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Introduction To Fabrication PDF
Introduction To Fabrication PDF
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
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INTRODUCTION TO
MICROELECTRONIC
FABRICATION
SECOND EDITION
by
RICHARD C. JAEGER
-1-
CHAPTER 1
1.1
Answering machine
Alarm clock
Automatic door
Automatic lights
ATM
Automobile:
Engine controller
Temp. control
ABS
Electronic dash
Automotive tune-up equip.
Bar code scanner
Battery charger
Calculator
Camcorder
Carbon monoxide detector
Cash register
Cellular phone
Copier
Cordless phone
Depth finder
Digital watch
Digital scale
Digital thermometer
Digital Thermostat
Electric guitar
Electronic door bell
Electronic gas pump
Exercise machine
Fax machine
Fish finder
Garage door opener
GPS
Hearing aid
Inkjet & Laser Printers
Light dimmer
Musical greeting cards
Keyboard synthesizer
Keyless entry system
Laboratory instruments
Model airplanes
Microwave oven
Musical tuner
Pagers
Personal computer
Personal planner/organizer
Radar detector
Radio
Satellite receiver/decoder
Security systems
Smoke detector
Stereo system
Amplifier
CD player
Receiver
Tape player
Stud sensor
Telephone
Traffic light controller
TV & remote control
Variable speed appliances
Blender
Drill
Mixer
Food processor
Fan
Vending machines
Video games
Workstations
Electromechanical Appliances*
Air conditioning
Clothes washer
Clothes dryer
Dish washer
Electrical timer
Thermostat
Iron
Oven
Refrigerator
Stove
Toaster
Vacuum cleaner
*These appliances are historically based only
upon on-off (bang-bang) control. However,
many of the high-end versions of these
appliances have now added sophisticated
electronic control.
-2-
(a) A = d2/4
d (mm)
A
(mm2)
25
49
1
50
196
0
75
442
0
100
785
0
125
1230
0
150
1770
0
1.3
200
3140
0
300
7070
0
450
159000
(b) n = 148
0.1977( 20201960)
13
1.4
B = 19.97x1 0
1.5
1.6
= 1.45x10 bits
lo g B2
B1
0.1977( Y 1960)
B = 1 9.9 7x 1
0
Y2 Y1 =
0.1 9 7 7
lo g2
( ) = 1.5 2y e a rs b Y Y = lo g1
( 0) = 5.0 6y e a r s
(a )Y2 Y1 =
( ) 2 1
0.1 9 7 7
0.1 9 7 7
1.7
-3-
lo g N2
N1
0.1505( Y1970)
N = 1027x 1 0
Y2 Y1 =
0.1505
lo g2
( ) = 2.00years b Y Y = lo g10
( ) = 6.65years
(a )Y2 Y1 =
( ) 2 1
0.1505
0.1505
-4-
1.8
F = 8.214 x10
m = 7.50x10 m = 75 .
1.9
1.10
1.11
Two Possibilities
276 Dice
1.12
277 Dice
(a) From Fig. 1.1b , a 75 mm wafer has 130 total dice. The cost per good die is $400/
(0.35 x 130) = $8.79 for each good die. (b) The 150 mm wafer has a total of 600 dice
yielding a cost of $400/(0.35 x 600) = $1.90 per good die.
1.13
-5-
(b)N = 5000
(c)N = 5000
25 (0.1
-6-
Thermal oxidation
n+ diffusion mask
Oxide etch
n+ diffusion and oxidation
Contact opening mask
Oxide etch
Metal deposition
Metal etch mask
Metallization etch
Mask 1
Mask 2
Mask 3
1.15
p
n+
E
C
n+
-7-
CHAPTER 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
SiO2
SiO2
(a)
3 m
(b)
-8-
3 m
2.4
2.5
(a )N A =
2.6
(a )NA =
Metal
Mask
1 1 193n m
=
= 0.536
2 F 2 180n m
(b )DF = 0.6
Contact
Mask
4F 2
4(180n m)
=
0.6
= 0.6
= 0.403m
2
NA
193n m
2
1
1
= 0.5m = 500nm
1 =
2F
2 0.25m
0.5m
DF = 0.6
= 0.6
= 0.3m
2
NA
12
1
1
= 250nm
0.5 =
(b )NA =
2F
2 0.25m
0.25m
DF = 0.6
= 0.6
= 0.6m
2
NA
0.5 2
2.7
193nm
Fmin =
= 96.5nmorFm in 0.1m
2
2
-9-
2.8
13nm
Fmin =
= 6.5nmorFm in 0.0065m
2
2
- 10 -
CHAPTER 3
3.1
Using Fig. 3.6 with 100 nm = 0.1 m: (a) Wet O2 yields 0.15 hours or approximately
9 minutes. (b) Dry O2 yields 2.3 hours. Nine minutes is too short for good control, so
the dry oxidation cycle would be preferred.
3.2
Using Figure 3.6: The first 0.4 m takes 0.45 hours or 27 minutes. The second 0.4
m takes (1.5-0.45) hours or 63 minutes. The third 0.4 m takes (3.2-1.5) hours or
102 minutes.
3.3
d Xo D No
1
o + D d Xo = D No t
=
or
X
dt M X + D
ks
M
o
k
s
+ X o M + M
t = X 2o
2DN o
No k s DN o
B=
Assuming = 0 at Xo = Xi:
2D No
2D
M
A=
=
M
ks
D No
X 2i
Xi
+
=
B
(
B/
A
)
Problems 3.4 through 3.10 evaluate the following equations with spreadsheets.
4B
X o = 0.5 A 1 + 2 (t + ) 1
= X i B + X i (B A )
t = Xo B + X o (B A )
3.4
T
1150
1150
1150
3.5
B/A
5.322
5.322
5.322
Xo
1
2
3
t (hrs)
1.688
4.687
6.687
(a)
<100> Silicon - Wet Oxygen
- 11 -
B/A
6.116E-02
B
1.219E-01
Xi
0
tau
0
Xo
0.01
t (hrs)
1.643E-01
0.164 hours represents only 9.86 minutes and is too short a time for good control.
- 12 -
(b)
T
1000
3.6
B/A
4.478E-02
Xo
0.01
t (hrs)
---
3.7
B/A
5.322
Xo
2.000
t (hrs)
6.375
(c)
T
1050
T
1050
3.8
B/A
1.504E+00
Xo
1
t (hrs)
3.090
Xo
1
t (hrs)
73.71
(a)
T
B/A
B
A
Xi
tau
t
Xo ( m)
1100
0.169
0.024
0.140
0.025
- 13 -
T
B/A
B
A
Xi
tau
t
Xo ( m)
1100
2.895
0.529
0.183
0.074
0.036
2.000
0.950
T
B/A
B
A
Xi
tau
t
Xo ( m)
1100
0.169
0.024
0.140
0.950
43.931
- 14 -
(b)
T
B/A
B
A
Xi
tau
t
Xo ( m)
1100
0.284
0.024
0.083
0.025
0.115
0.500
0.086
T
B/A
B
A
Xi
tau
- 15 -
- 16 -
(a)
T
1000
B/A
4.478E-02
B
1.042E-02
T
1100
B/A
2.895
B
0.529
Xi
0.025
tau
0.618
t
1.000
Xo ( m)
0.058
Xi
0.058
tau
0.026
t
5.000
Xo ( m)
1.542
(b) From Fig. 3.6, 1 hr at 1000 oC in dry oxygen produces approximately 0.053 m
oxide, and 5 hours at 1100 oC in wet oxygen produces a 1.5 m thick oxide. The
0.053- m oxide would grow in less than 0.1 hour in wet oxygen at 1100 oC and has
a negligible effect on the wet oxide growth.
3.10
(a)
T
1100
B/A
0.284
B
0.024
T
1100
B/A
4.865
B
0.529
Xi
0.025
tau
0.115
t
1.000
Xo ( m)
0.126
Xi
0.126
tau
0.056
t
5.000
Xo ( m)
1.582
(b) From Fig. 3.7, 1 hr at 1100 oC in dry oxygen produces approximately 0.12- m
oxide, and 5 hours at 1100 oC in wet oxygen produces a 1.5 m thick oxide. The
0.12- m oxide would grow in less than 0.1 hour in wet oxygen at 1100 oC and has a
negligible effect on the wet oxide growth.
3.11
To make a numeric calculation, we must choose a temperature say 1100 oC. Using
the values from Table 3.1 for wet oxygen at 1100 oC on <100> silicon yields (B/A) =
2.895 m/hr and B = 0.529 m2/hr. In the oxidized region, the initial oxide Xi =
2
= X i B + X i /(B/ A ) = 0.144 hrs. The time required to reach
0.2 m which gives
a thickness of 0.5 m = 0.52/0.53 + 0.5/2.9 - 0.144 = 0.50 hrs. In the unoxidized
region, 0.5 hours oxidation yields
This result can also be obtained using Fig. 3.6 in a manner similar to the solution of
Problem 3.13.
