Power System Protection Guide

Contents
Section 1
Power System Faults
Section 2
Components of Protection
Schemes
Section
Sect
o 3
Current
Cu e t Transformers
a s o e s & Voltage
Vo tage
Transformers
Section 4
Power System Neutral Grounding
Section 5
Feeder Over current Protection
Section 6 Coordination of Protection

Section 7 Bus Protection
Section 8 Motor Protection, Starting &
Control
Section 9 Transformer Protection
S i 10 Generator
Section
G
P
Protection
i
Section 11 Transmission Line Protection
Section 1
Power System
y
Faults
Section 1
Power System Faults
Types of Faults.
Incidence of Faults on Power System
Equipment.
Effects of Power System Faults.
Magnitude of Fault Current.
Detection of Faults.
Requirements of Protective Relaying
Systems (Selectivity ,Dependability
,Reliability ,speed).
Clearance of Faults.
Calculating Maximum Fault Current
Power System Faults

A power system
t
f lt is
fault
i the
th breakdown
b kd
of insulation(between conductors or
b t
between
a phase
h
conductor
d t
and
d
ground) which results in excess current
flflow.
Types of Faults
On a Three-Phase
Three Phase power system the
principal types of faults are:
a)) Phase-to-Ground
Ph
G
d (or
( Single
Si l Phase)
Ph
)
b) Phase-to-Phase (or Two-Phase)
c) Phase-to-Phase-to-Ground (or Two
Phase-to-Ground))
d) Three Phase, with or without Ground
T
F lt
Types
off Faults
Sometimes, these faults are accompanied by
a broken conductor, or may even take the
form of a broken conductor without a ground
connection.
connection
This results in an open-circuit condition.
Because no fault
fault current
current flows for this
condition, the open-circuit fault is difficult to
detect. The open-circuit
p
does,, of course,,
cause severe unbalance on the power
system, and can cause overheating in
generators.
Types of Faults
The g
generators must be equipped
q pp
with
protection schemes to detect such unbalances
(or negative phase sequence) conditions.
This will be covered later under Generator
Protection.Generators,
transformers
and
motors
t
are subject
bj t to
t short-circuits
h t i it between
b t
turns of the same winding.
Types of Faults
On overhead transmission lines the insulation
that breaks down is air.
When such a fault occurs there is a flashover
or arc(often along the surface of an insulator
string).
If the
th fault
f lt is
i cleared
l
d quickly,
i kl no permanentt
damage results, and the transmission line
can immediately be put back into service.
service
Types of Faults
When faults occur in Transformers,, Generators,,
Motors and Cables, permanent damage usually
results. Such faults are usually caused by
mechanical failure of solid insulation, or in the
case of transformers, contamination of the
insulating oil.
oil For SF6 insulated equipment,
equipment
faults are often the result of contamination of the
SF6 gas by solid particles.
particles
IIncidence
id
off F
Faults
lt on Power
P
System
y
Equipment:q p
i. 500kV Lines - 1.3 Faults per year per 100 Miles
ii. 230kV Lines - 4 Faults per year per 100 Miles
iii. 115kV Lines - 14 Faults p
per yyear p
per 100 Miles
(study 2009 USA)

Equipment:For 44kV,
44kV 33kV and 25kV feeders the figures
are proportionally higher. The relationship
between the number of overhead power
p
system faults and the voltage level can be
explained as follows:
By far the most common type of power
system fault is the flashover of insulators on
overhead transmission lines, due to lightning.
Th number
The
b off faults
f lt per year is
i proportional
ti
l
to the length, and is approximately inversely
proportional to the voltage level.

Equipment:-
IIncidence
id
lt on Power
P
S t
off F
Faults
System
Equipment:If lightning
li ht i
strikes
t ik
th grounded
the
d d shielding
hi ldi
conductor, or tower, and causes 100,000 amps
to flow to ground through a tower with a
footing resistance of 1 OHM, then a voltage of
100,000 Volts to ground is developed.
A flashover of an insulator from the tower
cross arm to a phase conductor may then
occur It will most likely occur on the phase
occur.
with the highest voltage difference to the
voltage transient developed by the lightning
strike.

Equipment

Equipment:
The most common causes of faults on overhead
lines are:
1) Li
Lightning
ht i
2) Contaminated Insulators
3) Punctured
P
t d or broken
b k iinsulators
l t
4) Birds and animals
5) Aircraft and cars hitting lines and structures
6) Ice and snow loading
7) Wind

Equipment:
In electrical machines, cables and transformers,
faults are caused by:
1)) Failure of insulation because of moisture.
2) Mechanical damage.
3) Flashover caused by overvoltage or
abnormal
loading.
g

Equipment:
On transformers with external bushings, the most
common cause of faults, p
particularly
y on the lower
voltage levels of 33 kV and below, is small
animals. They contact the 33 kV connections and
cause flashovers across the bushings, external to
the transformer. Permanent faults within the
transformer tanks occur approximately at the rate
of one fault every 10 years per transformer.
Effects of Power System Faults:

About 90% of overhead line faults are
t
transient
i t in
i nature:
t
i.e. flashover of insulators which does not
result in permanent damage.
damage
With such faults, the line can be restored to
service immediately after the breakers have
tripped.

Hence,
AUTO-RECLOSE
schemes
are
normally used on the circuit breakers
associated with overhead transmission lines or
feeders. If the fault current is interrupted by the
circuit breakers, the flashover arc is
immediately extinguished and the ionized air
dissipates. Auto-reclose will normally be
successful after a delay of only a few cycles.

On typical 44kV and 33kV overhead distribution
systems
y
there is an intentional delay
y of 0.5
seconds before the breaker is auto-reclosed after
a feeder fault.
O typical
On
t i l 500kV and
d 230 kV transmission
t
i i
systems there is a 10 second intentional time
delay before auto
auto-reclosing
reclosing after a fault.
fault This time
delay is to help maintain system stability by not
subjecting the power system to two faults in quick
succession.

Faults in generators, motors, transformers and
cables etc. are normallyy permanent and
AUTO-RECLOSE is not used. Such faults
require the equipment to be taken out of
service
i for
f an assessmentt off the
th damage
d
and
d
repair.

When a fault occurs, a very large current
normally flows.
flows This fault current,
current if allowed
to persist, will cause damage to equipment.
On an interconnected H.V. transmission
system, an un-cleared fault can cause
instability and system collapse:
i.e. A blackout over a very large area.
Faults must therefore be cleared in the
shortest
h t t time
ti
possible.
ibl
Magnitude
g
of Fault Current:
For a power system fault, the magnitude of
the fault current is determined by the
impedance of the power system between the
source of generation,
generation and the location of the
fault.
Magnitude of Fault Current:

On large interconnected H.V.
H V power systems the
buses of large switching stations can be
considered as infinite buses. When calculating the
fault current on a line or feeder supplied from an
infinite bus, we assume that the voltage remains
constant at the bus,
bus and the only factor to limit the
fault current, for phase faults, is the impedance of
the line between the fault and the bus. For Phaseto-ground faults it is the impedance of the line
from the bus to the fault, plus the impedance of
the ground return.
return
Magnitude of Fault Current

The fault current on a distribution system
feeder, fed from a transformer station, is
determined by the H.V.
H V supply line
impedance,
plus
the
transformer
impedance, plus the impedance of the
feeder up to the fault.
Magnitude of Fault Current

When calculating fault current,
current we
always Assume that the impedance of the
actual fault is ZERO.
For almost all faults, flashover occurs. The
resistance of the resulting arc is nearly
always
l
negligible
li ibl
comparison
i
t
to
th
the
impedance of the line conductors.
NOTE:
Magnitude of Fault Current:

The star points of transformer windings are
often grounded through a resistor or a
reactor. This has the effect of limiting the
ground fault current on the feeders.
feeders
The procedure for calculating the maximum
fault current (short-circuit
(short circuit calculation) is given
at the end of this section, with a worked
example.
p
Detection of Faults
All p
power system
y
elements are equipped
q pp with
one or more protection schemes. The
purpose of these protection schemes is to
detect faults on the system.
system When the
protective relays have detected a fault, they
send trip
p signals
g
to the circuit breaker or
breakers, which in turn clear the fault from
the system.
Requirements of Protective Relaying Systems:

1- SELECTIVE
Protective relaying schemes must be able to
discriminate between faults on the protected
system element, and those on adjacent elements.
Hence, only faulted elements are tripped from the
power system,
system and all healthy elements stay in
service.
This is particularly important on an interconnected
transmission system.
system If a faulted element is
tripped, then the load carried by that element
(transformer or line) is automatically transferred to
a parallel element or elements.
elements If one or more of
these adjacent elements trip in sympathy with
the faulted element, then major power
interruptions will result.
Requirements of Protective Relaying Systems:
2- DEPENDABILITY AND RELIABILITY

Protective relaying schemes must be very dependable
and reliable. all power system faults must be detected
and cleared quickly.
quickly
On high voltage interconnected transmission systems,
an un cleared or slow clearing fault can easily lead to a
power system collapse. Such power system collapses
occurred in Ontario and the North Eastern U.S.A. in
1965,, and again
g
in August
g
2003.
3 HIGH SPEED
3-HIGH
High
Hi
h speed
d ffault
lt clearance
l
iis essential
ti l on
interconnected transmission systems.
By high speed we mean less than 0
0.1
1 seconds
seconds.
On 500 kV and 230 kV systems faults are normally
cleared in 3 or 4 cycles,
y
or 50 to 80 milli-seconds.
Clearance of Faults
On distribution systems,
y
, which are usuallyy radial
in nature, slower fault clearance times are
permissible.
TIME GRADED over current protection is often
TIME-GRADED
used for fault clearance.
i.e. For high fault currents, there is
fast
clearance. For lower fault currents, the fault
clearance time is much slower.
The operating time of circuit breakers on
distribution systems is typically 5 to 7 cycles, or
100 to 140 milliseconds.
Procedure For Calculating Maximum

(
Circuit
Fault Current(Short
Calculation)
The g
general p
procedure for calculating
g the fault
current for a fault at a particular point on a
power system is as follows:
1 Draw
1.
D
a single-line
i l li
di
diagram
off the
th power
system.
2 Collect detailed impedance data for all of the
2.
components of the power system. i.e.
Resistance R & Reactance X.

X
3. Although fault current can be calculated using the

ohmic method, it is usually simpler to use the Per-Unit
M h d where
Method
h
allll off the
h impedances
i
d
are referred
f
d to
an arbitrarily chosen common BASE MVA.
4 Convert all of the various impedances to per-unit
4.
per unit
values with a common base MVA.
5 Fi d the
5.Find
th total
t t l Resistance
R i t
R and
R,
d Reactance
R
t
X from
X,
f
the source to the fault.
6. Calculate the total Impedance Z:
Z Z = R2 + X2
7.Calculate the THREE-PHASE (SYMMETRICAL)

FAULTCURRENT:
Calculate the PHASE-TO PHASE FAULT CURRENT
Calculate the PHASE-TO-GROUND FAULT CURRENT
8.To
determine the asymmetrical fault current,

y
determine the X/R ratio and obtain the asymmetrical
factor from graphs or tables
9. For low-voltage distribution systems where there is a
significant
i ifi
t motor
t load,
l d the
th motor
t contribution
t ib ti
t the
to
th
fault can be approximated as:
Symmetrical Contribution
= 4 times Motor Full
Load
Current Asymmetrical Contribution =
Full Load Current.
5 times
ti
M t
Motor
Example of Fault Current Calculation
Short Circuit Calculations
Phase to Ground Fault
Section 2
Components
off
Protection Schemes
Section 2 Components of Protection Schemes

1. Fault Detecting or Measuring Relays
2. Tripping and other Auxiliary Relays
3. Circuit Breakers
4. Current Transformers
5. Voltage transformers
Components of Protection Schemes:

Each power system protection scheme is made up from
th ffollowing
the
ll i components:
t
1. Fault Detecting or Measuring Relays
2 Tripping and other Auxiliary Relays
2.
3. Circuit Breakers
4. Current Transformers
5. Voltage transformers
(Voltage transformers are not required in all protection
schemes).
h
)
The function of these components is illustrated below for
a simple overcurrent protection scheme:
Components of Protection Schemes
Fault Detecting Relays:

Fault detecting,
g, or Sensing
g relays
y monitor p
power
system AC quantities such as current, voltage, and
frequency.
They are set to operate, and initiate tripping, when a
fault condition is detected.
Th mostt common fault
The
f lt detecting
d t ti
relays
l
i use are
in
over current relays. There are two basic types of
over current relays.
y
These are the instantaneous
over current relay and the timed over current relay.
Fault Detecting Relays

A.InstantaneousOvercurrentRelays
These relays
Th
l
operate,
t or pick-up
i k
att a specific
ifi value
l off
current, with no intentional time delay. The pick-up
setting is usually adjustable by means of a dial, or by
plug settings. Until a few years ago, all instantaneous
Over current relays were of electro-mechanical
construction.
They were attracted armature types, where the C.T.
secondary current is passed through the relay coil,
thus attracting the armature against spring tension.
tension
The movement of the armature causes the relay
tripping contact to close.
Fault Detecting Relays

years,, electronic versions of the
In recent y
instantaneous Over current relay have
been introduced. On these relays
y the
pick-up setting is usually adjusted by a
dial or by
y setting
g DIP switches. Both the
electromechanical and the electronic
versions are functionally
y identical.
Timed Over current Relays

The electro-mechanical version of this
relay has an induction disc. The disc must
rotate through
g a definite sector before the
tripping contacts are closed. This type of
y is known as the Inverse Definite
f
Minimum
relay
Time relay(IDMT). The characteristic operating
curve of an Inverse definite time relay is
shown on the next page.
Timed Over current Relays:
i
O
Timed
Over current Relays:
The relay characteristic is such that for
very high fault currents,
currents the relay will
operate in its Minimum time of 0.2 seconds.
For lower values of fault current the
operate
t time
ti
i longer.
is
l
F example,
For
l att a
relay current of 16 Amps, the operating
time is 0.4 seconds. The relayy has a
definite minimum pick-up current of 4 Amps.
This minimum pick-up current must, of course,
be greater than the maximum load on the
feeder. The induction disc relay normally

has various current tap settings, and an
adjustable time dial.
dial
Timed Over current Relays:

This gives the relay a very wide range of setting
characteristics, and allows the relay setting to
be coordinated with other protection devices,
such as fuses,
fuses on adjacent power system
elements. As with the instantaneous over
current relays, there are now many electronic
timed and Inverse Definite Minimum Time Over
current relays on the market.
Their characteristics are very similar to the
electro mechanical versions. Many Over
current relays have an instantaneous element,
and a timed element, both built into the same
relay case.
The application of over current relays to feeder
protection will be covered later in this seminar.

