paddle that is
damped out when the paddle gets
covered by a process material. The
switch can detect both rising and
falling levels, and only its actuation
depth (the material depth over the
paddle) increases as the density of
the process fluid drops. The variation
in actuation depth is usually less than
an inch. A reed switch can detect liquid/liquid,
liquid/vapor,
and
solid/vapor interfaces, and can also
signal density or viscosity variations.
When used on wet powders, the
vibrating paddle has a tendency to
create a cavity in the granular solids.
If this occurs, false readings will
result, because the sensor will confuse the cavity with vapor space.
It is best to use a reed switch on
non-coating applications or to provide automatic spray washing after
each immersion in a sludge or slurry.
Probe-type vibrating sensors are less
sensitive to material build-up or coating. The vibrating probe is a round
stainless steel element (resembling a
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103
10
LED
Receiver
Light
from
LED
Prism
LED
Receiver
Prism
Light
Lost in
Liquid
Liquid Below the
Sensing Prism
Liquid Immersing
the Sensing Prism
Volume 4
pressures up to 3,000 psig, while tuning forks and vibrating probes are
limited to 150 psig. Operating temperatures range from -100 to 150C
(-150 to 300F) and response time is
about 1 second.
Optical Switches
Using visible, infrared, or laser light,
optical sensors rely upon the light
transmitting, reflecting, or refracting
properties of the process material
when measuring its level. The optical
level switch can be of a contacting or
non-contacting design.
In a non-contacting, reflecting
optical sensor, a beam of light is
aimed down at the surface of the
process material. When the level of
this surface rises to the setpoint of
the switch, the reflected light beam is
detected by a photocell. Both the
LED light source and photodetector
are housed behind the same lens.
By adjusting the photocell or the
detection electronics, the sensor can
be calibrated to detect levels at distances 0.25 to 12 in below the sensor.
These reflective switches can measure
the levels of clear as well as translucent, reflective, and opaque liquids.
Some solids also can be detected. By
using multiple photocells, a sensor
can detect several levels.
Laser light also can be used when
making difficult level measurements,
such as of molten metals, molten
glass, glass plate, or any other kind of
solid or liquid material that has a
reflecting surface. If the receiver
module is motor driven, it can track
the reflected laser beam as the level
rises and falls, thereby acting as a
continuous level transmitter.
A refracting sensor relies on the
principle that infrared or visible
light changes direction (refracts)
when it passes through the interface
between two media. When the sensor is in the vapor phase, most of the
Ultrasonic liquid level switches provide a 300:1 signal ratio from dry to wetted state.
TRANSACTIONS
10
TRANSACTIONS
Volume 4
105
Information Resources
ORGANIZATIONS
106
NAME/ADDRESS
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
345 East 47 Street, New York NY 10017-2395
PHONE
WEB ADDRESS
(212)705-7338
www.aiche.org
(202)824-7000
www.aga.org
(212)642-4900
web.ansi.org
(202)682-8000
www.api.org
(212)705-7722
www.asme.org
(610)832-9585
www.astm.org
(303)794-7711
www.awwa.org
(416)498-1994
www.cga.ca
(415)855-2000
www.epri.com
(703/907-7500
www.eia.org
Factory Mutual
1151 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood MA 02062
(781)762-4300
www.factorymutual.com
(773)399-8100
www.gri.org
+41 22 919 02 11
www.iec.ch
+41 22 749 01 11
www.iso.ch
(732)981-0060
www.ieee.org
(847)768-0500
www.igt.org
Volume 4
TRANSACTIONS
ORGANIZATIONS (CONT'D.)