20 nm
50 nm
Original
43 nm
Final
- 17 -
3.12
To make a numeric calculation, we must choose a temperature say 1100 oC. Using
the values from Table 3.1 for wet oxygen at 1100 oC on <100> silicon yields (B/A) =
2.895 m/hr, B = 0.529 m2/hr and A = 0.183 m. In the unoxidized region, we
t = X2o B + Xo /(B/ A ) = 2.24 hrs. In the oxidized
desire Xo = 1 m which gives
= X 2i B + X i /(B/ A ) = 2.24 hrs.
region, the initial oxide Xi = 1 m which gives
The final thickness in the oxidized region is
2.895
X o = 0.5 (0.183m ) 1 + 4
(4.472 ) 1 = 1.45m
0.183
1 m
1.45 m
1 m
Original
Final
Note that this result is almost independent of the temperature chosen. The total
growth in the oxidized area ranges from 1.49 m at 1000 oC to 1.43 m at 1200 oC.
The 1- m region will appear carnation pink in color, and the 1.45- m region will
appear violet.
3.13
Using Fig. 3.6: At 1100 oC, 1.4 m of oxide could be grown in 4 hours. However,
the wafer has 0.4 m oxide already present and appears to have already been in the
furnace for 0.45 hours. Thus, 3.55 hours will be required to grow the additional 1
m of oxide. The oxide will appear to be orange in color.
T
1100
B/A
2.895
tau
0.441
Xo
1.400
t (hrs)
3.749
3.14
3.15
- 18 -
3.17
Using Table 3.2: The 1- m thick oxide region will appear carnation pink in color.
The 2- m thick oxide region will also appear carnation pink in color.
3.18
3.19
3.20
- 19 -
PROBLEM 3.21
<100> SILICON, BORON CONCENTRATION=1E15
THICKNESS=5.0 XDX=0 DX=0.02 SPACE=200
TEMP=1100 TIME=30 DRY02
TEMP=1100 TIME=120 WET02
TEMP=1100 TIME=30 DRY02
LAYERS
CHEMICAL NET LP.PLOT
For (a) and (b), XO = 0.92 m. Problem 3.8 yielded 0.96 m. Boron is slightly
depleted at the silicon surface in (a) and arsenic pile-up is exhibited at the surface in
(b).
3.22
TITLE
INITIALIZE
DIFFUSION
DIFFUSION
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
STOP
PROBLEM 3.22
<111> SILICON, BORON CONCENTRATION=3E15
THICKNESS=5.0 XDX=0 DX=0.02 SPACE=200
TEMP=1100 TIME=30 DRY02
TEMP=1100 TIME=120 WET02
TEMP=1100 TIME=30 DRY02
LAYERS
CHEMICAL NET LP.PLOT
XO = 0.96 m. Boron is slightly depleted at the silicon surface. Problem 3.8 yielded
0.99 m.
3.23
TITLE
INITIALIZE
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
STOP
PROBLEM 3.23
<100> SILICON, BORON CONCENTRATION=2.7E15
THICKNESS=5.0 XDX=0 DX=0.02 SPACE=200
TEMP=1150 TIME=408.7 WET02
LAYERS
CHEMICAL BORON LP.PLOT
The result is XO = 2.0 m. Boron is slightly depleted at the silicon surface and
approximately uniform in the oxide. Problem 3.6 yielded 2.0 m in 6.375 hours
(382.4 min). The simulation requires more time to reach 2 m. SUPREM yields a
- 20 -
3.24
TITLE
INITIALIZE
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
STOP
PROBLEM 3.24
<100> SILICON, BORON CONCENTRATION=5E15
THICKNESS=5.0 XDX=0 DX=0.02 SPACE=200
TEMP=1050 TIME=197.2 WET02
LAYERS
CHEMICAL BORON LP.PLOT
XO = 1.0 m.
For dry oxidation:
DIFFUSION
3.25
INITIALIZE
TITLE
INITIALIZE
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
STOP
XOX = 1.0 m.
TITLE
INITIALIZE
DIFFUSION
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
STOP
XO = 1.44 m.
- 21 -
- 22 -
CHAPTER 4
xj 2
whereD t= 108 cm2
(a) 10 = 5x10 exp
2 D t
15
4.1
18
x = 2.92 2 Dt = 5.8m
j
1015
1
x
=
2
D
t
erfc
(b) j
18 andx
j = 5.3m
5
x10
(c) Using Fig. 4.16 (b) with a surface concentration of 5 x 1018/cm3 and a background
concentration of 1015/cm3 yields Rs xj = 270 ohm- m. Dividing by the junction depth
of 5.8 m yields Rs = 47 ohms/. For the erfc profile, use Fig. 4.16(a) yielding 320
ohm- m and 60 ohms/ with xj = 5.3 m.
10 20
10 19
10 18
10 17
10 16
10 15
10 14
3
4
DistanceFromSurface(um
)
(d)
4.2
4.3
(a) Using Fig. 4.8, a 1 ohm-cm n-type wafer has a background concentration of 4.0 x
1015 /cm3. So: 5 x1018 exp (x j / 2 Dt ) = 4.0 x 1015. Solving for Dt with xj = 4 x
- 23 -
10-5 x 1273) = 2.58 x 10-14. Solving for Dt yields Dt = 3.46 x 10-13 and t = 13.4 sec
which is a too short to control. Try T = 900 oC. No = 5.5 x 1020/cm3 and D = 1.47 x
10-15. Solving for t yields 13.0 minutes which is short but probably usable.
4.4
(a) An 1 ohm-cm n-type wafer has a doping NB = 4 x 1015/cm3 from Fig. 4.8. For the
2 Dt =
boron profile, N(x) = 5 x 1018 exp -(x2/4Dt). Setting N(4 m) = NB yields
1.5 x 10-4 cm. For phosphorus at 950 oC, Ns = 7 x 1020/cm3, and D = 6.53 x 10-15
cm2/sec. Using t = 1800 sec yields
2 Dt = 6.86 x 10-6 cm. The junction occurs for:
4x1015+7x1020erfc (xj/6.86x10-6) = 5x1018exp [-(xj/1.5x10-4)2]
This equation can be solved approximately by realizing that the boron profile is
almost constant near the surface. Thus, 7 x 1020 erfc (xj/6.86 x 10-6) 5 x 1018.
Solving for xj yields a junction depth of 0.154 m. Checking the boron profile at
this depth yields N = 4.95 x 1018 /cm3 so that the approximation is justified.
(b) Working iteratively with Fig. 4.21, one finds that the phosphorus and boron
profiles each have a value of approximately 4 x 1018/cm3 at a depth of 0.75 m
which is the junction depth.
(c) Using Fig. 4.12, we find that the 30 min curve reaches 5 x 1018/cm3 at a depth of
slightly over 0.7 m.
(d) From Prob. 4.3, Dt = 1.14 x 10-12 cm2 for the predeposition step, and Dt = 5.61 x
10-9 cm2 for the drive-in step. The total is Dt = 5.61 x 10-9 cm2. The Dt product for
the phosphorus step is 1.18 x 10-11 cm2, which is much smaller than the total Dt
product for the boron step. Thus, the assumption is justified.
4.5
(a) From Fig. 4.8, a 5 ohm-cm n-type wafer corresponds to NB = 9 x 1014/cm3, and Rs
xj = 7500 ohm- m. A p-type Gaussian diffusion gives NS = 5 x 1016/cm3. So 9 x
1014 = 5 x 1016 exp -(7.5 x 10-4/
2 Dt ). Solving for Dt yields = 3.5 x 10-8 cm2.
Using Fig. 4.5 to find an appropriate temperature: at 1100 oC, D is of the order of
10-13cm2/sec which gives a time over 25 hours - so we will try 1150 oC. For Do = 10.5
- 24 -
4.6
(a) At 1000 oC, Fig. 4.6 indicates the arsenic surface concentration will be 1021/cm3.
The Dt product can be found from Eq. 4.10:
Dt =
xj
2m
11
2
=
NB
3x1 016 D t= 1 .1 8 9 x 1 0c m
2 ln
NO 2 ln 1 021
(b) At 1000 oC, D = 0.32 exp(-3.56/(8.62 x 10-5)(1273)) = 2.603 x 10-15 cm2/sec, and t
= 4567 sec or 1.27 hrs, a satisfactory time.