Other fault detecting relays that are commonly
used in protection schemes are:
1. Overvoltage and undervoltage relays
2. Impedance relays
3. Differential relays
1 Overvoltage and undervoltage relays

1.Overvoltageandundervoltagerelays
These AC relays are normally supplied from

voltage transformers, and are set to operate
for certain overvoltage or under-voltage
conditions. For example, to protect capacitor
banks from overvoltage, or to detect undervoltage conditions on a feeder protection
with auto-reclose.
2.Impedancerelays
Impedance relays are supplied from both the

C.T. cu
C
current
e ta
and
d tthe
e V.T. voltage.
o tage They
ey measure
easu e
the line impedance by utilizing the line current
and voltage, to detect a fault condition.
Impedance relays are used on transmission
lines and feeders where there is an infeed from
both ends.
ends
3.Differentialrelays
Differential relays are used in Bus Protection and

Transformer Protection schemes. They compare
th currentt entering
the
t i
and
d leaving
l
i
th protected
the
t t d
zone. If the unbalance is great enough, then a
fault condition is detected,
detected and tripping is initiated.
initiated
For transformers, the differential relay must have
g to p
provide relayy restraint for through
g
some biasing
currents. This will be explained later when we
cover Transformer Protection.

y
Other fault detecting relays include those used
in Generator Protections, such as Negative
Phase Sequence, Over excitation, Loss of Field,
Under frequency, Out-of step, etc.
The application of the various relays to power
system protection schemes, will be discussed
l t in
later
i the
th seminar.
i
The Transition from Electro-Mechanical Relays

to Electronic and Microprocessor Based Relays:
U til just
Until
j t a few
f
years ago, almost
l
t allll protective
t ti
relays were electro-mechanical, and many of
these relays
y changed
g
veryy little over a p
period of
50 years or more. A good example is the
induction disc over current relay which is still used
extensively and has given many,
many many years of
reliable service. In the early 1970s electronic
relays were introduced. These relays used
di
discreet
t solid
lid state
t t electronic
l t i components,
t and
d
required external DC power supplies.
i i from
f
i Relays to
The Transition
Electro-Mechanical
Electronic and Microprocessor Based Relays:
The performance
Th
f
off these
th
early
l electronic
l t i relays
l
was
poor, as there was a high failure rate of electronic
components.
It appeared that some of the electronic components were
being damaged by the spikes and transients that existed
in the hostile electrical environment of high-voltage
substations.
These early solid state relays offered few advantages
over the electro-mechanical relays. They had essentially
the same features, but had the disadvantages that they
required
i d a separate
t power supply,
l and
d they
th
could
ld nott
match the reliability of electro-mechanical relays.
The Transition from Electro-Mechanical Relays to

Electronic and Microprocessor Based Relays
The performance
Th
f
off solid
lid state electronic
l
i relays
l
steadily
dil
improved over the years, and by the end of the 1980s
theyy had g
gained wide acceptance,
p
, p
particularly
y over
current relays which are used extensively. However,
electronic relays have still not gained universal
acceptance even though they are cheaper and more
acceptance,
versatile than their electro-mechanical counterparts.
Relay manufacturers are still supplying thousands of
i d i di over current relays
induction-disc
l
to customers who
h still
ill
prefer these robust relays which have many, many
yyears of p
proven reliability.
y

to Electronic and Microprocessor Based Relays
Since about 1992 there has been a revolution
in protective relaying as microprocessor-based
relays were introduced.
introduced As well as the basic
protection function, these relays typically
provide many additional features.
features
They can be interfaced with computers and
provide metering
p
g data,, fault data ((wave-form,,
maximum fault current, tripping time),
sequence-of events, etc.

to Electronic and Microprocessor Based Relays
Microprocessor-based relays are gaining

very rapid acceptance by many electrical
utilities, and they are revolutionizing the
way
that
high-voltage
substation
protection, control and monitoring is
applied. We will discuss microprocessorbased relays and their various features
later in the seminar.
Tripping and Other Auxiliary Relays

Power system faults are detected by the fault
detecting relays, which close their output contacts to
initiate tripping.
tripping These output
o tp t contacts are used
sed to
energize trip relays and other auxiliary relays which
are normally supplied from the station battery DC
supply.
supply
These auxiliary relays may perform a number of
functions, such as:
9 Trip the associated circuit breaker or breakers
9 Send a trip signal to the remote terminal of the line
9 Initiate Auto-reclosing of the circuit breaker
9 Initiate
I iti t Breaker
B k Failure
F il
protection
t ti
9 Send a TRIP alarm to the control room operator
Ci it Breakers
B k
Circuit
The circuit breaker is the device that actually
i t
interrupts
t the
th flow
fl
off fault
f lt current,
t and
d isolates
i l t
the faulted element (feeder, transformer, etc.)
from the remaining
g healthy
y components
p
of the
power system. The circuit breaker rating must
be high enough for it to interrupt the maximum
f lt currentt that
fault
th t is
i possible
ibl to
t flow.
fl
Circuit Breakers
A typical 230kV circuit breaker rating is 70

kA or 25GVA (25,000MVA). As stated
earlier,
li circuit
i it breakers
b k
mustt be
b capable
bl off
interrupting the fault current in very short
periods of time. Typical
p
yp
circuit breaker
operating times are:
9 500 kV - 2 cycles or 40 milli-seconds (50
H system)
Hz
t )
Hz system)
Hz system)
Circuit Breakers
These are the times from when the trip signal is
sentt to
t the
th breaker,
b k to
t when
h the
th fault
f lt currentt is
i
interrupted.
Almost all high-voltage
high voltage circuit breakers that are
being built today are either SF6 Breakers or
Vacuum Breakers. SF6 circuit breakers may be
Air-insulated for outdoor installations, or SF6
Gas-insulated for indoor installations.
Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breaker Types
Bulk
B
lk Oil
Air
Minimum Oil
Air Blast
Sulphur Hexafluoride or SF6
Vacuum
Current Transformers
Current Transformers, or C.T.s, are used to
step down the power system primary currents,
from many hundreds or thousands of AMPS, to
more manageable
bl values
l
t supply
to
l relays.
l
It is
i
necessary for the C.T. to provide insulation
between the power system primary voltage,
voltage
and the relay circuit. A typical C.T. with a ratio
of 1200 : 5A for a 44kV p
power system
y
is shown
next.
Note that the C.T. polarity markings are shown as
spots on the primary and secondary sides of the
C.T. Also, it is important that the C.T. secondary
circuit
i it be
b grounded,
d d and
d grounded
d d att one point
i t
only.
C
f
Current
Transformers
The most common type of C.T. construction is the
(doughnut) type. It is constructed of an iron toroid,
which forms the core of the transformer, and is
wound with secondary turns.
The (doughnut) fits over the primary conductor,
conductor
which constitutes one primary turn. If the toroid is
wound with 240 secondary turns, then the ratio of
the C.T. is 240: 1, or 1200 : 5A
The continuous rating of the secondary winding is
normally 5 amps in North America, and 1 amp or
0 5 amp in many other parts of the world.
0.5
world The
various types of C.T. construction will be described
later.
Voltage Transformers
Voltage Transformers are used to step the
power system primary voltage from,
from say 50 kV
or 25 kV to 120 volts phase-to-phase, or 69
volts phase-to-ground. It is this secondary
voltage that is applied to the fault detecting
relays, and meters.
The voltage transformers at primary voltages
of up to about 100 kV are normally of the
wound type.
yp That is, a two winding
g transformer
in an oil filled steel tank, with a turns ratio of
say 417:1(50Kv/120V) or 275:1(33Kv/120V).
On higher
g
voltage
g systems,
y
, such as 230kV and
500kV, Capacitor Voltage Transformers, (or
CVTs) are normally used.
A CVT is comprised of a capacitor divider made
up from 10 equal capacitors, connected in series
from the phase conductor to ground, with a
voltage transformer connected across the
bottom capacitor.
capacitor
This V.T. actually measures one-tenth of the line
voltage as illustrated in the below diagram
voltage,
diagram.
Endofthis
Section
Section3
Section
3
CurrentTransformers
&
VoltageTransformers
Section3 CurrentTransformers&Voltage
Transformers
TypesofC.T.andV.T.Construction.
VoltageTransformers.
CurrentTransformerTheory&Characteristics.
C.T.Accuracy.
C.T&V.T.Accuracy.
TestingofCurrentTransformers:
1 C T R ti T t
1-C.T.RatioTest.
2-C.T.PolarityTest.
3 SecondaryWindingResistance.
3Secondary Winding Resistance
4-SecondaryWindingInsulationResistance.
Testing of Voltage Transformers
TestingofVoltageTransformers
Same tests
Current Transformers & Voltage Transformers

Types of C.T. and V.T. Construction
The most common type of C.T. construction is
the doughnut type. It is constructed of an iron
toroid () , which forms the core of the
transformer, and is wound with secondary
turns.
turns

The doughnut fits over the primary conductor,
which constitutes one primary turn. If the toroid
is wound with 240 secondary turns, then the
ratio of the C.T. is 240: 1 or 1200 : 5A
The continuous rating of the secondary winding
is normally 5 AMPS in North America, and 1
AMP or 0.5
0 5 AMP in
i many other
h parts off the
h
world.
CurrentTransformers&VoltageTransformers
This type of doughnut C.T. is most commonly
used in circuit breakers and transformers. The
C.T. fits into the bushing turret(), and the
porcelain bushing fits through the centre of the
doughnut.
Up to four
f
C off this type can be
C.T.s
installed around each bushing of an oil circuit
breaker This arrangement is shown in the
breaker.
following diagram
A similar type
yp of C.T. can be fitted over low
voltage Bus work. However, the C.T. must
be insulated for the primary voltage level.

The straight-through type of construction is shown below:
The second kind of Free-Standing or Post type current

transformer is the Hairpin construction as shown above.
Current Transformers & Voltage

Transformers
The other principal type of C.T. construction is the
Free Standing,
g or Post type.
y
These can be either
Straight-Through or Hairpin construction.
The toroid, wound with secondary turns, is located
in the live tank at the top
p of the C.T. High
g voltage
g
insulation must, of course, be provided, between
the H.V. primary conductor, and the secondary
winding,
g, which operates
p
at essentially
y g
ground
potential. Current transformers of this type are
often used at voltage levels of 44 kV, 33kV, and
13.8 kV.

The HAIRPIN C.T.
C T gets it
its
s name from the shape of the
primary conductor within the porcelain. With this type,
the tank housing the toroid is at ground potential.
The primary conductor is insulated for the full line
voltage as it passes into the tank and through the
toroid. Current transformers of this type are commonly
used on H.V. transmission systems
y
at voltage
g levels of
500kV and 230kV.
Free standing current transformers are very
p
, and are onlyy used where it is not p
possible
expensive,
to install Doughnut C.T.s in Oil Breakers or
transformer bushing turrets.