ISAThe International Society for Measurement and Control
67 Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park NC 27709
(919)549-8411
www.isa.org
(703)841-3200
www.nema.org
(617)770-3000
www.nfpa.org
(301)975-3058
www.nist.gov
(724)776-4841
www.sae.org
Underwriters Laboratories
333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook IL 60062
(847)272-8800
www.ul.com
(703)684-2452
www.wef.org
TRANSACTIONS
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108
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109
Glossary
A
Accuracy: Degree of conformity of a measured value to
an accepted standard value; or closeness of a reading or
indication of a sensor to the actual value of the quantity
being measured.
Accuracy rating: A number that defines a limit that the
measurement errors will not exceed under some reference operating conditions. It includes the combined
effects of conformity, hysteresis, deadband and repeatability errors.
Accuracy, units: The maximum positive or negative deviation (inaccuracy) observed in testing a device. It can be
expressed in terms of the measured variable (1C), or as
a percentage of the actual reading (%AR), of the full scale
(%FS), of upper range value (%URL), of the span or of
scale length.
Admittance: Admittance of an ac circuit is analogous to
conductivity of a dc circuit; it is the reciprocal of the
impedance of an ac circuit.
Air consumption: The maximum rate at which air is consumed by an instrument while operating within its operating range, usually expressed in units of standard cubic
feet per minute.
Alphanumeric: A character set containing both letters
and numbers.
Alternating current (ac): A flow of electric charge (electric current) that undergoes periodic reverses in direction. In North America, household current alternates at a
frequency of 60 times per second.
Ambient pressure: The atmospheric pressure of the
medium surrounding a particular sensor. When no specific information is available, it is assumed to be 14.7 psia.
Ambient temperature: The average or mean temperature
of the atmospheric air which is surrounding a sensor or
instrument. If the sensor is a heat generator, this term
refers to the temperature of the surroundings when the
sensor is in operation. The ambient temperature is usually stated under the assumption that the sensor is not
exposed to the sun or other radiant energy sources.
Ambient temperature compensation: An automatic correction which prevents the reading of a sensor or instrument from being affected by variations in ambient temperature. The compensator specifications state the temperature range within which the compensation is effective.
110
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American National Standards Institute (ANSI): A professional organization in the United States responsible for
accepting and designating the standards developed by
other organizations as national standards.
Ampere (A or amp): The unit of electric current flow,
defined as the rate at which one coulomb of electric
charge (6.25 x 1018 electrons) is transferred in a second.
Amplifier: A device that generates an output which is
stronger than and bears some predetermined relationship (often linear) to its input. It generates the amplified
output signal while drawing power from a source other
than the signal itself.
Analog signal: A signal that continuously represents a
variable or condition.
Analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion: A generic term
referring to the conversion of an analog signal into a
digital form.
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC): An electronic device
that converts analog signals to an equivalent digital form.
Attenuation: The reciprocal of gain; a dimensionless
ratio defining the decrease in magnitude of a signal as it
passes between two points or two frequencies. Large values of attenuation are expressed in decibels (dB).
B
Backlash: The relative movement of interlocked mechanical parts that occurs when motion is reversed.
Baud rate: Serial communications data transmission rate
expressed in bits per second (bps).
Bipolar: A signal range that includes both positive and
negative values (i.e., -10 V to +10 V).
Bode diagram: A plot of log amplitude ratio and phase
angle values used in describing transfer functions.
Breakdown voltage: Threshold voltage at which circuit
components begin to be damaged.
Byte (B): Eight related bits of data or an eight-bit binary
number. Also denotes the amount of memory required
to store one byte of data.
C
Calibrate: To ascertain that the output of a device properly corresponds to the information it is measuring,
receiving or transmitting. This might involve the location
of scale graduations, adjustment to bring the output
within specified tolerance or ascertaining the error by
comparing the output to a reference standard.
TRANSACTIONS
TRANSACTIONS
observable response.
Decibel (dB): Unit for expressing a logarithmic measure
of the ratio of two signal levels.
Dielectric: A non-conductor of dc current.
Dielectric constant: A numeral that expresses the degree
of non-conductivity of different substances, with full
vacuum defined as 1.0.