(c) From Fig. 4.11 and Table 4.2, x j = 2.29 NODt n i .
EG
1.1 2
3
2
31 3
31
n i = 1.0 8x1 0 T e x p
= 1.0 8x1 0 (1 2 7 3) e x p
k T
8.6 2x1 05 x1 2 7 3
17
3
and ni = 9.07 x 10 /cm .
0.2x10 4 cm 2 9.07x1017
= 6.92x1014 cm2
D t =
21
2.29
10
4.7
Using Fig. 4.10 for a constant-source diffusion with N/NO = 10-4, the normalized
vertical xj = 2.75 units, and the normalized horizontal xj at the surface = 2.25 units.
Thus horizontal xj = (2.25/2.75) x vertical xj. The lateral diffusion = 0.5 m x
(2.25/2.75) or 0.41 m. L = Lox - 2 L = 3 0.82 = 2.18 m.
4.8
(a) As drawn in the figure, the body of the resistor is L/W = 100 m/10 m or 10
squares, and each resistor terminal will contribute 0.35 squares for a total or 10.7
squares.
- 25 -
100 m
90 m
30 m
(b) Lateral diffusion is 5 m, so the length and width of the resistor body become 90
m and 20 m respectively, and L/W = 4.5 squares. Each terminal now contributes
0.65 squares for a total of 5.8 squares.
- 26 -
A base diffusion is usually a Gaussian diffusion. Using Fig. 4.16(d) with a surface
concentration of 5 x 1018/cm3 and a background concentration of 1015/cm3 yields RS xj
= 400 ohm- m. For xj = 6 m, RS = 67 ohms/. At the mask level, the resistor
appears to have a resistance of 710 ohms. The resistor will actually have a resistance
of 330 ohms when fabricated.
4.9
4.10
(a)
(b) There are 3 long legs, 2 shorter legs, 4 vertical links, 8 corners and 2 contacts.
N = 3(22/2) + 2(20/2) + 4(3/2) + 8(0.56) + 2(0.35) = 64.2 .
- 27 -
2
2
19
(c) N= 3(21/3) + 2(19/3) + 4(2/4) + 8(0.56) +2(0.5) = 41.2 where the contacts have
been estimated to contribute 0.5 squares each.
- 28 -
34.2 .
27.3 .
4.11
D(t) = DO exp -EA/k(To-Rt) DO exp -EA/kTo)(1+Rt/To) for Rt/To << 1. The integral
becomes
to
and
4.12
dx j
x
S Tj =
xj
T EA
=
dT kT
= 0.227
1373
8.62x105 (1373)
xj
4.13
- 29 -
16
13
4.14
x j
1
2x10 4
x 2 1
R S = q p N A (x)dx = 1.602x1019 (300)(2x1018 ) exp
dx
2
Dt
4.15
(a) From Fig. 4.8, a 0.3 -cm p-type wafer corresponds to NB = 5 x 1016/cm3. For NO
4
20
16
ln (
10
5x10 )= 7.254 x 10-5 cm.
= 1020/cm3, and xj = 2 um, 2 Dt = 2x10
1
0.5x104
x 2
19
20
R S = 1.602x10 (100) 10
exp
dx = 14.5 / s q.
2 Dt
1.0x10 4
x 2 1
19
20
R S = 1.602x10 (100) 10
exp
dx = 34.9 /sq.
2 D t
0.5x10 4
1.5x104
x 2 1
R S = 1.602x1019 (100) 1020 exp
dx = 203 /sq.
2 D t
1.0x104
2.0x104
x 2 1
R S = 1.602x1019 (100) 1 020 e xp
dx = 2890 /sq.
2 Dt
1.5x10 4
(b) Putting these four sheet resistance values in parallel yields RS = 9.72 /.
For
NO
1018/cm3,
( )
( )
( )
( )
(c) Irvins curves for an n-type Gaussian layer with NB = 5 x 1016/cm3 and NO =
1020/cm3 gives RS xj = 25 - m, and Rs = 12.5 /.
- 30 -
4.16
Find the surface concentration and junction depth after predeposition and drive-in for
boron with a 900 oC 15-minute pre-deposition and a 5-hr 1100 oC drive-in. From
Table 4.2: xj = N ODt ni ; D = 3.17exp(-3.59/kT), NO = 2.78 x1017(RS xj)-1 and Q =
0.67 NO xj. At 900 oC, NO = 1.1x1020/cm3 from Fig. 4.6, and D = 1.21 x 10-15cm2/sec.
x = 2.45 (1.1x10 20 )(1.21x1015 )(900)/ 4x1018 = 0.134m
j
From Ex. 4.2, NB = 3 x 1016/cm3, D = 2.96 x 10-13 cm2/sec and t = 18000 sec. After
the drive-in, x j = 2 Dt ln(NO N B ) = 3.44m (24% greater).
4.17
N(x,t = 0 )
d 2 N(x,s) sN(x,s)
(1)
=
2
D
D
dx
where N(x, t = 0-) = 0 for no impurities in the wafer until t > 0. For this case the
solution is N(x,s) =A (s)exp (x s D )since N must be finite at d = .
Constant Source Diffusion: For this case, the boundary condition is N(0,t) = N Ou(t),
and
x
N
s
N(x,s ) = O exp x
.
. Using transform tables, N(x,t ) = N Oerfc
s
D
2
Dt
Limited Source Diffusion: For this case the boundary condition is N(x, t = 0 -) =
Q (x) where Q is the impurity dose in atoms/cm2. Integrating equation (1) for x = 0to x = 0+ yields dN(x,s)/dx = -Q/D, and therefore A (s) = Q/ Ds . From the
transform tables,
x2
Q
N(x, t ) =
exp
Dt
4Dt
4.18
RS = 1/ t where t is the layer thickness. From Fig. 4.6, the maximum electrically
active concentration for boron is 4.3 x 1020/cm3 and 5 x 1020/cm3 for arsenic. From
the expressions in Prob. 4.24, the limiting mobilities at high concentration are 48 and
92 cm2/V-sec for holes and electrons, respectively.
Boron: RS = 1/q Nt = 1/(1.6x10-19 x 48 x 4.3x1020 x 10-4) = 3.0 ohms/ for t = 1
m, and 12.1 ohms/ for t = 0.25 m.
- 31 -
4.19
We must find the time t such that 1016 = 1018erfc(xj/2 Dt ) for xj = 4 x 10-2 cm. This
yields Dt
= 1.82. From Fig. 4.5, gold has a diffusion coefficient of
approximately 4 x 10-7 at 1000 oC, and t = 300 seconds. Only 5 minutes is required
for gold to completely diffuse through the wafer!
- 32 -
4.21
TITLE
INITIALIZE
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
PLOT
ETCH
DIFFUSION
PRINT
PLOT
PLOT
STOP
Boron concentration is high in the oxide and becomes somewhat depleted below the
1018 level at the surface of the final profile. The boron junction depth is predicted to
be 4.3 m, slightly greater than the 4 m calculated by hand. The second pn
junction occurs at a depth of 0.48 m. Using Fig. 4.12, the 30 min. curve intersects
a level of 1018 at a greater depth of 0.9 m.
- 33 -
4.22
V=
IRS ln(2)
ln(2 )
= (1 05 )(3 0 0)
= 0.6 6 2m V
- 34 -
(a) The cylinder contains 100 ft3 x 0.001 = 0.1 ft3 of diborane. The volume of the
room is 10 x 12 x 8 or 960 ft3. 0.1 ft3/960 ft3 = 1.04 x 10-4 or approximately 100 ppm.
(b) Life threatening exposure is 160 ppm for 15 min. Evacuate rapidly!
(c) Life threatening exposure is 6-15 ppm for 30 min. Evacuate immediately!
4.24
2x10 4
1
x 2
20
RS =
q N(x))N(x)dx whereN(x) = 10 exp
(
2
Dt
and n(N) is given in this problem. Using QUAD integration in MATLAB yields
RS = 9.81 / for the n-type diffusion. Repeating with p(N) yields RS = 19.3
/ for a p-type layer.
- 35 -
CHAPTER 5
5.1
From Figs. 5.3 (a) and (b), 60 keV through 0.25 m SiO2 yields Rp = 0.19 m and
Rp = 0.09 m. For the Gaussian implant, N(x) = Np exp[-(x-Rp)2/2 Rp2] with NP =
Q/ Rp 2 = 4.43 x 1018/cm3.
(a) N(0.25 m) = 4.43 x 1018exp [-(0.25-0.19)2/2(0.09)2] = 3.5 x 1018/cm3.