As an example,
example
C T s
C.T.
s cannot easily be
accommodated in Air Blast circuit breakers, or
some outdoor SF6 breakers.
Free Standing current transformers must therefore
be used with these types of switchgear.
Current transformers often have multiple ratios.
This is achieved by having taps on various points
of the secondary winding,
winding to provide the different
turns ratios. Later in this section we will discuss
the characteristics and testing of C.T.s.
V lt
T
f
Voltage
Transformers
Voltage Transformers are used to step the power
system primary voltage from,
from say 50 kV or 33 kV
to 120 volts phase-to-phase, or 69 volts phase-toground. It is this secondary voltage that is applied
t the
to
th fault
f lt detecting
d t ti relays,
l
and
d meters.
t
The voltage transformers at these primary voltages
of 50 kV and 33 kV are normally of the WOUND
type. That is, a two winding transformer in an oil
filled steel tank, with a turns ratio of 416.6:1 or
275:1 On higher voltage systems,
275:1.
systems such as 230kV
and
500kV,
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMERS, (or CVTs) are normally used.
A CVT is comprised
p
of a capacitor
p
divider made
up from typically 10 equal capacitors,
connected in series from the phase conductor
to ground, with a voltage transformer
connected across the bottom capacitor. This
V T actually
V.T.
act all measures
meas res one-tenth
one tenth of the line
voltage, as illustrated in the diagram above.
Current Transformer Theory & Characteristics

Current Transformers for protective relaying
purposes must reproduce the primary current
accurately for all expected fault currents.
If we have a 33 kV C.T. with a ratio of 1200:5A,
the
h secondary
d
winding
i di is
i continuously
i
l rated
d for
f
5 Amps. If the maximum fault current that can
flow through
g the C.T. is 12,000
,
Amps,
p , then the
C.T. must accurately produce a secondary
current of 50 Amps to flow through the relay
during this fault condition. This current will, of
course, flow for only about 0.2 seconds, until
the fault current is interrupted by the tripping of
the circuit breaker.
breaker

The C.T. must be designed
g
such that the iron
core does not saturate for currents below the
maximum fault current. A magnetizing, or
excitation curve for
f a typical C.T.
C is shown next.
For this C.T. to operate satisfactorily at

maximum fault currents, it must operate on
the linear part of the magnetizing curve.
i
i.e.
B l
Below
th point
the
i t att which
hi h saturation
t ti
occurs, which is known as the KNEE POINT.
The KNEE POINT is defined as the p
point at
which a 10% increase in voltage produces a 50% increase in
magnetizing current.
The point on the magnetizing curve at which
the C.T. operates is dependent upon the
resistance of the C.T. secondaryy circuit, as
shown next.

In this example the resistance of the C.T. secondary
circuit, or C.T. burden is:
C.T. Secondary Winding Resistance

Resistance of Cable from C.T. to Relay
Resistance of Relay Coil
Total Resistance of C.T. Secondary Circuit
= 1 OHM
= 2 OHMS
= 2 OHMS
= 5 OHMS
If the fault current is 12,000 Amps, and the

C.T. ratio is 1200:5A, then the C.T. secondary
currentt is
i 50 Amps.
A
At this
thi secondary
d
currentt
and the above C.T. burden of 5 OHMS, the
C T must produce a terminal voltage of 250
C.T.
volts. For the C.T. to operate with good
accuracy, without saturating for the maximum
fault current, the knee point must be well above 250
volts.
C
f
i i
Current
Transformer
Theory & C
Characteristics
It is usual practice to select a C.T. with a
magnetizing
g
g characteristic such that the
maximum terminal voltage under steady state
conditions, does not exceed 50% of the knee
point voltage.
p
g This allows an adequate
q
margin
g for
remnant flux in the core, and for transient
conditions.
The importance of the C.T.
C T maintaining good
accuracy, and not saturating at the maximum
fault current, is most critical on differential
protection This will be covered later in the
protection.
course when we discuss Bus Protection and
Transformer Protection.

When C.T.s are used for metering purposes, they
must have a high degree of accuracy only at
LOAD currents. i.e. 0 to 5 Amps secondary. There
is no need for a high degree of accuracy for fault
currents,
t and
d it is
i quite
it acceptable
t bl for
f a metering
t i
C.T. to saturate when fault current flows through it.
A C.T
C T for protective relaying purposes may typically
have a KNEE POINT at 500 volts, whereas a
metering C.T may saturate at well below 100 volts.
CAUTION:
When C.T.
C T ss are in service they MUST have
a continuous circuit connected across the
secondary terminals. If the C.T. secondary
i open
is
circuit
i i whilst
hil primary
i
current is
i
flowing, dangerously high voltages will
appear across the C.T secondary terminals.
Extreme care must be exercised when
performing on load tests on C.T. circuits, to
ensure that a C.T.
C T is not inadvertently open
open
circuited.
C.T. Accuracy
A typical protective relaying C.T. has its accuracy
specified
ifi d as:
This protective
Thi
t ti relaying
l i C
C.T.
T h
has an accuracy off
2.5% and the excitation curve knee-point voltage
is 800 Volts.
C.T & V.T. Accuracy

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
A typical current transformer for protective relaying
purposes on high voltage transmission systems
may have an accuracy rating of 2.5%.
2 5% For industrial
protective relaying systems accuracy ratings of up
to 10% are common.
Th margins
The
i used
d in
i protection
t ti relay
l setting
tti criteria
it i
are usually quite large, and 2.5% to 10% accuracy
is adequate
q
- p
provided the C.T. maintains this
accuracy for all fault currents up to the maximum
possible fault current.
C
C.T & V.T. A
Accuracy
A current transformer for metering purposes may
typically
yp ca y have
a e a
an accu
accuracy
acy o
of 0
0.3%.
3% The
e C
C.T. must
us
maintain this accuracy for normal load currents,
provided the rated burden on the C.T. is not
exceeded. It is q
quite acceptable,
p
, and in fact
desirable, for the C.T. to saturate when fault current
flows. The accuracy for a typical metering C.T. is
specified
p
as:
This metering C.T. has an accuracy of 0.3% when

the connected burden does not exceed 0.9 OHMS.
The accuracy for a typical voltage transformer is specified

as:
This voltage transformer has an accuracy of 0.6% with a

connected burden that does not exceed 200 VA.
VA The
various burden ratings are represented by letters as
follows:
Future Trends in C.T. Design Using Optics

Free-standing C.T.
C T s
s for high-voltage power
systems, such as 230 kV and 500 kV, are huge
structures and are very expensive. Many
manufacturers are developing optical current
transducers, or optical current transformers.
These units clamp around the primary conductors
and supply the output signals to the relays,
relays etc.
etc
through fibre optic cables. Some proto-type optical
current transducers are in-service at various
locations and it is expected that this development
locations,
will lead to considerable decrease in costs for
high-voltage C.T.s.
Testing of Current Transformers

During field commissioning, the following tests are
required for Current Transformers:
1- CT Excitation Curves
The p
purpose
p
of this test is to verify
y that the C.T.
meets the specifications, and will not saturate during
maximum fault conditions. The C.T. characteristics
will
ill have
h
b
been
specified
ifi d by
b the
th designer
d i
off the
th
protection scheme.
Testing of Current Transformers
T ti off Current
C
t Transformers
T
f
Testing
The C.T. excitation test is performed as follows:
Th voltage
The
lt
applied
li d to
t secondary
d
t
terminals
i l off the
th
C.T. is varied in steps of, say 50 volts, and the C.T.
magnetizing current is measured in milliamps, up
until the C.T. saturates.
The results obtained should be similar to those
specified in manufacturer
manufacturerss test data,
data and also to the
results for similar C.T.s.
NOTE:
The C.T. primary must be open circuit when
performing excitation tests.
2- C.T. Ratio Test

The purpose of this test is to verify that the C.T. ratio
is correct for the various taps on the secondary
winding.
Th simplest
The
i l t test
t t for
f C.T.
C T ratio
ti is
i to
t pass a current,
t
of say 12 Amps, through the primary of the C.T.,
and measure the secondary current with a milli
milliammeter, say 50 mA. The C.T. ratio is then
calculated as 12A: 5OmA or 1200 : 5A. The C.T.
ratio
ti can also
l be
b tested
t t d by
b using
i a RATIOMETER.
RATIOMETER
3- C.T. Polarity Test

The purpose of the C.T. polarity test is to ensure
that direction of current flow in the secondary
circuit
i it is
i correctt relative
l ti
t the
to
th primary.
i
Thi is
This
i
extremely important where the secondary
windings of a number of C.T.
C.T.s
s are connected
together, such as in a differential protection
scheme. We will discuss this later when we cover
B Protection.
Bus
P t ti
C.T. Polarity Test
The C.T. ppolarityy can be verified byy a veryy simple

p
test, known as the Flick Test.
C.T. Polarity Test

An analogue meter, on the d.c. milli-amp range, is
connected across the C.T. secondary terminals,
with the positive lead to spot or X1. A 1.5 volt D
cell is then used to pass a current through the C.T.
CT
primary. As the connection is made to the D cell,
to pass current from the cell positive, to the C.T.
primary spot
spot or H1,
H1 then the d.c.
d c milli-ammeter
milli ammeter
will deflect or flick in a positive direction. As the
connection from the D cell is removed, the milliammeter
t will
ill deflect
d fl t in
i a negative
ti
di ti
direction.
If a
ratio meter is used to check the C.T. ratio, then the
correct p
polarity
y will be indicated by
y that meter.
4-Secondary Winding Resistance

The purpose of this test is to verify that the total
burden on the C.T. is not high enough to cause the
C.T. to saturate during fault conditions. The
resistance of the secondary winding is measured,
usually
ll with
ith a digital
di it l ohmmeter.
h
t
Th resistance
The
i t
off
the other components of the secondary circuit,
such as the C.T. cable, and the relays, should also
be measured.
5-Secondary
5
Secondary Winding Insulation Resistance
The purpose of this test is to verify that the C.T.
secondary winding insulation is in good condition.
The entire secondary circuit of the C.T. must be
tested with a MEGGER and a result in excess of
10 MEG OHMS, at 500 volts is normal.
It is very important that the C.T. secondary circuit
is GROUNDED AT ONE POINT ONLY, normally
att the
th relay
l
panel.
l If the
th grounding
di
i done
is
d
through a link, then this provides a convenient
point to disconnect the ground to Megger the
entire C.T.secondary circuit during routine
maintenance tests.
Testing of Voltage Transformers

The purpose of this test is to record the
magnetizing current,
current and compare it with
the manufacturers test data, and to
record it for future reference.
reference This test is
of questionable value, and may not be
worth performing,
performing in view of the risks
associated with the very high voltages.
V.T. Ratio and Polarity Test

The V.T. ratio and polarity can be tested with
a ratio
ti meter.
t
Alternatively, the V.T. primary winding can
be energized at 120 volts A.C.
A C and the
secondary voltage measured.
With the V.T.
V T in-service,
in-service the secondary
voltage and phase angle should be checked
against
g
a known V.T. The p
polarity
y of the V.T.
can be checked by performing the FlickTest described earlier for C.T.s.
Secondary
y Winding
g Resistance
The secondary
Th
d
winding
i di resistance
i t
should
h ld b
be
measured with a digital ohm-meter.
Insulation Resistance of Windings

The insulation resistance of the secondary and
primary
p
y windings
g should be measured.
A reading in excess of 50 Meg-Ohms is
normal.
The V.T. secondary circuit is to be grounded at
one point only. This is normally at the relay
panel.
Endofthis
End
of this
Section
Section4
PowerSystemNeutral
y
Grounding
Section4PowerSystemNeutralGrounding
UngroundedSystems
Solidly Grounded Systems
SolidlyGroundedSystems
ResistanceGroundedSystems
R t
ReactanceGroundedSystems
G
d dS t
TypicalResistanceGroundedSystemsin
Industrial Plants
IndustrialPlants
GroundFaultDetectiononResistance
Grounded Systems
GroundedSystems
GroundFaultDetectiononUngrounded
Systems

During
g p
power system
y
ground faults the magnitude
g
g
of the current that flows in the ground is governed
by the method adopted for grounding the power
system
t
star
t or neutral
t l point.
i t
For most power system elements (such as feeders,
lines buses & transformers) it is usual for ground
lines,
faults to result in an excessive current flow. The
protection relays or fuses respond to this over
current condition to clear the fault from the system.