Distributed control system (DCS): Typically, a large-scale
process control system characterized by a distributed
network of processors and I/O subsystems that encompass the functions of control, user interface, data collection, and system management.
Dither: A useful oscillation of small magnitude, introduced to overcome the effects of friction, hysteresis, or
clogging.
Drift: Undesired change in the input-output relationship
over a period of time.
Dynamic range: Ratio of the largest to the smallest signal
level a circuit can handle, normally expressed in dB.
E
Electromotive force: Force that causes the movement of
electricity, such as potential difference of voltage. A
measure of voltage in an electrical circuit.
Elevation: A range in which the zero value of the measured variable exceeds the lower range value.
Error: The difference between the measured signal value
or actual reading and the true (ideal) or desired value.
Error, common mode: Error caused by interference
that appears between both measuring terminals and
ground.
Error, normal mode: Error caused by interference that
appears between the two measuring terminals.
Error, random: The amount of error that remains even
after calibrating a sensor. Also called "precision," while
"repeatability" is defined as twice that: the diameter
(instead of the radius) of the circle within which the
readings fall.
Error, systematic: A repeatable error, which either
remains constant or varies according to some law, when
the sensor is measuring the same value. This type of error
can be eliminated by calibration.
F
Farad: The unit of capacitance, equivalent to one
coulomb of stored charge per volt of applied potential
difference. As this is a very large unit, one trillionth of it,
the picofarad (pf), is commonly used.
Fieldbus: All-digital communication network used to
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Stability: The ability of an instrument or sensor to maintain a consistent output when a constant input is
applied.
Steady-state: A characteristic of a condition, such as
value, rate, periodicity, or amplitude, exhibiting only negligible change over an arbitrary, long period of time.
Stiffness: The ratio of change of force (or torque) to the
resulting change in deflection of a spring-like element,
the opposite of compliance.
Strain: The ratio of the change in length to the initial
unstressed reference length of an element under stress.
Subsidence: The progressive reduction or suppression of
oscillation in a device or system.
Suppressed range: A range in which the zero value of a
measured variable is greater than the lower-range value
(LRV). The terms "elevated zero," "suppression" or "suppressed span" are also used to express the condition when
the zero of the measured variable is greater than the LRV.
Suppressed span: The span in which the zero of the measured variable is greater than the LRV.
Suppressed zero: The range in which the zero value of a
measured variable is less than the lower range value. The
terms "elevation," "elevated range" and "elevated span" are
frequently used to express the condition in which the zero
of the measured variable is less than the lower range value.
Suppression ratio: The ration of the lower-range value to
the span. If range is 20-100 and, therefore, span is 80 and
LRV is 20, the suppression ratio is 20/80 = 0.25 or 25%.
Synchronous: An event or action that is synchronized to
a reference clock.
System noise: Measure of the amount of noise seen by
an analog circuit or an ADC when the analog inputs are
grounded.
T
Temperature coefficient: The amount of drift, in percent
of full scale output, that might result from a 1C change
in ambient temperature.
Thermal shock: An abrupt temperature change applied
to a device.
Time constant: The value "T" in an exponential term A(-t/T).
For the output of a first-order system forced by a step or
an impulse, T is the time required to complete 63.2% of
the total rise or decay. For higher order systems, there is
a time constant for each of the first-order components
of the process.
Transducer: An element or device that receives information
in the form of one quantity and converts it to information
TRANSACTIONS
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115
Notice of
Intellectual Property Rights
The OMEGA Handbook Series is based upon original
intellectual property rights that were created and
developed by OMEGA. These rights are protected
under applicable copyright, trade dress, patent and
trademark laws. The distinctive, composite appearance of these Handbooks is uniquely identified with
OMEGA, including graphics, product identifying pings,
paging/section highlights, and layout style. The front,
back and inside front cover arrangement is the subject
of a U. S. Patent Pending.