(x 0.19m)2
18
dx = (0.751) 2N R
(b) QSi = 4.43x10 exp
p
p
2(0.09m )2
0.25m
5.2
From Fig. 5.3 for boron at an energy of 10 keV, Rp = 0.031 m and Rp = 0.015
m. In this case, Rp is only two times Rp, and the full Gaussian profile will not be
completely below the surface. The dose Q is given by
x 0.031 2
Q = NP exp
dxwithxin
m
0.015
2
Numerical integration with MATLAB shows that only 98.06% of the profile is in the
silicon, so that
Q=
[ 2N
x 0.031 2
j
= 1016 yieldsxj = 0.10m which agrees
5.42x10 exp
Then:
0.015 2
- 36 -
10 21
10
20
10
19
10 18
10 17
10
16
10 15
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Distance From Surface (um)
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
5.3
5.4
First, calculate the total oxide thickness needed to ensure that the implanted impurity
concentration is less than 1015/10 = 1014/cm3 at the Si-SiO2 interface. We know that
RP = 0.05 m, the thickness of the oxide. For arsenic, this requires E = 80 keV from
Fig. 5.3, and Rp = 0.017 m. NP = Q/ RP 2 = 2.35 x 1017/cm3. From Eqn.
(5.9) with NP/NB = 235, XO = RP + 3.94 RP. XO = 0.05 + 3.94(0.017) = 0.117 m of
oxide. The additional oxide required is 3.94(0.017) = 0.067 m. However, Xnitride =
0.85 XO so only 0.057 m of silicon nitride is required.
5.5
Using Irvin's curves for a p-type Gaussian layer, Fig. 4.16(d), with R S xj = 625 ohm m yields NP = 2.7 x 1018/cm3. At x = xj, 2.7 x 1018exp[-(5x10-4/2 Dt )2] = 1016,
and Dt = 1.06 x 10-4 cm. For the final layer, the dose in silicon is Q Si = NP Dt
= 5.1 x 1014/cm2. With the pre-deposition implant peak at the surface, the implanted
dose will be 2 x QSi or 1.0 x 1015/cm2. D = 10.5 exp (-3.69/kT) = 2.96 x 10-13 at T =
1373 K, and the drive-in time is t = 3.80 x 104 sec or 10.5 hours.
5.6
Using Irvin's curves for a p-type Gaussian layer, Fig. 4.16(d), with R S xj = 400 ohm m yields NP = 4 x 1018/cm3. At x = xj, 4 x 1018exp[-(2x10-4/2 Dt )2] = 1016, and
-5
Dt = 4.09 x 10 cm. For the final layer, the dose in silicon is Q Si = NP Dt =
2.9 x 1014/cm2. With the pre-deposition implant peak at the surface, the implanted
dose will be 2 x QSi or 5.8 x 1015/cm2. D = 10.5 exp (-3.69/kT) = 2.96 x 10-13 at T =
1373 K, and the drive-in time is t = 5.64 x 103 sec or 1.57 hours.
- 37 -
5.7
Using Irvin's curves for a p-type Gaussian layer, Fig. 4.16(d), with R S xj = 62.5 ohm m yields NP = 6 x 1019/cm3. At x = xj, 6 x 1019exp[-(2.5x10-5/2 Dt )2] = 1016, and
-6
Dt = 4.24 x 10 cm. For the final layer, the dose in silicon is Q Si = NP Dt =
14
2
4.5 x 10 /cm . With the pre-deposition implant peak at the surface, the implanted
dose will be 2 x QSi or 9.0 x 1014/cm2. D = 10.5 exp (-3.69/kT) = 2.96 x 10-13 at T =
1373 K, and the drive-in time is t = 60.7 sec! This very short time will require rapid
thermal annealing, or the drive-in temperature could be reduced.
5.8
x 0.025 2
Q = NP exp
dxwithxinm
0.012 2
0
Numerical integration with MATLAB shows that only 98.14% of the profile is in the
silicon, so that
Q=
[ 2N
x 0.025 2
j
= 1016 yields x
3.39x10 exp
Then:
j = 0.80m which agrees
0.012
2
10
21
10
20
10
19
10 18
10
17
10
16
10
15
0.05
0.1
0.15
Distance From Surface (um)
- 38 -
0.2
0.25
5.9
(a) Irvin's curves can be used for each half of the distribution. We have 10 15 =
1019exp[-(xj-1)2/2(.11)2] with xj in m. Solving this equation yields (xj - RP) = 0.47
m which corresponds to xj normally used in Irvin's curves. From Irvin's curves
with NP = 1019/cm3, RS xj = 230 ohm- m, and RS = 490 ohms/ for xj = 0.47 m.
We effectively have two of these regions in parallel, so the total RS = 245 ohms/.
(b) Q = NP RP 2 = 2.76 x 1014/cm2.
(c) RP = 1 m requires 470 keV for boron from Fig. 5.3.
(d) From (a) xj = 1 3.03 RP 2 = 1.47 m and 0.53 m.
5.10
(a) Using Fig. 5.3 for 50-keV boron, Rp = 0.15 m and Rp = 0.050 m. Since the
concentrations are not known, let us assume a worst-case situation with NP = 1021/cm3
and NB = 1014/cm3. Also, remember that photoresist also requires 80% more
thickness than Si or SiO2. Thus the minimum photoresist thickness will be
- 39 -
5.11
mv2
2E
E=
orv=
; Also, remember 1 Joule = 1 kg-m2/sec2.
2
m
2(5keV)(1.602x10 19 J/ eV)
26
1.809x10
kg
= 2.98x105 m /sec
2(10keV)(1.602x10 19 J /eV )
8.165x10
26
kg
= 1.98x10 m /sec
5.12
2(5keV)(1.602x10 19 J/ eV)
2.045x10 25 kg
= 8.85x10 4 m/ sec
From Fig. 5.4 we see that the concentration is largest at x = R P. Using Eqn. 5.7, N(y)
= 0.5 x 1020{erfc [(y-a)/ 2 (.022)]} = 1016 for the junction edge. (y-a) = 2.63 2
(0.022) = 0.082 m. L = 2(.082) = 0.16 m. A graph of the concentration at x =
RP is given below. A blowup of the junction region agrees with the above
calculation.
- 40 -
10
21
10 20
10 19
10 18
10 17
10
16
10 15
10 14
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
DistancefromCenter of Opening(um)
- 41 -
1.2
x 0.3 2
x 0.55 2
+ exp
as plotted below.
So: N( x) = 5x10 exp
0.07 2
0.09 2
18
From the graph above, it is clear that the shallow profile controls the position of the
first junction and the deep profile controls the second junction.
x 0.3 2
j1
18
= 1 016 yie ld s x
5x1 0 e xp
j1 = 0.0 53m
0.0 7 2
x 0.5 5 2
j2
18
= 1 016 yie ld s x
5x10 e xp
j2 = 0.87m
0.0 9 2
These two junction values agree well with the graph of the profile.
5.14
Approximately (5 x 1022) x (0.2 x 10-4) = 1 x 1018 silicon atoms/cm2 are in the layer to
be formed. We need to implant two oxygen atoms per silicon atom for a total of 2 x
1018 oxygen atoms/cm2. The 125 mm wafer has an area of 123 cm2, so the total
- 42 -
5.15
VT = 0.75 volts; ox = 3.9 x 8.854 x 10-14 F/cm; Cox = ox/4 x 10-6 cm = 8.63 x 10-8
F/cm2. VT = qQ/Cox and Q = Cox VT/q = 4.0 x 1011/cm2.
5.16
(1015/cm2)( )(20/2)2 cm2 = 3.14 x 1017 total boron atoms. 10-5 A corresponds to (10-5
Coul/sec)/(1.6 x 1019 Coul/charge) or 6.25 x 1013 charges/sec. 3.14 x 1017 atoms/6.25
x 1013 atoms/sec = 5030 sec or approximately 84 minutes.
5.17
The sheet resistance is found by evaluating Eq. (4.13). N(x) is a Gaussian profile and
the mobility can be modeled by the mathematical approximations given in Prob. 4.24.
For given values of RP and RP, xj1 and xj2 can be found and the integral can be
evaluated with the QUAD function in MATLAB, for example. Xj1 will be zero if
the Gaussian profile interests the semiconductor surface.
x j2
1
(x R )2
2R
P
x j1
1270
447
n = 92 +
0.091 p = 48 +
0.076
N
N
1+
1
+
1.3x1017
6.3x1016
5.18
For a boron dose of 1015/cm3, 1000/T = 6.5 or T 154 K. For a phosphorus, 1000/T
= 3.25, and T 308 K.
5.19
5.20
5.21
Integrating numerically using a spreadsheet yielded 1.82 x 10-12 cm2. At 980 oC (1253
K), D = 1.49 x 10-14 cm2/sec, and Dt = 1.79 x 10-12 cm2.