However, for some power system elements,
notably( ) generators, the neutral point is
normally grounded through a high impedance
(usually a distribution transformer with a resistor
connected across the secondary terminals) which
limits the fault current to less than about 5 Amps.
There are various reasons, both technical and
economic, for grounding the neutral point of a
power system.
t
I the
In
th early
l days
d
th
three
phase
h
power
systems were operated with the neutral
ungrounded.
However, these systems were found to be prone()

to failures due to common mode transient over
voltages. For a ground fault on one phase, the voltage
off the
h un faulted
f l d phases
h
i
increases.
Al
Also,
d i system
during
ground faults the voltage of the neutral point of the
transformer winding increases.
I order
In
d to
t limit
li it the
th magnitude
it d off the
th over voltages,
lt
solid grounding of the neutral was adopted.
The economic reason applies for High Voltage systems
where,
here by
b solidly
solidl grounding
gro nding the neutral
ne tral point of a
transformer it is permissible to grade the thickness of
the winding insulation downwards towards the neutral
point This is almost universal at voltages of 100 kV
point.
and above.
A
th t h i l
Amongthetechnicalreasonsare:
The floating potential on the lower voltage
(secondary and tertiary) windings is held to a
harmless value.
Arcing faults to ground do not set up dangerously
hi h voltages
high
lt
on the
th healthy
h lth phases.
h
By controlling the magnitude of the ground-fault
current inductive interference between power and
current,
communication circuits can be controlled.
A high value of ground-fault current is normally
available
il bl to
t operate
t the
th more usuall types
t
off
protection schemes, such as over current and
impedance.
p
P
S t
N
t lG
di
Power
System
Neutral
Grounding
UNGROUNDED SYSTEMS
Ungrounded systems are those with no ground
connection, other than through high impedance
devices such as voltage transformers. There is also
the capacitance
capacitance-to-ground
to ground of each of the phase
conductors to be considered. The advantages of
ungrounded systems are that a single ground fault
does not result in a system outage,
outage and the cost of
ground fault detection equipment is low. The
disadvantages are that they are subject to transient
over voltages, and the insulation strength of
equipment connected to ungrounded systems must
be greater than for grounded systems.

The methods most commonly used to ground power
system neutrals are as follows:
SOLIDLYGROUNDEDSYSTEMS
Solidly
S
lidl grounded
d d means a direct
di t connection
ti
with
ith a
conductor of adequate size, from the neutral to the
ground g
g
grid. There is no intentional impedance
p
introduced, other than the resistance of the grounding
conductor itself. The term EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED
is often used to define this type of grounding.
grounding
The term EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED is often used to
define this type of grounding.
grounding

An EFFECTIVELY GROUNDED system is
defined as
Grounded
Grounded through a sufficiently low impedance
such that for all system conditions the ratio of zerosequence reactance to positive sequence reactance
is positive and Less than three, and the ratio of
zero-sequence resistance to positive sequence
resistance
i t
is
i positive
iti and
d lless th
than one.

Another definition is An Effectively-Grounded
System is one in which during a phase
phase-toto
ground fault, the voltage to ground of any of the
healthy phases does not exceed 80% of the
voltage between phases of the system.
Resistance Grounded Systems

A resistance grounded system is one where a the
neutral point is connected to ground through a fixed
resistor.
i t
This is also known as non-effective grounding. The
effect of g
grounding
g the system
y
neutral through
g a
resistance is to reduce the fault current for ground
faults. The advantages are:
Reduced damage from melting, burning and
mechanical stress due to lower ground-fault current.
Reduced flash hazard.
Reduction in the momentary voltage drops during
ground-faults.
Reduction of over voltages.
R it
G
d dS t
A value sometimes chosen for the grounding resistor
is one that limits the ground
ground-fault
fault current,
current for a fault
at full phase-to-neutral voltage, to a value equal to
the rated current of the transformer winding whose
neutral it grounds.
grounds
A typical value of neutral grounding resistor for utility
power systems
p
y
at 10 to 50 kV is about 1 OHM. For a
4.16 kV system a 6 OHM neutral grounding resistor
may be used to limit the ground fault current to
about 400 amps.
amps
A high neutral grounding resistance of 69 OHMS
limits the ground fault current to about 5 amps on a
600 Volt
V lt system.
t
d d
In a typical 600 volt distribution system in an
industrial plant the transformer may be grounded
through a 15 Ohm resistor as shown above. In this
example the maximum ground fault current is 23.1
23 1
amps as shown on the next page.
GroundFaultDetectiononResistanceGroundedSystems
Ground faults can be detected on resistancegrounded systems by monitoring the current that
flows through the neutral grounding resistor. In
the
h above
b
example
l a current transformer
f
i fitted
is
fi d
around the conductor from the resistor to ground,
and the secondary current of the C.T. supplies an
over current relay. On systems that are grounded
through a high resistance, where the ground fault
current is low,
low the ground-fault
ground fault detection over
current relay may initiate an alarm, rather than
trip.
ReactanceGroundedSystems
A reactance grounded system is one where the
neutral point is connected to ground through a
fixed reactor.
Again, this is non-effective grounding. The
advantages of reactance grounding are similar
t those
to
th
f
for
resistance
i t
grounding.
di
A typical
t i l
distribution utility uses 2 OHM reactors to
ground the neutral on it
itss 25 kV system,
system and 5
OHM reactors on the neutrals of its 44 kV
system.
y
ARCSuppressionCoilGroundedSystems
Arc-suppression coil grounding (or resonant or
ground fault neutralizer grounding) uses a
reactor with a value chosen to match the value
off the
th capacitance
it
t ground
to
d off two
t
phases
h
with
ith
the third phase connected solidly to ground.
I this
In
thi way the
th reactive
ti
componentt off the
th
capacitive current flowing to ground at the fault
is neutralized by the coil current which flows in
the same path but is displaced in phase by 180
degrees
g
from the capacitance
p
current.
ARCSuppressionCoilGroundedSystems
This tuning of the grounding reactor with the
system
y
capacitance
p
results in g
ground-fault
current that is resistive and of low value, and
ideally the fault arc is self-extinguished.
This method of system grounding is fairly
popular in Europe and is gaining acceptance in
th U.S.A.
the
USA
Petersen Coil earthing

Petersen
Coil
earthing
is
a
special
case
of
high
impedance earthing.
earthing
The network is earthed via a reactor,
reactor whose
reactance is made nominally equal to the total system capacitance
to earth. Under this condition, a single phase-earth fault does not result in
any earth fault current in steady-state conditions. The effect is therefore
similar to having an insulated system.
system The effectiveness of the method is
dependent on the accuracy of tuning of the reactance value changes in
system capacitance (due to system configuration changes for instance)
require changes to the coil reactance. In practice, perfect matching of the
coil reactance to the system capacitance is difficult to achieve,
achieve so that a
small earth fault current will flow. Petersen Coil earthed systems are
commonly found in areas where the system consists mainly of rural
overhead lines, and are particularly beneficial in locations subject to a
high incidence of transient faults.To
faults To understand how to correctly apply
earth fault protection to such systems, system behaviour under earth
fault conditions must first be unders
G
d F lt D t ti
U
d d
GroundFaultDetectiononUngrounded
Systems
On ungrounded
O
d d systems,
t
a single
i l ground-fault
d f lt
will not result in the flow of any fault-current.
For a ground-fault
ground fault on one of the phases,
phases the
voltage-to ground on the two un faulted phases
will rise.
Voltage relays measuring the voltage-to-ground
for each of the phases can be used to provide
ground fault detection for ungrounded systems.
ground-fault
systems
It is usually a requirement that ground-fault
detection be provided on ungrounded systems.
systems
GeneratorNeutralGrounding
Reasonsforlimitinggeneratorgroundfault
current.
current
Methodsusedtogroundtheneutralof
generatorstatorwindings.
t t t
i di
Detectinggeneratorstatorgroundfaults.
Generators are the most expensive pieces of
equipment on our power systems.
systems Reliable
protective relaying schemes are therefore
required
q
to detect and clear g
generator faults
quickly to minimize damage and reduce repair
time to a minimum. One of the most likely fault
conditions on generators is the stator ground
fault
If the resulting stator ground fault current is high
there will likely be considerable damage to the
generator, resulting in a lengthy outage to repair
the machine.
For small generators, of below about 3 MVA, it is
normal practice to ground the star-point of the
stator winding directly through a resistor.
The value of the neutral grounding resistor
d t
determines
i
th maximum
the
i
ground-fault
d f lt currentt
that will flow for a ground-fault on the stator
winding. Typically the neutral grounding
resistor would be sized to limit the maximum
ground-fault current to somewhere between 5
amps and 100 amps.
amps
With this arrangement stator ground faults are
detected by the use of an over current relay
supplied from a current transformer measuring
the neutral-grounding resistor current.
For larger generators (over about 5 MVA), the
normal practice is to ground the star point of the
generator stator winding through a neutral
grounding
g
g transformer ,,with a resistor
connected across the secondary terminals.
Usuallyy a distribution transformer is used.
l
d
The value of the resistor is chosen to limit the
ground fault current,
current for phase
phase-to-ground
to ground faults on
the stator winding, and ground faults external to the
generator, to about 5 amps. Consequently, if a
stator ground fault does occur the fault current will
not cause any further damage to either the winding
or the core, and the generator may be allowed to
continue running until alternative generation is
brought into service.
The generator could run indefinitely with a single
stator ground
ground-fault
fault, but if a second ground fault
occurs there would be very high fault current and
serious damage to the machine would result.
DetectingStatorGroundFaults
The stator winding of a typical generator is
grounded at the star point through a neutral
grounding transformer,
transformer
with a resistor
connected across the secondary terminals, as
shown in the above diagram.
g
The value of this resistor is chosen to limit the
ground fault current, for phase-to-ground faults
on the
th stator
t t
winding,
i di
t about
to
b t 5 amps. A
Voltage Relay is connected across the resistor
to detect stator g
ground faults.
This type
yp of stator g
ground-fault p
protection will
detect ground faults on about 90% of the stator
winding. The lower 10% of the winding is
therefore left unprotected.
This topic will be covered in more detail later
when we deal with generator protection.
Endofthis
End
of this
Section
Section5
Section
5
FeederOvercurrentProtection
Section6FeederOvercurrentProtection
FeederOvercurrentProtection.
CriteriaforSettingtheLowset
g
InstantaneousOvercurrentRelay.
Directional Over current Protection
DirectionalOvercurrentProtection.
TestingofFeederOvercurrentProtection.
Mi
MicroprocessorBasedFeederProtection
B dF d P
i
Relays.
By far the most common type of protection for
radial distribution feeders is Over current
protection.
Typical distribution system voltages are 44 kV,
kV
33 kV & 25 kV. The point of supply is normally
a few
e kilometers
o ete s from
o tthe
e load.
oad

With Radial feeders there is only one
possible point of supply, and the flow of fault
currentt is
i in
i one direction
di ti
only.
l Over
O
currentt
protection can therefore be used to provided
adequate
q
protection.
p
The current entering the feeder at the circuit
breaker is measured by means of a Current
Transformer located at the base of the
breaker bushing. The C.T. secondary current
is supplied to the over current relays. These
over current relays must then operate and
initiate tripping if a fault condition is detected
on the feeder.
The over current protection at the supply end
of the feeder must operate for all faults on
the feeder, but should not operate for faults
beyond
y
the remote station B. If we first
consider an instantaneous over current relay,
then the setting is determined by the
magnitude of the fault current at the end of
the feeder.
Let us assume that the fault current at that point
is 4800 amps.
amps Ideally the relay will be set for
4800 primary amps, (or 4800/800 x 5 amps =
30 secondary amps) and it should not operate
for any fault beyond the bus at the remote
station.
However, in practice it is not possible to be so
precise
i for
f the
th following
f ll i reasons:
(A)It is not possible for the relay to differentiate
between faults which are veryy close to,, but
which are on each side the Bus B, since the
difference in the currents would be extremely
s a
small.
(B)Inaccuracies in the C.Ts and relays,

and the effects of
distortion of the
current
waveform
under
transient
conditions p
produce errors in the response
p
of the protection scheme.
(C)The magnitude of the fault current
cannot be accurately established since all
of the parameters may not be known, and
the source impedance of the power
system
t
changes
h
as generators
t
are putt in
i
and out of service.
O
l i
hi problem
bl
i to set the
h
One
solution
to this
is
instantaneous Over current relay to overreach
the remote terminal, (i.e. a setting less than 4800
primary amps), and introduce a definite time
delay in the tripping. This time delay will allow the
fuses or over current relays at the remote station
to operate to clear faults beyond bus B before
the time delayed tripping can take place at the
supply station A. This type of time delay has the
major disadvantage that all faults will be slow
clearing, even very close-in
close in faults, which have
the highest magnitude of fault current.
This time-delayed clearing of high fault currents is
usually unacceptable, and the most common
protection scheme, which overcomes the
feeder p
problem utilizes an inverse time over current
relay in conjunction with the instantaneous over
current relay.
y The application
pp
of this feeder
protection scheme, utilizing both instantaneous
and inverse time over current relays is described
next:
In order to ensure that the instantaneous over
current relay will not unnecessarily operate for
faults at the remote station,
station (which should be
cleared by the over current protection or fuses at
that station) then it must be set to protect only part
of the feeder.
feeder A safe maximum for most types of
relay is 80% of the feeder length.