- 43 -
5.22
Integrating numerically using a spreadsheet yielded 2.51 x 10-13 cm2. At 980 oC (1253
K), D = 1.49 x 10-14 cm2/sec, and Dt = 2.24 x 10-13 cm2.
- 44 -
CHAPTER 6
6.1
= 2.63 x 1020 (1.013 x 105)/ 32 300 = 2.73 x 1023 molecules/cm2-sec. For close
packing with radius r, the area of one atom is 4r2cos(30o). For oxygen with r = 3.6
(See Ex. 6.2), there are 2.23 x 1014 molecules/cm2 which yields t = 820 psec.
6.2
6.3
kT
(1.38x10 23 J /K )(N m / J )(10 2 cm/ m )(300K ) = 7190cm
=
2
2
2pd
2 (10 4 N/ m2 )(10 4 m 2 /cm 2 )(3.6x10 8 cm )
10 8 Pa(1N/ m 2 /Pa)
P
=
= 2.42x1012 /m 3
kT 1.38x1023 J /K (300K )(1N m/J)
n = 2.42x106 molecules/cm 3
6.5
6.6
From Prob. 6.1, close packing of 5- spheres will yield = 4.62 x 1014 Al atoms/cm3.
100 nm/min = 10-5 cm/min. (10-5cm/min)/(5x10-8cm x cos(30o)/atom) = 231 atomic
layers/min = 7.70 atomic layers/sec.
= (7.70 layers/sec)(4.62 x 1014 atoms/cm2-layer) = 3.56 x 1015 atoms/cm2-sec. M =
27 for Al and using T = 300 K, P = (3.56 x 10 15) 27 300 /2.63 x 1020 or P = 1.22 x
10-3 Pa.
6.7
- 45 -
6.8
Using the result from Prob. 6.7, G2/G1 = (2ro/r)4. r =100 2 + 10 2 , = 100.5 cm. G2/G1
= (100/100.5)4 = 0.980. A 0.02 m thickness variation will occur.
6.9
Using the result from Prob. 6.7, G2/G1 = (2ro/r)4. G2/G1 = 0.55 m/0.6 m and d/r =
0.9785. r = d 2 + 15 2 and d/ d 2 + 15 2 = 0.9785. d = 71.1 cm.
6.10
4 hours = 1.44 x 104 sec. Assume oxygen molecules for example. From Ex. 6.2, NS
= 2.23 x 1014 molecules/cm2 with M = 32. t = N S/ and P = (2.23x1014) 32 300 /
(2.63 x 1020)(1.44 x 104) = 5.77 x 10-9 Pa = 4.33 x 10-11 Torr - an ultrahigh vacuum
(UHV) system.
6.11
6.12
The graph on the next page is generated with MATLAB using equations 6.31 and
6.32. For both boron and phosphorus at 1200 oC, D = 10.5 exp (-3.69/(8.617x10-5)
(1473) = 2.49 x 10-12cm2/sec. xepi = 10 m and vx = 0.2 m/min give the growth
2 Dt =1.73 m. The two profiles are given by
time t = 3000 sec.
x xepi
1018
N1 (x ) =
1 + erf
2
1.73m
x xepi
x + xepi
1016
x
+ exp
erfc
N 2 (x) =
erfc
2
1.73m
0.0747m
1.73m
- 46 -
6.13
Evaporation and sputtering require good vacuum systems, whereas CVD can be done
at higher pressure or in some cases even at atmospheric pressure. Evaporation is
limited to elemental materials that can be melted. On the other hand, sputtering
replicates the target material, and metals, dielectrics and composite materials can all
be sputtered. Evaporation and sputtering tend to be low temperature processes. CVD
systems can do large wafer lots at one time, but elevated temperatures are often
involved and limit the points that CVD can be introduced into a process.
- 47 -
10 18
10 17
10 16
10 15
6
8
DistanceFromSurface(um
)
10
12
14
16
6.14
6.15
(a) Using the result from Prob. 6.7, G2/G1 = (2ro/r)4. r = 200 2 + 50 2 = 206.2 mm.
G2/G1 = (200/206.2)4 = 0.886. A 0.11 m thickness variation will occur.
(b) For a 200 mm wafer 40 cm above the source: r = 400 2 + 100 2 = 412.3 mm.
G2/G1 = (400/412.3)4 = 0.886. A 0.11 m thickness variation will occur. For a 300
mm wafer 40 cm above the source: r = 400 2 + 150 2 = 427.2 mm. G2/G1 =
(400/427.2)4 = 0.769. A 0.23 m thickness variation will occur.
6.16
From Fig. 6.10, the growth rate at 1100 oC in SiCl4 is 0.1 m/min. The 1- m film
takes 600 sec to grow. D = 0.32 exp (-3.56/(8.617x10 -5)(1373)) = 2.74 x 10-14
cm2/sec, and 2 Dt = 0.081 m. N(x) is given by (x in m see graph on next
page)
x 1
N(x ) = 5x1019 1 + erf
cm3
0.081
- 48 -
6.17
From Fig. 6.10, the growth rate at 950 oC in SiH4Cl2 is 0.15 m/min. The 2- m
film takes 800 sec to grow. D = 10.5 exp (-3.69/(8.617x10-5)(1223)) = 6.45 x 10-15
cm2/sec, and 2 Dt = 0.045 m. N(x) is given by (x in m)
x 2
20
3
N(x) = 10 1 + erf
cm
0.045
21
10
20
10
19
10 18
10 17
10 16
10
15
10 14
0
0.5
1.5
Distance From Surface (um)
2.5
- 49 -
10
21
10
20
10
19
10 18
10 17
10
16
10 15
10
14
0.5
1.5
Distance From Surface (um)
2.5
CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.2
- 50 -
7.3
(a) RS = 1/ t = 1/q Nt
For boron: RS = 1/(1.6x10-19)(75)(4.3x1020)(0.25x10-4) = 7.8 ohms/.
For arsenic: RS = 1/(1.6x10-19)(100)(5x1020)(0.25x10-4) = 5.0 ohms/.
(b) At high surface concentrations, the curves of Fig. 4.16 stop at RS xj = 10 - m.
A junction depth of 0.25 m yields a sheet resistance of 40 /.
7.4
D = 0.04 exp (-0.92/723 x 8.62x10-5) = 1.55 x 10-8cm2/sec. t = 30 min = 1800 sec and
Dt = 52.7 m. The volume of aluminum that will absorb silicon is V = (2 x
53 m)(15 m)(1 m) = 1590 m3. At T = 450 oC, the equilibrium concentration
of silicon in aluminum is 0.5%, so the volume of silicon required is VSi = 5 x 10-3VAl.
Dividing by the contact area of 100 m2 yields a depth of 0.08 m.
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
(a) For minimum resistance we would use a constant source diffusion resulting in an
erfc profile. Using Irvin's curves, RS xj = 90 - m and RS = 23 / for a 4- m
deep junction.
(b) The surface area per unit length including the sidewall contribution is (15+4+4) =
23 m2 per m of length. For NB = 1015,
1015
bi = 0.56V + (25.8m V) ln 10 = 0.857V
10
- 51 -
7.9
(25x10 ) = 2.46fF /m
2(0.857)
L
10 4 cm
R
=
=
(
5
cm
)
2 = 0.80
7.11
A
0.25 x104 cm )
(
- 52 -
CHAPTER 8
8.1
8.2
2115 = 4.15 x 1034 states. At 10-7 sec/state, each die will take 4.15 x 1027 sec. There
are 3.15 x 107 sec/year, so each die will require 1.3 x 1020 years. Wafer test will
require 1.3 x 1022 years.
8.3
8.4
8.5
exp(-DoA)
4.54 x 10-5
(1+DoA/5)-5
4.12 x 10-3
2-3
{[1- exp(-DoA)]/DoA}2
0.01
2-3
[1- exp(-2DoA)]/2DoA
0.05
12 - 13
30 - 31
1/(1+DoA)
0.09
23
56
The yield depends on the exact positioning of the die sites. The best-case die map
yields 2 good die when DoA = 4 giving a yield of 2/26 or 7.7%. The worst-case
- 53 -
- 54 -
8.7
(a) Do = 5, and wafer cost = $150. A = 40 mm2, and S = 40 mm. N = 248, and Y
= 0.245. Y x N = 61 dice, and C = [1.60 + 150/61] = $4.06. For two dice, A = 23
mm2, N = 455, Y = 0.391 and Y x N = 178. The total cost is 2[1.60 + 150/178] =
$4.89 which is more expensive.