The limit is determined by the characteristics of
the relay used, and the length of the feeder. If the
feeder is long,
long a high percentage of the line can
be protected; but with short lines it may be less;
and with very short lines it may not be possible to
apply instantaneous over current protection.
protection This
type of protection is known as High-Set
Instantaneous over current protection.
Wi h such
With
h a relay
l set to detect
d
f l on 80% off
faults
the feeder, the remaining 20% is left unprotected.
This is, of course, not acceptable. To provide
protection for the last 20% of the feeder a timegraded, or Inverse Definite Minimum Time relay
can be used.
This type
yp of relayy p
provides timed over
current
protection,
and
maintains
coordination with the fuses or over current
relays
l
att the
th remote
t station.
t ti
The operating time of the relay is inversely
proportional to the current.
current i.e.
i e For very
high fault currents the relay will operate in
its minimum time;; and for fault currents
only slightly above the relay pick-up current
there will be a very long operating time.
If we superimpose the fuse characteristic of
one off the
th transformer
t
f
f
fuses
att the
th remote
t
station, on to the above Over current relay
characteristic, we can see how the relay
settings at the supply station are
coordinated with the transformer fuse.
With this
thi scheme
h
off protection,
t ti
utilizing
tili i HighHi h
Set over current relays, Inverse Definite
y , and fuses,,
Minimum Time over current relays,
we will consider the response of the
protection scheme to faults at various
locations.
locations
1. For a Fault at point X on the feeder, ONLY the
High- Set
S Instantaneous over current relay will
operate and clear the fault with no intentional
time delay.
2. For a fault at point Y on the feeder, it is beyond
the reach of the High-set instantaneous relay,
th f
therefore
th t relay
that
l will
ill nott operate.
t The
Th inverse
i
timed Over current relay will operate after a time
g
of the fault
delayy determined byy the magnitude
current and the relay characteristic.
3. For a fault at point Z, it is again beyond
the reach
reach of the High
High-set
set Instantaneous
relay. The Inverse Timed over current relay
will start timing
timing, but the fuse on the feeder
F1 will operate first and clear the fault. The
inverse timed over current relay at station
A will then reset.
Now let us look at a typical utility feeder
which supplies customer transformers at
many different points along its length. The
same High-Set Instantaneous Over
currentt and
d Inverse
I
Ti d Over
Timed
O
currentt
relays are used, and the H.S. relay must
p
for
be set such that it does not operate
faults beyond the first tap. The High-Set
relay will therefore be set to operate for
faults up to 80% of the distance to the first
tap.
The criteria used for setting the Inverse-Timed
O
Over
currentt relay
l are:
1. The relay must not operate for the
maximum load current that will be carried by
the feeder.
2. The relay
y setting
g must be sensitive
enough for the relay to operate and clear
faults at the very end of the feeder.
3 The relay operating characteristic must be
3.
set to coordinate with other protection
devices, such as fuses, downstream from
the
h supply
l station.
i
This type of protection scheme will provide
adequate protection for feeders. However,
there are some disadvantages with this
arrangement, particularly on long
overhead feeders. The main disadvantage
g
is that most faults will be slow in clearing
because the inverse time over current
relay
l mustt operate.
t This
Thi slow
l
ffaultlt clearing
l i
is usually disturbing to customers on the
affected feeder
feeder.
As mentioned
A
ti
d earlier,
li there
th
i a very high
is
hi h
incidence of faults caused by lightning on
overhead
h d feeders,
f d
particularly
ti l l att the
th
lower distribution voltages. Consequently,
th greatt majority
the
j it off faults
f lt on such
h
feeders are transient in nature, and can
b cleared
be
l
d by
b opening
i
th breaker,
the
b k
with
ith
no permanent damage resulting.
Protection schemes for this type
yp of feeder can be
enhanced by adding a Low-Set Instantaneous
Over current relay and providing AutoReclosing of the circuit breaker after fault
clearance.
The low set instantaneous over current relayy is
set to operate for the minimum fault current at
the very end of the feeder. This means that it will
Overreach
Overreach and operate for faults in the
transformers tapped on the feeder. All faults will
therefore be first detected by the Low-Set relay.
This relay then trips the breaker, and also initiates
A t Reclose.
AutoR l
F
For
about
b t 90% off the
th faults
f lt
this auto-reclose will be successful, and the
interruption
p
to the customers is for onlyy about 0.5
seconds. If, however, the fault is permanent, such
as a broken pole or a tree on the line, then the
auto-reclose will be unsuccessful.
unsuccessful After the circuit
breaker has auto reclosed the tripping from the
Low-Set overcurrent relay is disabled for 10
seconds.
d
Thi means that
This
th t proper protection
t ti
coordination will then take place: i.e.
1. If the fault is in a transformer,, then the fuse will
blow to isolate only the faulted transformer, and
leave the remainder of the feeder in service.
2 If the
2.
th fault
f lt is
i on the
th feeder,
f d beyond
b
d the
th first
fi t tap,
t
then the inverse timed overcurrent relay will
operate
p
after a time delay,
y, and the feeder will trip
p
a second time and Lock Out.
3. If the fault is close to the supply station, then
the High-Set
High Set overcurrent relay will operate and
trip the feeder a second time, with no intentional
y and Lock Out.
time delay,
A typical feeder over current A.C. schematic
diagram, showing all three phases, is shown
above The diagram includes High-Set
above.
Instantaneous, Inverse Time, and LowSet Instantaneous relays. Very often the
hi h t instantaneous
high-set
i t t
and
d inverse
i
ti
time
overcurrent relays are built into a single
g , all of
relayy case. Until a few yyears ago,
these relays were electro-mechanical, and
often in separate relay cases.
FeederOvercurrent Protection
ii.e.
e The H.S.
H S Instantaneous - attracted
armature, and the Inverse Time - induction
disc More recently electronic relays were
disc.
used, and the settings are applied by
changing the position of DIP
DIP switches.
These electronic over current relays were
much more compact,
p , and were functionallyy
identical to the electro-mechanical over
current relays.
Today, almost all over current relays being
Today
installed are microprocessor-based, and have
many functions in the one relay. As well as the
protection functions described, these relays
have many more features available, such as
event recording, waveform capture, fault location
and frequency trend load-shedding.
These features of modern microprocessor-based
relays will be discussed later.
The D.C.
D C tripping circuit for such an over current
protection scheme is shown above: A typical
27.6 kV feeder arrangement is shown on the
next page. The fault levels at various points on
the feeder are indicated, and the over current
protection settings are shown. The protection
coordination curves for the various relays and
fuses are also shown.
shown
CriteriaforSettingtheInverseTimedOvercurrent
Relay
1.The relay must not operate for the maximum load
current that will be carried by the feeder. i.e. cold
load pick
pick-up
up and back
back-to-back
to back feeder loads.
2.The relay setting must be sensitive enough for the
relay to operate and clear faults at the very end of
the feeder.
f
3.The relay operating characteristic must be set to
coordinate with other protection devices,
devices such as
fuses, downstream from the supply station.
CriteriaforSettingtheHighsetInstantaneous
Over current Relay
OvercurrentRelay
1 The relay must be set to operate for faults up to
1.
to,
but not beyond, the first tap from the feeder.
2 In practice
2.
practice, the relay is set to operate for faults
up to 80% of the distance to the first tap. This
provides high-speed
g
clearance for the high
g level
faults close to the supply station.
CriteriaforSettingtheLowset
I t t
InstantaneousOvercurrentRelay
O
tR l
1. The relay must operate for all faults on the
f d right
feeder,
i ht up tto the
th feeder
f d end.
d
2. This provides high-speed initial clearance for all
f lt on the
faults
th feeder.
f d
3. For 10 seconds after the feeder breaker auto
recloses the tripping from the low
recloses,
low-set
set relay is
blocked.
DirectionalOvercurrentProtection
Over currentt protection
O
t ti
i used
is
d extensively
t
i l on
radial distribution systems, where the fault current
can only flow in one direction.
If there is generation connected to a distribution
feeder, then fault current can flow in either
direction,
d
ect o , a
and
d tthe
e syste
system iss no
o longer
o ge radial.
ad a If
the generation is large (typically above about 5
MW) in comparison to the normal load on the
feeder, then the feeder over current protection at
the
supply
station
requires
directional
supervision.
DirectionalOvercurrentProtection
A directional relay or element is used to supervise the
Over current relay elements to allow the over current
protection to trip only if the fault current flows into the
feeder from the power system. The directional relay
prevents tripping if fault current from the generator
flows out from the feeder to a fault elsewhere on the
power system.
MicroprocessorBasedFeederProtectionRelays
Most feeder protection relays being installed
today are microprocessor-based,
microprocessor-based
and
include many functions within the one relay.
As well as the basic instantaneous and
inversetimed over current functions, these
relays
y also include manyy other p
protection
functions and additional features.
MicroprocessorBasedFeederProtection
Relays
DirectionalSupervision
UndervoltageandOvervoltage
Busunderfrequency&Rateofchange
SynchronismCheck
NegativeSequenceVoltage
N ti S
V lt
Autoreclose
EventRecording
Event Recording
Oscillography,orWaveformCapture
FaultLocation
Fault Location
FeederProtectionSystemF60
Section6
CoordinationofProtection
Systems
Section7CoordinationofProtectionSystems
TimeCurrentCoordination.
ProtectiveRelayingZone.
Requirement for Back up Protection
RequirementforBackupProtection.
BreakerFailureProtection.
Tripping.
RelaySettings.
y
g
CoordinationofProtectionSystems
As described earlier, one fundamental
requirement
q
of all p
protection systems
y
is
selectivity or discrimination. This means that
only the faulted power system elements should
b disconnected
be
di
t d to
t clear
l
th fault,
the
f lt leaving
l
i
allll
unfaulted equipment in service. On radial
power distribution systems,
systems where the flow
of fault current is in one direction only, timecurrent coordination is g
generally
y used.
d
f
CoordinationofProtectionSystems
On interconnected transmission systems,
systems
where there are many sources of fault
current,, the flow of fault current can be in
any direction. Unit type protection
schemes, such as differential protection,
are generally used.
used These unit
unit-protection
protection
schemes operate with no intentional time
delay, and provide high-speed clearance of
faults before power system instability
results.
TimeCurrentCoordination
On radial distribution systems over
current devices such as fuses and
inverse-time over current relays are
generally used to provide protection.
protection
the available fault current decreases as the
distance from the supply station increases.
increases
Over current devices are therefore generally
used, in series, with progressively lower
ratings, to protect various sections of
distribution feeders.
FusetofuseCoordination
The time-current characteristic of a

typical fuse is shown below, and is
represented
t d by
b a band
b d between
b t
th
the
minimum melting time and the
maximum clearing time of the fuse
element.
For correct coordination between two fuses in
series it is important to ensure that the
series,
characteristic bands for the two fuses do not
p at any
y p
point, when
intersect and overlap
plotted on the same graph. To provide an
adequate coordination margin for two fuses A
and B connected in series,
series and a fault at
point X, the total clearing time for fuse B
would be 75% of the minimum melting time of
fuse
A
A.
Similarly
Similarly,
the
time current
time-current
characteristics of fuses are coordinated with
those of over current relays associated with
circuit breakers and re closers.
Relay to Relay coordination :

RelaytoRelaycoordination:
With the timecurrent characteristic, the time of operation is
inversely proportional to the fault current level and the actual
characteristic is a function of both time and 'current' settings.
Sh t t operating
Shortest
ti times
ti
can be
b achieved
hi d by
b the
th relays
l
nearestt to
t
the source, where the fault level is the highest The disadvantages of
grading by time or current alone are overcome .
For optimal grading between two relays The total interval required
to cover circuit breaker interrupting time, relay timing error,
overshoot and CT errors, depends on the operating speed of the
circuit breakers and the relay performance. At one time 0.5s was a
normall grading
di margin
i With faster
f t modern
d
circuit
i it breakers
b k
and
da
lower relay overshoot time, 0.4s is reasonable, while under the best
conditions even lower intervals may be practical.Figure below
shows the characteristics of five relays
y ggiven different currenttime
settings.
Grading example
RelaytoRelaycoordination:
y
y
RelaytoRelaycoordinationexample
ProtectiveRelayingZone
The following diagram shows a section of a
t i l power system,
typical
t
comprising:
i i
2 Transmission Lines
2 Transformers
2 33 kV Buses
4 33 kV Feeders
Each of these power system elements must

have a protective relaying scheme and no
part of the system should be unprotected.
When applying protective relaying to such
a system, we refer to Protection Zones.
Adjacent zones are separated by circuit breakers,
and are shown in the diagram above.
above Protective
relaying zones are determined very largely by the
location of the current transformers. It is good
practice where practical,
practice,
practical to establish overlapping
protection zones by locating C.T.s on the
opposite side of the circuit breaker from the
power system element being protected.
protected
The overlapping of adjacent protection zones
across the circuit breakers is illustrated by the
l
location
ti
off the
th currentt transformers
t
f
i the
in
th above
b
diagram.
For example
example, where a feeder is supplied
from a bus:
1 The feeder protection C
1.
C.T.s
T s m
must
st be
located on the bus side of the circuit
breaker.
breaker
2. The bus protection C.T.s must be located
on the feeder side of the circuit breaker.
Requirement for Back up Protection

RequirementforBackupProtection
During our earlier discussion on feeder
over current protection we saw that the
inverse timed over current relay
characteristics are set to co-ordinate, and
provide back-up to downstream devices
such as over current relays and/or fuses.
RequirementforBackupProtection
This type of time-graded back-up works fine for
radial systems.
systems However,
However it is not possible to apply
time-graded back-up protection to interconnected
transmission systems. In order to achieve the
required reliability on transmission systems it is
usual to duplicate all of the protective relaying
systems to ensure that a single component failure
does not result in the failure of a fault being
g cleared
from the power system. It is not, of course, practical
to duplicate circuit breakers. Breaker-failure
protection is therefore provided to ensure that
th failure
the
f il
off a circuit
i it breaker
b k does
d
nott result
lt in
i an
uncleared fault, and possible power system
collapse.
BreakerFailureProtection
On interconnected systems, such as the high
voltage transmission system,
system fault current can
flow in either direction and the application of such
Back Up protection is not possible.
If a transmission
t
i i
system
t
f lt is
fault
i un cleared
l
d
because of the failure of a Circuit Breaker, the
effects can be enormous. There would be
i di i i
indiscriminate
tripping
i i
off transmission
i i
li
lines
and
d
generators, and a power system collapse could
easily result. Breaker Failure protection is
therefore provided on all circuit breakers on the
BreakerFailureProtection
A simplified diagram of a typical breaker failure
protection scheme for a high voltage circuit
breaker is shown below
below. This scheme is used by
Ontario Hydro, Canada, on all 230 kV and 500
kV circuit breakers.
Tripping
When the breaker failure protection
operates it must trip ALL of the circuit
breakers on BOTH adjacent zones,
zones
including the breakers at the remote end
of associated lines.
lines The breaker failure
protection tripping relays seal-in for 45
seconds This holds the tripping signal
seconds.
on to all of the tripped breakers and
prevents them from auto reclosing.
reclosing
SPEED
The speed of operation of breaker failure
protection
i
must be
b fast
f
enough
h to prevent
indiscriminate tripping of power system
elements and to prevent the power system from
elements,
going unstable. Typically a fault would be cleared
in 150 to 200 milliseconds by the operation of the
breaker failure protection.
INITIATION
Breakerfailureprotectionisinitiatedbyallofthe
protectionschemesthatsendtripsignalstothat
b k
breaker.
OVERCURRENTSUPERVISION
Breakerfailureprotectionissupervisedby
B
k f il
t ti i
i db
highspeedinstantaneousovercurrentrelays.
Th
Theserelaysmusthaveaveryfastresettime
l
th
f t
t ti
andahighpickup/dropoutratio.
RelaySettings
INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT SUPERVISION RELAYS
The high
high-speed
speed instantaneous over current
supervision relays are typically set for 1,000
primary amps.
RelaySettings
TIMER62a
The criterion for setting the 62a timing relay is the
opening time of the breaker auxiliary switch
(pallet switch) PLUS a 2 cycle margin.
margin Typically
this setting would be 4 cycles (or 67 milliseconds
for a 60 Hz power system). This leg of the circuit
provides
id
th fastest
the
f t t operation
ti
off the
th breaker
b k
failure protection. It will operate if the auxiliary
p
within 67 milliseconds after
switch has not opened
the trip signal is sent to the breaker, breaker failure
protection is initiated, and fault current is still
flowing.
flowing
RelaySettings
TIMER62b
TIMER
62b
The criterion for setting the 62b timing
relay is the breaker tripping time, PLUS
the reset time of the over current
supervision relays, PLUS a 2 cycle
margin. Typically this setting would be just
over 5 cycles. This leg of the circuit is the
one which
hi h will
ill operate
t if the
th breaker
b k
auxiliary switch opens, but the main
contacts fail to interrupt the fault current.
current
RelaySettings
TIMER62c
The purpose of this leg of the circuit is to provide
breaker failure protection when there are low
magnitudes of fault current,
current below the 1,000
1 000 amp
pickup of the over current supervision relays. (e.g.
For faults at the remote end of very long lines).
Th contacts
The
t t off this
thi relay
l are nott supervised
i d by
b
the over current relay, and the setting is typically
500 milliseconds or 0.5 seconds. This slow
clearance of such faults can be tolerated because
fault currents of less than 1,000 amps would not
jeopardize the stability of the power system.
system
RelaySettings
EARLY TRIP FEATURE
The purpose of the 94ET relay is to provide an EARLY
TRIP feature to prevent unnecessary operation of the
breaker failure protection tripping relays for inadvertent
or accidental initiation of the breaker failure protection.
Such inadvertent initiation of breaker failure protection
is most likely to occur during trip testing by maintenance
personnel. When breaker failure is initiated, the 94ET
relay operates immediately, and sends a trip signal to the
breaker. If the breaker trips successfully, the breaker
failure protection trip relays will not operate.
Relay Settings
AUTO-RECLOSING OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
it is usual to apply auto-reclose to feeder
breakers on overhead distribution systems
where the vast majority of the faults are
transient in nature - mostly caused by lightning.
Because these distribution systems are usually
radial the auto reclose scheme does not
need any supervision. Typically the breaker
would
ld be
b sett to
t auto-reclose
t
l
after
ft a time
ti
d l
delay
of 0.5 seconds.
Endofthis
End
of this
Section
Section7
BusProtection
us otect o
Section8BusProtection
TypesofRelaysUsed.
T
fR l
U d
HighImpedanceDifferentialProtection.
BusProtectionTripping
BusProtection
The main bus in transformer stations is one of
the most critical pieces of equipment in our
power distribution and transmission systems.
systems
Faults on buses are very serious events because
they usually result in widespread outages.
The fault level on the bus is usually very high
because it is close to the main source of supply,
and
d may have
h
multiple
lti l in
i feeds.
f d Faults
F lt on buses
b
are almost always permanent and auto-reclosing
pp
is therefore not applicable.
BusProtection
Reliable bus protection is essential for all
power systems,
systems from the switchboards of
industrial plants, to high voltage buses in
utility substations.
substations The consequences of an
un cleared bus fault are enormous. Also, the
unnecessary tripping of a bus due to the
mal operation of the bus protection scheme
p
outages.
g
can cause widespread
BusProtection
The choice of the type of bus protection to
apply
l for
f any particular
ti l location
l
ti is
i very largely
l
l
dependent upon the voltage level, and
whether the bus is supplied from a radial
system, or is part of an interconnected
system.
F
For
b
buses
th t are partt off interconnected
that
i t
t d
systems, where there is more than one
possible in-feed for fault current,, differential
p
protection is most appropriate. This is typical
for utility substations at voltage levels of
about 13.8
13 8 kV and above.
above
Bus Protection
BusProtection
For buses supplied from radial systems,
where
h
th
there
i only
is
l one source off supply,
l
over current protection is appropriate.
This is typical in industrial plants where the
bus voltage may be 4.16 kV or 600 volts,
and is supplied from a single transformer.
transformer
Instantaneous over current and inversetimed over current devices are used,
used with
settings selected to coordinate with the
downstream devices,, as discussed earlier.
BusProtection
BASICCONCEPTOFDIFFERENTIALPROTECTION
The ideal way to protect any power system
element is to compare
p
the current entering
g
that element, with the current leaving it. If
there is no fault condition, then the two
quantities are equal.
equal For a fault condition the
two quantities are unequal, and the difference
in currents passes through a relay, and the
fault condition is detected. This principle is
known as differential protection.
BusProtection
The diagram above illustrates the principle of
Diff
Differential
ti l Protection
P t ti in
i its
it simplest
i l t form:
f
I the
In
th
above example there is through or out of zone
fault current of 6,000
6 000 Amps.
Amps The currents in the
C.T. secondary circuits circulate, and there is no
spill
p into the relay.
y Hence,, the Bus Protection
does not operate, and remains stable.
BusProtection
We now consider a fault on the bus,
bus of the
same 6,000 Amps. The current in both
C T s
C.T.
s is now in the same direction,
direction and
the current in the C.T. secondary circuit no
longer circulates.
circulates The two C.T.
C T secondary
currents are summed, and the total of 25
Amps passes through the differential relay.
relay
For this IN ZONE fault, the relay will
operate and initiate tripping.
tripping
Bus Protection
BusProtection
From the two examples we can see the
importance of the C.T. connections:
The C.T. polarities must be correct relative
to each other.
The C.T. ratios must be the same.
The C.T. excitation characteristics must
also be the same
same.
BusProtection
Application to Various Bus Configurations
ApplicationtoVariousBusConfigurations
We can now extend this theory to a bus with
many lines connected to it.
it
Take the following example of a bus with 5
f d
feeders
connected
t d to
t it.
it For
F a total
t t l bus
b fault
f lt
current of 18,000 Amps, the fault current in
each
h feeder
f d is:
i
BusProtection
Now, as an exercise, draw the C.T.
currents if the same 18,000
18 000 Amp fault is on
feeder F5.
Th C.T.
The
C T secondary
d
currents
t once again
i
balance, and the Bus Protection remains
stable
t bl for
f the
th THROUGH fault.
f lt
NOTE:
Differential Bus Protection will never
operate as back-up
back up protection for un cleared
faults on other parts of the power system.
For example,
p an un cleared fault on F5.
Also note the location of the C.T.s in the bus
protection schemes. As mentioned earlier,
the bus protection C.T.
C T ss MUST be located
on the feeder side of the breakers.
If the bus p
protection C.T.s are located on
the bus side of the breaker, then a
protection blind spot exists.
BusProtection
Now let us consider the Bus arrangement for a
typical sub-station with two supply transformers:
The Bus protections for Buses C and D are
exactly the same as the previous examples.
examples i.e.
ie
The C.T.s are all connected in parallel, and all
have the same ratio and polarity. However, with
this arrangement a BACK-UP protection feature
can be readily incorporated. If the feeders F2,
F4, and F6 are RADIAL, then there can be no
in feed from them for bus faults. For a fault on
BUS D, the fault current is supplied through the
T2 and BT breakers ONLY.
ONLY
BusProtection
Consequently, we can provide BACK-UP
protection
t ti
f the
for
th feeders
f d
b using
by
i the
th T2 and
d BT
breaker C.T.s. The Back-up protection relay is
connected as shown, and will normally be an
I
Inverse
Ti
Time
O
Overcurrent
t Relay,
R l
and
d sett to
t
coordinate with the feeder protection relays. Thus,
if there is an uncleared fault on feeder F6 for
example
l (i.e.
(i the
th breaker
b k fails
f il to
t clear
l
th fault,
the
f lt or
the protection fails to operate), then the F6 fault
current continues to flow through the T2 and BT
C T The
C.T.s.
Th sum off these
th
t
two
currents
t passes
through the D BUS back-up relay, which will
operate after a time delay, and clear the fault by
t i i the
tripping
th D BUS breakers.
b
k
TypesofRelaysUsed
Various types of fault detecting relays are
used in Bus Differential protection
schemes. These include instantaneous
over current, inverse timed over current
and high impedance relays. The high
impedance relays are becoming more
popular
l because
b
th give
they
i much
h greater
t
stability under through fault conditions.
TypesofRelaysUsed
BusProtectionRelaySettings
Bus
Protection Relay Settings
The settings applied to bus differential
relays are determined mainly by the
minimum fault level on the bus. The relays
are usually set to operate at roughly half of
that minimum fault current. If the differential
relayy is set too low, then there is the risk
that it will mal-operate for through faults,
and cause unnecessary tripping of the bus.
HighImpedanceDifferentialProtection
By using High Impedance relays in
differential protection the system can be
designed to be more tolerant of a saturated
C.T. The High Impedance relays typically
have voltage settings of 100 to 200 volts.
volts
A non-linear resistor is connected across
the relay terminals to limit the voltage
across the differential relay to a safe value
during fault conditions.
High
Hi
h
i
impedance
d
relays
l
are
used
d
extensively in modern differential protection
for high voltage buses. The advantage of
using High Impedance relays in bus
differential protections is that they can be
designed to remain stable (not operate) for
external faults, when any one of the C.Ts
has saturated. For an external fault, the
worstt case is
i with
ith one C.T.
C T completely
l t l
saturated, and the other C.T.s not
saturated.
The resulting differential current will cause the
maximum voltage to occur across the
differential relay. A relay setting (in volts) is
chosen, with sufficient margin, to ensure that
the differential protection does not operate for
this external fault condition. The resistance of
the C.T. secondary windings and C.T. cabling
must be known, and is used in the relay setting
calculations.
For internal faults the high
g impedance
p
of the
differential relay forces much of the resulting
differential current through the C.T. exciting
impedances.
impedances
The resulting voltage developed across the
relay is essentially the open
open-circuit
circuit voltage of
the C.T.s, and will be well above the voltage
setting of the relay. A non-linear resistor, or
arrestor
t
i
is
connected
t d across the
th
relay
l
terminals to limit the voltage to a safe value
during
g fault conditions.
When a bus fault is detected,
detected all of the
circuit breakers on that bus are tripped.
Bus faults are almost always permanent,
permanent
rather than transient faults. There must
therefore be no auto-reclosing
g of breakers
after a bus fault. Bus protections will often
cancel the auto-reclose on any breaker
which may have been initiated by another
protection.
The fault detecting relays are tested by
injecting a test current into the C.T.
secondary circuit, and into the relay. It is
preferable to inject the test current via test
links on the front of the relay panel,
panel rather
than test the relays on a bench. By injecting
g test links on the
the test current through
panel, the C.T. secondary wiring as well as
the relay is tested.
It is usual to have one zone of protection
for each section of the bus. These are
g zones. There
known as discriminating
is also another zone of differential
protection for the entire substation, which
i known
is
k
as the
th check
h k zone. For
F tripping
ti i
of a bus to take place with this
arrangement it is necessary for both a
discriminating zone relay and the check
zone relay to operate.
operate
Endofthis
End
of this
Section
Section8
Motor
Protection&Control
Section9MotorProtection,Starting&Control
MotorProtectionandControl.
Overload protection
Overloadprotection
OvercurrentProtection.
Ground Fault Protection
GroundFaultProtection.
UndervoltageProtection.
L
LossofPhaseorSinglePhasing.
f Ph
Si l Ph i
MotorWindingTemperature.
Motorstalling
MotorDifferentialProtection.
Motor Protection and Control