(b) For a single chip, C = [1.60 + 300/61] = $6.52. For two dice, C = 2[1.60 +
300/178] = $6.57.
8.8
(a) For the first process: A = 25 mm2, and N = (50-5)2/52 = 254 dice. Y = [1 exp
(-2 x 2 x 0.25)] / (2 x 2 x 0.25) = 0.632. Y x N = 161 good dice. The cost per die is
C1 = M/161 for a wafer cost of M $/wafer. For the second process: A = 12.5 mm 2. N
= (50-3.54)2/12.5 = 543 die, and Y = [1 - exp(-2 x 10 x 0.125)] / (2 x 10 x 0.125) =
0.367. Y x N = 199 good die per wafer. C 2 = 1.3M/199 = M/153. The new die is
only slightly more expensive even at a defect level of 10 defects/cm 2. The change is
not economical at the present time, but as the defect density improves with time, the
second process will become more economical.
(b) For equal die cost in the new process, we need Y x N = 1.3 x 161 = 209 good die.
This requires Y = 209/543 = [1 - exp (-2 x 0.125Do)]/(2 x 0.125Do). Letting X =
0.25Do, results in the equation 0 = 1 - 0.385X - exp(-X) which may be solved
numerically using Newton's method or the solver on a calculator yielding X = 2.35
and Do = 9.4
(c) We would switch since we expect the new process to improve, and the die cost
will be less as we move down the learning curve.
(d) The cost in the first process is M/161. In the new process, N = (50- A )2/A
and Y = [1 exp(-0.2A)]/0.2A (A in mm2). For equal cost we must have Y x N =
1.3(161), and we must solve the equation below for A (A in mm2).
(50- A )2[1-exp(-0.2A)]/0.2A2 = 1.3(161)
Using Newton's method or a calculator solver yields A = 12.17 mm2.
8.9
lim (1 + DoA/ )-
- 56 -
exp(-DoA)
=5
= 5000
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
3.68E-01
1.35E-01
4.98E-02
1.83E-02
6.74E-03
2.48E-03
9.12E-04
3.35E-04
1.23E-04
4.54E-05
4.02E-01
1.86E-01
9.54E-02
5.29E-02
3.13E-02
1.94E-02
1.26E-02
8.42E-03
5.81E-03
4.12E-03
3.68E-01
1.35E-01
4.98E-02
1.83E-02
6.75E-03
2.49E-03
9.16E-04
3.38E-04
1.24E-04
4.59E-05
8.11
N = (0.1)( d2/4). N = 17.7, 31.4, and 70.7 for the 15, 20 and 30 cm diameter wafers.
8.12
For both wafers, Yx = (1 + 10Ax/2)-2 = 1/(1 + 5Ax)2. For the 100 mm wafer, N1 =
(50- A 1 )2/A1 , and the cost per die is $150/N1Y1.
For the 150 mm wafer, N2 = (75- A 2 )2/A2 , and the cost per die is $250/N2Y2.
For equal cost, $150/N1Y1 = $250/N2Y2. For a given A1, we can find the
corresponding A2. Thus we need to choose some cost, say $1/die. Setting $150/N 1Y1
= $1 and $250/N2Y2 = $1 and solving for the areas gives A1 = 14.8 mm2 and A2 =
17.8 mm2.
8.13
There are now 10 good dice out of 60 sites for a yield of 17%. Two good dice exist
out of with 24 sites with 4 times the area for a yield of 8.3%.
8.14
This can be integrated numerically, and the results are compared below with Y2 = [1exp(-DoA)/DoA]2.
DoA
Y1
Y2
0.39
0.40
- 57 -
0.17
0.084
0.046
0.028
0.19
0.10
0.060
0.040
- 58 -
8.15
0.018 0.028
0.012 0.020
0.0092 0.016
0.0071 0.012
0.0056 0.010
8.16
N x Pk
44
44
22
7
2
0
D o A 5
(a) 0.70 = 1 +
yields DoA = 0.370. Do = 0.370/1.5 = 0.247 defects/cm2.
Do A 5
(b) 0.80 = 1 +
yields DoA = 0.228. Do = 0.228/1.5 = 0.152 defects/cm2.
D o A 5
(c) 0.90 = 1 +
yields DoA = 0.107. Do = 0.107/1.5 = 0.071 defects/cm2.
8.17
D o A 6
(a) 0.75 = 1 +
yields DoA = 0.295. Do = 0.295/4 = 0.0737 defects/cm2.
Do A 6
(b) 0.85 = 1 +
yields DoA = 0.165. Do = 0.295/4 = 0.0412 defects/cm2.
- 59 -
CHAPTER 9
9.1
9.2
(a) The built-in potential = 0.56 + 0.0258 ln (1015/1010) = 0.857 V. The total voltage
across the junction is (3 + 2 + 0.857) = 5.86 volts. Dividing by the background
concentration yields a value of 5.86 x 10-15 V-cm3. From Fig. 9.4, the depletion layer
width will be 3.0 m. The minimum line spacing must be twice this value or 6.0
m.
Using Eq. 9.3 directly, 2Wd = 2
= 5.51m .
9.3
= 1.01m
9.4
- 60 -
-1
-2
-3
-4 14
10
10 15
10 16
10 17
3
Doping Concentration (#/cm )
- 61 -
10 18
10 19
10
10
9.6
From Fig. P9.6, NB = 2 x 1015/cm3. Using Eq. 9.2, the threshold voltage with no
implant would be VTN 0 V. The shift caused by the implant is VTN = qQi/CO, so
we need the implanted dose which is given by
Q = 2N P R P with the implant
peak at the surface. The characteristics of the implant are found by subtracting the
background concentration from the profile in Fig. P9.6. The peak concentration of
the implant is 2 x 1016/cm3 at x = 0, and the implanted profile drops to 4 x 1015 at x =
0.25 m. The projected range is found from 4 x 10 15 = 2 x 1016 exp-(0.25)2/2 Rp2,
16
5
and the projected range is 0.139 m. The dose Q = 2(2x10 )(1.39 x10 ) =
6.99 x 1011/cm2. The oxide capacitance is 1.73 x 10-7 F/cm2 for a 20 nm gate oxide.
VTN = (1.602 x10-19)(6.99x1011)/(1.73x10-7) = 0.647 V. So the resulting threshold
voltage is 1.61V.
9.7
2
For the Gaussian distribution N(x) = Np exp(-x /2 Rp2), and
2
M1 =
NP R P a ndM2 = N P R P
2
9.8
Ni x2i
2
- 62 -
K
*
I D = n O O
XO
9.9
W
VD S
VD S = ID
G
S
TN
L
2
P * P
3 P
* = A =
A
A
2
9.10
1.12
14
19
16
+ F + 2(11.7 )(8.854 x10 )(1.602 x10 )(3x10 ) F /CO = 0.721V
2
A
3x1016
3.9(8.854 x10 14 )
8
2
forF = 0.0258 ln
andC
=
=
6.91x10
F
/cm
O
10
6
10
5x10
VTN =
threshold voltage shift of 3.72 volts is required to achieve a -3-V threshold. The
required dose Q = CO VTN/q = 1.61 x 1012/cm2.
9.11
In Fig. 1.8, reverse all the n- and p-type regions as well as the arsenic and boron
implantations.
9.12
- 63 -
22 11
=
20 10
=
- 64 -
(a) The well doping is almost constant and equal to the surface concentration in the
depletion-region beneath the gate of the MOSFET. So the substrate doping for the
NMOS device is 3 x 1015/cm3 and 3 x 1016/cm3 for the PMOS device. VTN is
calculated using Eqns. 9.2 with CO = 2.30 x 10-7 F/cm2 for a 15 nm oxide thickness.
3x1015
= 0.325V
F = 0.0258ln
1010
VTN = 0.56 + 0.325 + 2(11.7)(8.854x10 14 )(1.602x1019 )(3x1015 )(0.325)/ CO = 0.16V
3x1016
= 0.385V
F = 0.0258ln
1010
V = 0.56 0.385 2(11.7)(8.854x10 14 )(1.602x1019 )(3x1016 )(0.385 ) /CO = 1.21V
TP
(b) The NMOS device requires a +1.16-V shift, and the PMOS device requires a
+0.21-V shift. The required dose is given approximately by Q = C O VT/q. The dose
for the NMOS device is 1.67 x 1012/cm2, whereas it is 3.02 x 1011/cm2 for the PMOS
device. Note that both shifts are positive and would utilize boron implantations.