The vast majority of motors in industrial
applications are induction motors,
motors with supply
voltages of 600 Volts or less. The following
protection requirements are applicable to
these motors.
OVERLOAD PROTECTION
Motors may be overloaded due to

mechanical or electrical causes, and
overload protection applies to both.
The line current is proportional to the motor
load, and so this current is used to activate
the overload protection device.
MotorProtectionandControl
Overload p
protection of three-phase
p
motors is
achieved in most controllers by heating
elements in series with all three motor leads.
These bimetallic heating elements activate
electrical contacts, which open the coil circuit
when used on magnetic
g
controllers. When
used on manual starters or controllers, the
heating elements release a mechanical trip to
drop out the line contacts.
contacts
These bimetallic overload devices have
inverse-time characteristics.
Thermal Overload Relays

ThermalOverloadRelays
Consequently,
Co
seque t y,
for
o
a
very
ey
ssmall
a
percentage overload it may take a
considerable time before tripping
pp g takes
place.
However,, for a veryy heavyy overload fast
tripping is achieved. Ideally, the timecurrent characteristic of the thermal
overload device should coordinate with
the damage curve of the motor.
A coordination diagram showing the
thermal overload,
o erload motor damage
curves, and motor currents is included
on the next page.
page
Motor
Protection
OvercurrentProtection
Over current p
protection is required
q
for the
motor branch circuits.
Over current protection is provided by
fuses or a circuit breaker, to detect and
clear faults on the cable supplying the
motor or in the motor itself.
motor,
itself Contactors are
used to control motor operation. However,
contactors have a veryy limited fault
interrupting capability, and are not used to
clear faults (other than overloads).
Over current protection

Overcurrentprotection
GroundFaultProtection
Ground fault protection is normally only
provided on motors larger than about 200 HP.
HP
The three phase conductors are passed
through a window-type zero sequence
current transformer which supplies a ground
over current relay. Operation of this ground
fault relay then causes tripping of the motor.
The ground fault relay can also be supplied
from the residual connection of the three
phase C.T.s. However, on motor starting
current,
t unequall C.T.
C T saturation
t ti can cause a
residual current to flow in the relay, and
appear as a ground fault.
When considering ground fault protection we
must first determine how the neutral of the
power supply system is grounded.
The magnitude of the ground-fault current is
d t
determined
i d by
b the
th method
th d by
b which
hi h the
th
supply transformer neutral is grounded. In
many industrial plants the neutral of the
supply
l transformer
t
f
i grounded
is
d d through
th
h a
resistor to limit the ground fault current.
Typically
yp
y the neutral of the 600 volt winding
g of
the transformer is grounded through a 15
Ohm resistor, which limits the maximum
ground-fault current to 23.1 amps.
g
p
Ground Fault Protection

For small motors on this system, of
less than about 20 HP, motor ground
faults will be cleared by the operation
of the phase over current device, or the
thermal overload device.
ZeroSequenceCTConnection
Bestmethod
Mostsensitive
Under voltage Protection

UndervoltageProtection
Motors must be disconnected from the
source of supply for low-voltage
conditions. (Electrical Safety Code Rule
28-400). This is usually provided by the
contactor coil releasing the contactor
when an under voltage condition exists.
LossofPhaseorSinglePhasing
This condition occurs whenever a fuse has
blown in the supply to the motor. The
condition is detected and cleared byy
properly sized overload devices. Table 25
of the Electrical Safety Code requires that
an overload
l d device
d i
b provided
be
id d in
i each
h
phase. Older installations may have only
two overload devices on three-phase
three phase
motors.
MotorWindingTemperature
Overheating protection may be
required as per Electrical Safety Code
rules 28-314, 316 & 318. This is
provided by temperature sensors
embedded in the motor stator
windings, which detect the high
t
temperature
t
condition
diti
and
d trip
t i the
th
motor.
MotorWindingTemperature
Very large motors, with supply voltages
above
b
600 Volts,
V lt are expensive,
i
and
d it is
i
usually
wise
to
provide
more
p
protection schemes. Such
p
comprehensive
schemes include:
Differential protection
Ph
Phase
unbalance
b l
or negative
i phase
h
sequence
Incomplete start sequence
Stall or locked rotor
Out of step
Out-of-step
Motor Stalling
MotorStalling
MotorStalling:
Ithappenswhenmotorcircuitsareenergized,but
motorrotorisnotrotating.Itisalsocalledlocked
rotor.
Effects:thiswillresultinexcessivecurrentsflow
giventhesameload.Thiswillcausethermal
damagetothemotorwindingandinsulation.
Similartypesofrelaysthatareusedformotor
l
f l
h
df
timedoverloadprotectioncouldbeusedfor
motor stalling protection
motorstallingprotection.
Out of Step Protection

OutofStepProtection
A synchronous motor may decelerate and lose
synchronism (fall out
outofstep)
of step) if a mechanical
overload exceeding the peak motor torque occurs.
Other Conditions that mayy cause this condition are a
fall in the applied voltage to stator or field windings.
An outofstep condition causes the motor to draw
excessive current and generate a pulsating torque.
Even if the cause is removed promptly, the motor will
probably not recover synchronism,
synchronism but eventually
stall. Hence, it must be disconnected from the
supply
pp y
OutofStepProtection
The current drawn during an outofstep condition is at a
very low power factor. Hence a relay element that
responds
d to low
l
power factor
f
can be
b used
d to provide
d
protection. The element must be inhibited during starting,
when a similar low p
power factor condition occurs. This can
conveniently be achieved by use of a definite time delay,
set to a value slightly in excess of the motor start time. The
power factor
f t setting
tti
will
ill vary depending
d
di
on the
th rated
t d
power factor of the motor. It would typically be 0.1 less
than the motor rated p
power factor i.e. for a motor rated at
0.85 power factor, the setting would be 0.75.
MotorDifferentialProtection
Differential
Diff
ti l protection
t ti
i often
is
ft
provided
id d for
f
medium and large size motors with supply
voltages of greater than about 4 kV, and
electrically operated (shunt trip) circuit breakers.
breakers
The differential protection provides high speed
direction and clearance of faults on the motor
stator windings.
windings
Where the power supply system is solidly
grounded the differential protection will detect
both phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults.
faults
Where the power system is resistance
grounded, and the maximum groundfault current is limited to a low value,
value
the differential protection may not be
sensitive enough to detect phase-tophase to
ground faults. In such cases it is
necessary to provide separate groundground
fault protection as described previously.
With differential protection the current at each
end of each winding is compared to
determine when a fault condition exists.
For medium size motors it is often possible to
economize
i
on C.T.s
C T and
d use a single
i l C.T.
CT
per phase. For each phase the connection
from each end of the winding is passed
th
through
h the
th single
i l C.T.
C T as shown
h
above.
b
Under healthy conditions the C.T. output will
be zero. When a fault exists a differential
currentt flows
fl
i the
in
th C.T.
C T secondary,
d
and
d
causes the relay to operate.
For very large motors a separate C.T. is used at
each end off the winding, for
f each off the three
phases.
The C.T.
C T ss are connected differentially as shown
above, and under healthy conditions the
differential current in the relay is zero.
Under fault conditions there will be a different
current in the two C.T.s. The C.T. secondary
differential current will cause the relay to
operate, and send a trip signal to the circuit
breaker to clear the fault and shut down the
motor.
t
MicroprocessorBasedControl&Protection
Devices
Microprocessor-based
Mi
b
d devices
d i
are now widely
id l
available to perform many motor control,
protection,, metering,
p
g, and monitoring
g functions.
These devices are commonly used on larger
motors (above about 200 HP), where they
have become the most economical way of
providing all of the various functions. Input
signals are required from current transformers,
(and sometimes voltage transformers),
thermostats or RTDs, contactor status, etc.
MicroprocessorBasedControl&
ProtectionDevices
The protection functions available in a typical
motor management device include over current
with a selection of overload curves available,
locked rotor, current unbalance or negative
phase sequence,
p
q
,g
ground fault,, under voltage,
g ,
winding and bearing high temperature. These
devices provide control of the motor contactors
for various starting configurations,
configurations such as star
delta, autotransformer, part winding, and for
two speed and reversing, etc.
Endofthis
End
of this
Section
Section9
Section
9
Transformer Protection
TransformerProtection
Section10TransformerProtection
Differentialprotection
ff
l
Overcurrentandgroundfaultprotection
Gaspressurerelays
Oil and winding temperature devices
Oilandwindingtemperaturedevices
TestingofTransformerProtection
The various types of protection schemes for
power
system transformers include:
Differential protection
Over
O
e cu
current
e a
and
dg
ground
ou d fault
au p
protection
o ec o
Gas pressure relays
Oil and winding temperature devices
DIFFERENTIALPROTECTION
With Bus Differential protection we saw that we

compared
d the
th currentt entering
t i
th bus,
the
b
with
ith that
th t
leaving the bus, in order to detect a fault. With
Transformer Differential Protection we use the
same principle.
f
However, we must make a few changes to adapt
that principle for use on transformers:
1. The C.T. ratios on the transformer primary
and secondary sides must be chosen to
match
t h the
th transformer
t
f
ratio.
ti
2. The C.T. secondary windings are usually
delta connected for a star connected
transformer winding, and star connected for a
delta connected winding. This is to
accommodate the primary to secondary
phase shift. (This is not necessary with microprocessorbased relays, transformer winding configuration is
programmed into the relay)
3. Some accommodation must be made for the
transformer tap changer, which, of course
changes the primary to secondary ratio of the
transformer.
4. Some accommodation must also be made for
the magnetizing inrush current which flows
when the transformer is energized. This inrush
current can be as high as ten times the full load
current of then transformer, and flows into the
transformer but not out.
transformer,
out
The transformer differential relay
rela is designed
especially to accommodate this mismatch in
the primary and secondary C.T.
C T currents.
currents The
transformer differential relay has both
restraint (or Bias) coils, and operate coils, as
shown above . The differential current flows
through the operate coil to make the relay
pick up,
up and the through current flows
through the restraint or bias coils and tends
to make the relay restrain.
If there is an out of zone fault when the tap
changer is away from the neutral tap, then
the through C.T.
C T secondary current flowing
through the restraint coils will overcome the
tendencyy for the relayy to operate
p
byy the spill
p
current flowing through the operate coil.
The differential relay will not operate for this
out-of zone fault condition.
For the In-Zone fault shown the current
th
through
h the
th operate
t coilil is
i very high
hi h and
d the
th
net restraining current is low.
Th differential
The
diff
ti l relay
l
will
ill operate
t for
f this
thi InI
Zone fault.
When a transformer is energized,
energized there is a
magnetizing inrush current, which can be as
high as ten times the full load current of the
transformer. This high inrush current Last s for
only a few cycles. However, it can cause the
differential relay to operate because it has the
appearance of an internal fault (current flows
into but not out of the transformer).
transformer)
Microprocessor-based transformer differential
relays
y the restraint for magnetizing
g
g inrush is
achieved in a different way. The shape of the
waveform is analyzed by the microprocessor to
determine if magnetizing inrush current is
present.
Restraint Characteristic
OvercurrentandGroundFaultProtection
Over current and ground fault protection is
commonly used on transformers. This is either
as the primary protection for smaller units or
any unit without differential protection, or as
backup protection on larger units protected by
differential relays.
rela s For transformers of around
aro nd
10 MVA and below, primary fuses are normally
used.
It is desirable to set the relays