9.14
0V
8V
0V
8V
p+
n+
3 x 1015 /cm3
n
5 x 1016 /cm3
p-well
= 1.96m
16
10
10
) = 0.958V
= 0.481m
3x1015 5x1016
kT N AN D
= 0.723V
bi =
ln 2 = 0.0258ln
20
q
n
10
- 65 -
Wd =
Wd =
2K S o (V A + bi ) N A ND
q
N A + ND
2(11.7 )(8.854x10 14 )(8.732 ) 3x1015 5x10 16
= 2.00m
19
16
1.602x10
5.3x10
The minimum spacing is W = 1.96 + 0.48 + 2.00 = 4.44 m with no safety margin or
alignment tolerances considered.
9.15
(a) 10 -cm (n-type) material has a doping of 4.2 x 1014/cm3 based upon Fig. 4.8.
For a junction depth of 2 m, we have
2x104 2
14
16
Dt = 3.154x109 cm2
4.2 x10 = 10 exp
2 Dt
For boron at 1075 oC, D = 10.5 exp[-3.69/(8.617 x 10-5 x 1348)] = 1.678 x 10-13
cm2/sec, and the drive-in time t = 5.22 hours. The dose Q = NO Dt = 9.95 x
1011/cm2. From Fig. 4.10(b) with N/NO = 0.042, X Y = 1.3/1.8 = 0.722. Lateral
diffusion = 1.4 m.
(b) For this case, we have
14
1.5x104 2
Dt = 1.177x10 9 cm2
= 5x10 exp
2
Dt
16
4.2 x10
D for phosphorus is the same as D for boron, and the drive-in time t = 1.95 hours.
The dose Q = NO Dt = 3.04 x 1012/cm2. From Fig. 4.10(b) with N/NO = 0.0084,
X Y = 2.25/2.75 = 0.818. Lateral diffusion = 1.23 m.
(c) The total diffusion time is 7.17 hours or 2.58 x 104 sec. For arsenic at 1075 oC, D
= 0.32 exp[-3.56/(8.617 x 10-5 x 1348)] = 1.566 x 10-14 cm2/sec. The out diffusion is
modeled approximately by Eq. (6.31). The out diffusion boundary is given by
x 3x1 04 x 3x1 04
1 020
14
= 3.7 8 9
4.2 x1 0 =
1 + e r f
2 D t
2
2
D
t
- 66 -
Contacts
Thin Oxide
Metal
9.17
14
24
The area is reduced from 416 2 to 336 2, a 19% improvement, but the gate
overlap capacitance is significantly larger. The overlap area is now 72 2 versus 44
2 in the original layout.
- 67 -
24
24
All Levels Aligned to First level (Diffusion)
Lateral Diffusion = 2m = 1
2 x 2 Contacts
22
22
Thin Oxide Aligned to Diffusion
Contacts and Metal Aligned to Thin oxide
Lateral Diffusion = 2m = 1
- 68 -
VO
9.20
- 69 -
Well Boundary
12
16
44
9.21
Well Boundary
12
32
9.22
Approximately (5 x 1022) x (0.25 x 10-4) = 1.25 x 1018 silicon atoms/cm2 are in the
layer to be formed. We need to implant two oxygen atoms per silicon atom or a total
dose of 2.5 x 1018 oxygen atoms/cm2. Five 200-mm wafers have a total area of 1571
cm2, so a total number of 3.93 x 1021 oxygen atoms is required per hour. The beam
current will be (3.93 x 1021/hr)(1.602x10-19C)/(3600sec/hr) = 175 mA, and the power
in the 4-MeV beam is 699 kW. The wafers will be destroyed!
9.23
(a)
IR L
2Y
VDE VCD = S + Y Y = IR S
2
W 2
W
- 70 -
(b)
and
L
VAC = IR S
W
VDE VCD
2
L V VCD
= Y a n dY = DE
VAC
L
2
VAC
IR L
2X
VIJ VJH = S + X X = IR S
2
W 2
W
L
VGH = IR S
W
VIJ VJH
2
L V V JH
= X a n d
X = IJ
L
2 VIH
VIH
- 71 -
CHAPTER 10
10.1
Current gain can be estimated using Eq. (10.1). For constant doping levels, the
Gummel numbers in the emitter and base are given respectively by:
GE = NELE/DE = (1020/cm3)(2 x 10-3 cm)/(5 cm2/sec) = 4 x 1016 sec/cm4
GB = NBWB/DB = (1018/cm3)(4 x 10-4 cm)/(20 cm2/sec) = 2 x 1013 sec/cm4
10.2
-1
The base profile is N(x) = 3 x 1018 exp [-(x2/4Dt)] which must equal 1015 at xj = 4
m. This gives Dt = 7.07 x 10-5 cm. To simplify the problem, neglect the
depletion layer regions in the base. Then,
x 2
G B = [N(x )/D B ]dx = 1.5x10
exp
dx
2
Dt
4
1.5 m
1. 5x10
4.0x10 4
4.0m
17
G B = (2.12x10
2.83
13
x
) exp(z )dz forz = 1.41x10
2
1 .06
13
G
5x10
G B = 2.51x10 and E =
= 199
G B 2.51x1011
11
Since the depletion-layer intrusion into the base will reduce GB, one would expect
to be even larger.
10.3
From Figs. 9.3 and 10.7, the maximum breakdown voltage can reach approximately
90 volts for a doping concentration of approximately 5 x 10 15/cm3. This assumes a
deep base diffusion with large radius of curvature.
10.4
(a) From Fig. 10.5, NOB 4 x 1017/cm3. (b) For NOB = 2 x 1017/cm3, the breakdown
voltage is 7 V.
10.5
- 72 -
= 3.64m
The step junction result is somewhat greater than the 3.1 m found in Ex. 10.3.
- 73 -
From Table 4.2 on page 81, Q = 0.55 NO xj, and NO = 1.56 x1017/RS xj which yield Q
= 8.64 x 1015/cm3 for a 10 ohm/square sheet resistance. For the heavy doping limit in
the equations in Prob. 4.24, the minority carrier diffusion constant approaches a value
of approximately (92)(0.0258) = 2.4 cm2/sec (with Dn/ n = kT/q). The Gummel
number can be approximated by GE Q/D = 3.6 x 1015 sec/cm4.
10.7
(a) For S 0, the collector-base and emitter-base junctions are approximately the
same. From the drawing, the emitter junction depth is approximately 2 m. From
Fig. 10.5, the breakdown voltage is approximately 8 volts for a junction depth of 2
m and a doping concentration of 1018/cm3.
(b) For S = 3 m, breakdown will occur when the depletion layer in the lightlydoped collector region reaches the n+ contact. This is equivalent to XBL-XBC = 3 m
and xJC = 5 m in Fig. 10.7. Using Fig. 4.8, a one ohm-cm substrate corresponds to
NC = 4 x 1015/cm3. The breakdown voltage will be limited by the 3- m punchthrough to approximately 50 volts
(c) For S = 5 m, XBL-XBC = 5 m. Figure 10.7 indicates that the breakdown
voltage is still limited to approximately 50 volts by avalanche breakdown with the 5 m radius of curvature of the junction.
10.8
Breakdown will occur where the doping is the heaviest on the two sides of the
junction formed by the intersection of the phosphorus implantation with the boron
diffusion. Using the data given for the profiles, breakdown should occur at a depth of
approximately 0.225 m where the boron doping is approximately 3.71 x 10 18/cm3.
From Fig. 10.4, we see that the total space charge region width is very narrow at these
doping levels. The diffused boron profile changes slowly near the shallow junction,
so the intersection of the implant and the boron diffusion can be approximated by a
Gaussian profile intersecting a uniform background concentration of 3.71 x 1018/cm3.
Using Figs. 9.3 and 10.7 and guessing an effective junction radius of RP yields a
breakdown voltage of 2 volts or less.
10.9
(a) The common-base current gain = IC/IE = AC/AE where AE is the total emitter
surface area and AC is the area of the emitter surface facing the collector. = 4(4 )
(2 )/[4(4 )(2 ) + (4 )2] = 2/3; The common-emitter current gain is related to
by = /(1- ) = 2. (Note that this analysis has neglected all corner effects.)
(b) In general, = 2d(L+W)/[2d(L+W) + LW] where L, W and d are the length,
width and depth of the emitter. is given by = 2d(L+W)/LW = 2d[(1/W)+(1/L)].
will be maximum when L and W are as small as possible. Setting L and W to a
minimum feature size of 2 , = 2d/ .
(c) Assuming one side is a minimum feature size, the square is optimum.
- 74 -
- 75 -
10.11 For a one-sided step junction (see Eqs. 9.3), VA + bi = Wd2qNB/2KS o. With Wd =
5 m and NB = 1015/cm3, bi = 0.56 + 0.0258 ln (1015/1010) = 0.86 V resulting in VA
= 18.5 volts. Figure 10.7 predicts a breakdown voltage of approximately 60 volts.
The step junction formula ignores depletion-region penetration into the base as well
as non-uniform doping of the epitaxial layer caused by up diffusion from the buried
layer.
10.12 Using Fig. 10.7, the xjc = 5 m and XBL-XBC = 3 m curves coincide for NB = 3 x
1015/cm3 corresponding to a breakdown voltage of approximately 50 V.
10.13 In the resistor, there are 3 long legs, 2 shorter legs, 4 vertical links, 8 corners and 2
contacts. The total number of squares is
N = 3(22/2) + 2(20/2) + 4(3/2) + 8(0.56) + 2(0.35) = 64.2
Using mid-range values as nominal:
(a) 3 k / yields 193 k
10.14 (a)
(b)
- 76 -
p+
n+
n+
n+
p+
p+
p-well
n-well
n-type substrate
p-type substrate
- 77 -
Final Emitter
Emitter Mask
Base Mask
n + contact mask
Final n +
Final Base
Final Isolation
Isolation Mask Boundary
The emitter is aligned to the base; contacts are aligned to the emitter; metal is aligned
to the contacts. The vertical height has been expanded over minimum size to
accommodate a second base contact.
10.16 Isolation regions are not shown. The Schottky diode is bounded by the p-type ring
and base.
B
n+
n+
n-type substrate
n+ buried layer
- 78 -
An abbreviated process flow: Etch trench, implant p+, thermal oxidation, poly
deposition, poly etch, selective oxidation, n+ I/I & drive-in, p+ poly deposition and
oxidation, p+ poly etch, thermal diffusion & oxide growth, p-I/I, n+ poly deposition
and definition, oxide deposition, contact windows, metal deposition, metal etching,
passivation layer deposition and etching.
10.18 The base intersects the collector at a depth of approximately 275 nm and a doping of
6 x 1016/cm3. From Fig. 10.4 and using the 1- m junction depth, we see that the
depletion layer will extend on the order of 0.1 m into the collector. At that point
the doping is 1-2 x 1017/cm3. Based upon Fig. 10.7, the breakdown voltage will be 45 volts. The emitter intersects the base at a doping of approximately 6 x 10 18/cm3.
Using the 1- m curve in Fig. 10.5, the breakdown voltage will be less than 3 V. We
can get a punch-through estimate from Fig. 10.4 using a background concentration of
1017/cm3, a base width of 270-170 = 100 nm, and xj = 1 m. The depletion layer x1
on the base side will reach 100 nm for a total voltage of 4 V. Assuming a built-in
potential of 1 V, the base will punch through at approximately 3 V. A smaller
junction depth and radius of curvature will reduce the breakdown and punch through
voltages below these estimates. In addition, based upon the results in Problem 10.19,
the base will punch through when x1 reaches 83 nm.
10.19 For the emitter side, use a one-sided step junction with NB = 5 x 1018/cm3: bi = 0.56
+ 0.0258 ln (5x1018/1010) = 1.08 V. Wd = [2(11.7)(8.854x10-14)(1.08)/(1.602x10-19)
(5x1018)]0.5 17 nm. On the collector side, we can estimate the space charge layer
intrusion using Fig. 10.4 with some assumptions. For bi = 0.85 V, a doping of
approximately 1017/cm3 near the junction, and a 1- m radius, the total SCR width is
120 nm with 42 % in the base or 50 nm. The metallurgical base width is
approximately 270 170 = 100 nm. The neutral base with is approximately 10017
50 = 33 nm, a very narrow base!
xj
x
= 5x1018 atxj = 50nmor j = 1.985
1021erfc
2 D t
2 Dt
10.20 (a)
- 79 -
x 2
xj 2
j
16
For boron at 1000 oC, D = 10.5 exp [-3.69/(8.617x10-5)(1273)] = 2.58 x 10-14 cm2/sec.
Dt = 5.43 x 10-12 cm2/sec, and t = 210 sec or 3.51 min. This time is too short.
18
Both the base and emitter diffusions probably require rapid thermal processing to
achieve the small Dt products that are required for this structure.
10.21
C
p+
n-collector(+V)
p-sub(-V)
n+
n-typecollector
n+buriedlayer
p-substrate
Two vertical four-layer pnpn structures exist that can latch up if the biasing is not
properly maintained. Saturation of the pnp transistor will turn on the npn transistor in
the reverse direction. The pnp transistor will have high resistance between the
collector contact and the active collector region of the transistor.
E
B
n-collector (+V)
p-sub (-V)
- 80 -
- 81 -
10.24 Approximately (5 x 1022) x (0.5 x 10-4) = 2.5 x 1018 silicon atoms/cm2 are in the layer
to be formed. We need to implant two oxygen atoms per silicon atom for a total dose
of 5 x 1018 oxygen atoms/cm2. Four 200-mm wafers have a total surface area of 1260
cm2, so a total number of 6.28 x 1021 oxygen atoms is required to be implanted per
hour. The beam current will be (6.28 x 1021/hr)(1.602 x 10-19C)/(3600sec/hr) = 280
mA, and the power in the 5-MeV beam is 1.40 MW. The wafers will be destroyed!
10.25 The CDI structure has a narrow base region and a heavily-doped collector without a
lightly-doped n-type region. Hence the collector-base breakdown voltage will be too
low for most analog applications.
(b) Alignment
1. n+ buried layer
2. n+ isolation diffusion
3. n+ emitter diffusion
4. contact windows
5. metal layer
6. passivation layer openings
Align to 1
Align to 2
Align to 3
Align to 4
Align to 5
10.27 Based upon Fig. 4.8, the 0.25 ohm-cm p-type base region corresponds to a doping of
6 x 1016/cm3. The emitter-base junction is a 1- m diffusion into a uniform base
region which approximates the conditions of Fig. 10.7 for which 6 x 1016/cm3 and xJC
= 1 m yield VEB = 6-7 volts. The epi-substrate collector-base junction is
approximated by an n+p step junction. Using Fig. 9.3 with r j = and N = 6 x
1016/cm3 gives VBC = 20 V. However, the actual breakdown voltage will be less due
to curvature effects associated with the collector contact diffusions. For a 2- m epi
thickness (rj = 2 m), the breakdown voltage will be approximately 8 volts from Fig.
10.7.
- 82 -
CHAPTER 11
A useful triangle:
1
54.74o
2
11.1
11.2
11.3
1
tan = 2cos =
sin =
3
2
3
1 1 1
The unit vector perpendicular to the <111> plane is v1 = and that
3 3 3
c o s = v1 v 2 and
perpendicular to the <100> plane is v 2 = (100) . Thus we have
1 1
o
= cos = 54.74
3
1 1 1
The unit vector perpendicular to the <111> plane is v1 = and that
3 3 3
1 1
c o s = v1 v 2
perpendicular to the <110> plane is v 2 = 0 . Thus we have
2 2
1 2
o
and = cos = 35.3
10
o
W = tan(54.74 ) W = 14.1m
2
W
54.74o
10 m
- 83 -
(a)
P1
P1
P2
(b)
P1
P1
11.5
and
L = 2.45 m.
n+2 m
54.74o
n+
11.6
54.74o
1 m
Y
o
W = tan(54.74 ) =
2
Y = 5 + 0.5 2 = 5.71m
W = Y 2 = 8.07m
- 84 -
10
Polysilicon
Oxide Etch 1
Oxide Etch 2
Possible process flow: Deposit sacrificial oxide layer. Fully etch oxide leaving
rectangular oxide pad (oxide etch 1). Etch oxide to thin down (oxide etch 2). Deposit
polysilicon. Etch polysilicon (polysilicon mask). Remove sacrificial oxide. The
layout assumes a 1- alignment tolerance and a 2- minimum feature size.
11.8
11.9
11.10 The minimum spacing is 717 m with no spacing between cavity edges at the
surface.
W
500 m
54.74o
10 m
- 85 -
500
m
W = 2 5 +
tan(54 .74 o )
500
W = 2 5 +
= 717 m
- 86 -
= 138kHz
22
2
1.7x1010 kg
11.12 With infinite selectivity, the vertical and horizontal distances are related by Y/X = tan
54.74o = 2 . For a finite selectivity factor S, the <111> plane at the surface will be
etched by an amount equal to Y/S, and the intersection of the <111> plane with the
surface will move by X where X = (Y/S) cos (90o ) = (Y/S) sin .
X
'
Y/S
90o -
= 54.74o
The new angle is given by
tan ' =
Y
Y
=
X + X
Y
Y
+
2 S
2
' = tan 1
3
2
1+
3
S
- 87 -