y or fuses as
sensitive as possible. However, they must not
operate for any tolerable condition such as
magnetizing
ti i
i
inrush,
h cold
ld load
l d pick-up,
i k
or any
emergency operating condition.
Over current relays and/or fuses must protect
the transformer against damage from through
g should be coordinated with
faults. The settings
the transformer damage curves, and with the
relay settings on the adjacent elements.
Where transformers are operated in parallel

it is not possible to adequately apply over
current protection for each transformer,
transformer and
also provide the necessary selectivity.
The over current protection for both
transformers can operate for a fault on the
L.V. bus of one of the transformers. It is
usual practice to apply differential protection
where transformers are operated in parallel.
d
d
l
i
If over current is used as backup protection on
transformers operating in parallel, emergency
overload conditions must be taken into account
when determining the minimum pickup setting.
setting
When one transformer trips, the total load is then
carried by the transformer remaining in service.
This can result in emergency overloading of this
transformer of, say, 150%. It may be possible for
the transformer to tolerate this emergency
condition
diti
f
for
about
b t 2 to
t 3 hours,
h
providing
idi
a
winding temperature of 105C is not exceeded.
During this emergency overload period
load shedding or load transfers can take
place to bring the transformer load down
to the nameplate rating, before the
windings
i di
b
become
overheated.
h t d
An over current pickup setting of twice
f ll l d is
full-load
i often
ft
used
d to
t allow
ll
f this
for
thi
emergency situation.
R
i dE h f l ( G
df l)
RestrictedEarthfault(orGroundfault)
Protection
Ground-fault protection for each of the
windings
i di
off a transformer
t
f
can be
b
provided by connecting the C.T.s as
shown above for delta and star (or wye)
connected transformer windings. This
system uses the differential principle to
detect
ground
faults
within
the
transformer.
l
GasRelays
The accumulation of gas or changes in pressure
inside the tank of oil filled transformers are good
indicators of internal faults.
Gas relays are used to detect these conditions:
A very slow build up of gas can be caused by very
low energy arcs and deterioration of insulation,
and core p
problems. This is known as GAS
ACCUMULATION.
A flashover or arc within the transformer tank will
cause a sudden increase in pressure, and cause a
surge of oil to flow in the pipe from the top of the
tank to the oil conservator. This is known as a
GAS PRESSURE or SURGE condition.
GasRelays
BuchholzRelay
Transformers built in Europe use what is known
as a BUCHHOLZ relay. The Buchholz relay is
mounted in the pipe work from the top of the
transformer to the oil conservator tank. It has a
gas accumulation feature as described
previously However,
previously.
However the tripping feature of the
relay is somewhat different. There is a flap in
the relay which deflects whenever there is a
sudden flow of oil through the relay,
relay towards the
conservator tank.
GasRelays
OilandWindingTemperature
Devices
Transformers are usually equipped with devices
to monitor the temperature of the oil and the
windings. The first device monitors oil
t
temperature,
t
and
d is
i connected
t d via
i a capillary
ill
tube to a bulb fitted into a pocket surrounded
with oil.
oil The winding temperature device is
similar, except that there is a heater in the
pocket with the bulb.
p
OilandWindingTemperature
Devices
For transformers equipped with cooling fans
and pumps, the temperature devices are used
to automatically start and stop the forced
cooling.
li
Th are also
They
l equipped
i
d to
t initiate
i iti t an
alarm and a trip for very high transformer
temperatures.
temperatures
OilandWindingTemperatureDevices
Typical settings are:
75C
75
C Start cooling
65C Stop cooling
90C High Temperature Alarm
105C- Trip Transformer L.V. Breaker
MicroprocessorBasedTransformer
Protection/ManagementRelays
Most protective relay manufacturers now have
modern
microprocessor-based
transformer
protection/management relays on the market.
market
These microprocessor -based relays typically
have many different protection, control and
monitoring functions, such as:
Differential protection with harmonic restraint
O
Over
currentt protection
t ti
f each
for
h winding
i di
off the
th
transformer.
Restricted ground fault protection
MicroprocessorBased
Transformer
Microprocessor
BasedTransformer
Protection/ManagementRelays
Over excitation protection, Volts per Hertz & Fifth
Harmonic
O
Over-frequency,
f
Under-frequency,
f
and rate off frequency
f
decay
Event recording
g
Waveform capture
Metering
T position
Tap
iti
Harmonic analysis
Programmable logic
Transformer Protection Overview
Endofthis
End
of this
Section
SSection10
ti 10
GeneratorProtection
Section11GeneratorProtection
GeneratorInternalFaults:
1.PhasetoPhasefaultsonthestatorwinding
2 Phase to ground faults on the stator winding
2.Phasetogroundfaultsonthestatorwinding
3.INTERTURNfaultsonthestatorwinding
4.Groundfaultsintherotor(orfieldwinding)
ExternalPowersystemfaultsandabnormaloperatingconditions:
External Power system faults and abnormal operating conditions
1.Phaseunbalance(Negativephasesequence)
2.Outofstep(poleslippingorlossofsynch)
3 U d
3.Underandoverfrequency
d
f
4.Lossofexcitation(Lossoffield)
5.Overexcitation
6.Reversepower(lossofprimemover)
(l
f
)
7.Nonsynchronizedconnectionofgenerator
GeneratorProtection
Generators are the most expensive pieces of
equipment
i
t on our power systems.
t
R li bl
Reliable
generator protection schemes are therefore
required
q
to minimize damage
g and repair
p
time
following fault conditions. Generators can be
damaged as a result of a wide variety of different
fault conditions which may exist on the power
system. These fault conditions can be
categorized into two groups:
a. Internal faults within the generator zone.
b. External power system faults and/or abnormal
operating conditions
Generator Protection
A. GENERATOR INTERNAL FAULTS
1 Phase-to-Phase faults on the stator winding
1.
2. Phase-to-ground faults on the stator
winding
3. INTER-TURN faults on the stator winding
4 G
4.
Ground
d ffaults
lt in
i th
the rotor
t (or
( field
fi ld winding)
i di )
GeneratorProtection
B. EXTERNAL POWER SYSTEM FAULTS
1. Phase unbalance (Negative phase

sequence)
2. Out-of-step (pole slipping or loss of synch)
3 Under and over frequency
3.
4. Loss of excitation (Loss of field)
5 Over-excitation
5.
Over excitation
6. Reverse power (loss of prime mover)
7. Non-synchronized
Non synchronized connection of generator
GeneratorProtection
All medium to large generators, i.e. 20 MVA
t
to
1000 MVA,
MVA will
ill be
b
equipped
i
d with
ith
protection schemes to detect most, if not all,
of tthe
o
e abo
above
e co
conditions.
dto s
For small hydraulic generators it may not be
cost effective to provide the same number
off protection
t ti schemes
h
as larger
l
units.
it
Also, many smaller hydraulic generators
are better capable of withstanding some of
the above adverse conditions, without
damage, than the larger units.
GeneratorProtection
GeneratorProtection
Medium and large size generators are usually
Direct Connected to a generator output
transformer, supplying the output to the high voltage
This means that there is no circuit breaker between
the generator and the main output transformer. With
thi arrangementt the
this
th generator
t is
i synchronized
h i d to
t
the power system across a 230 kV circuit breaker.
A typical 500 MVA generator has a terminal voltage
of 22 kV and is directly connected to a generator
output transformer to supply a 230 kV transmission
system Such an arrangement is shown above.
system.
above
GeneratorProtection
The generator protection zone
one in the above
abo e
example includes the generator, the main output
transformer, the unit station service transformer,
and the bus The following protective relaying
schemes will normally be applied to most
medi m to large size
medium
si e generators:
generators
a. Differential Protection (87)
To detect phase to phase faults
b. Stator Ground Fault Protection (64 or 59N)
c. Rotor
R t G
Ground
d Fault
F lt Protection
P t ti (64)
GeneratorProtection
d. Phase Unbalance Protection (46)
( )
To detect negative phase sequence currents which
cause overheating of the rotor work up to the 230 kV
circuit
i it b
breakers.
k
e. Inter turn Protection of the Stator Winding (60)
f Under-Frequency Protection (81)
f.
g. Out of Step Protection (21-78)
To detect g
generator p
pole slipping
pp g due to p
power system
y
disturbances
h. Loss of Excitation Protection (40)
GeneratorProtection
i. Over excitation Protection (59)
To prevent core saturation due to over excitation during
run up and shutdown
j. Reverse Power Protection (32)
To detect loss of prime mover which causes the machine
to motor
k Phase
k.
Ph
S
Supplementary
l
t
St
Startt P
Protection
t ti (50)
To detect a fault condition as the generator is being run
up
p to synchronous
y
speed
p
l. Phase Back-up Protection (21B)
To detect un cleared generator, transformer, and bus
faults
GeneratorProtection
The following is a description of typical protective
relaying functions that are used on generators to detect
and trip the unit for various faults and abnormal system
conditions.
DifferentialProtection(87)
Differential protection is provided to detect phase
to phase faults in the generator zone. With most
generators the star point of the stator winding is
grounded through a resistor, a reactor, or a
grounding transformer.
Thi has
This
h
th effect
the
ff t off limiting
li iti
th ground
the
d fault
f lt
current to as little as 5 amps. Consequently,
ground faults within the g
g
generator zone will not
be detected by the differential protection.
Generator differential protection uses the same principles as those
d
described
ib d earlier
li ffor Bus
B Diff
Differential
ti l protection
t ti and
d Transformer
T
f
Differential protection.
Current transformers are located at each end of the
stator
t t winding
i di
as shown
h
i the
in
th diagrams.
di
Th C.T.
The
CT
ratios are the same, and under healthy conditions the
C.T. current circulates, with no spill
p current flowing
g in
the differential relay operating coil.
With this arrangement of generator differential
protection there is no magnetizing inrush current
problem. Also, because the currents at each end of the
stator windings are exactly equal,
equal and the C.T.
C T ratios
are the same, then there is no need for the differential
protection relay to have restraint or biasing coils.
ff
l
( )
Since there is not normally a circuit breaker
between the generator and its output
protection
transformer,, a set of differential p
is usually provided, especially on large
generators, to include the generator and
the transformer,
transformer as shown above.
above This
arrangement has three sets of differential
protection, covering different parts of the
generator and transformer zone.
zone It provides
duplication such that any fault will be
protections.
detected byy two of the three p
d
l
(
)
StatorGroundFaultProtection(64or59n)
(Often called Neutral Overvoltage
Protection)
The stator winding of a typical generator is
grounded at its star p
g
point through
g a neutral
grounding transformer, with a resistor
connected across the secondary terminals.
The value of this resistor is chosen to limit
the ground fault current, for phase-to ground
faults on the stator winding, to about 5 amps.
A Voltage Relay is connected across the
resistor to detect stator ground faults.
Under normal healthy conditions the grounding
transformer develops no secondary voltage, and no
voltage is applied to the relay. When a stator ground
fault occurs,, a voltage
g is developed
p
across the
grounding transformer secondary terminals, and the
voltage relay operates. This condition will usually cause
the generator to trip,
trip but if the ground fault current is
limited to a very low value, such as 5 amps, then it may
just annunciate an alarm condition.
The above stator ground fault protection is not sensitive
for ground faults very close to the neutral point.
It is generally considered that stator ground fault
protection of this type is sensitive for faults on 90% of
the winding.
winding
To detect faults on the last 10% of the winding
g some
other type of protection must be used.
One type
yp of p
protection that is used to detect such faults
compares the third harmonic voltages between the V.T.
at the generator terminals, and that at the neutral
grounding V.T.
V T If a stator ground fault occurs,
occurs then there
will be a change in the third harmonic voltages applied to
the relay.
The change of third harmonic voltage is greatest for
ground faults at the neutral end of the winding, and least
f ground
for
d faults
f lt att the
th stator
t t terminals.
t
i l
d
l
( )
RotorGroundFaultProtection(64)
The rotor or field winding on large thermal
generators is ungrounded, thus a single ground
fault produces no fault current.
A single ground fault,
fault however,
however raises the
potential of the whole field and exciter system,
and the extra voltages induced by opening the
field breaker,
breaker or the main generator breaker,
breaker
particularly under fault conditions, may cause a
second fault on the field winding.
A second fault to ground may cause local heating
of the iron which could distort the rotor, causing
dangerous
g
unbalance.
If part of the winding is shorted out due to a
second ground fault, the current in the
remainder of the winding will increase and
may cause unbalance in the air gap fluxes,
and set up serious vibrations. Thus, it is
important to know when a ground fault has
occurred on the rotor winding, so that the
necessary repairs can be made at the
earliest convenient time.
d
l
i ( )
One method of detecting rotor ground faults utilizes a
high resistance connected across the rotor circuit,
the
h centre point
i off which
hi h is
i connected
d to ground
d
through the coil of a sensitive relay as shown above.
This relay will detect ground faults over most of the
rotor circuit. There is, however, a blind spot at the
centre of the field winding which is at the same
potential as the mid point of the resistor, under
ground
d fault
f lt conditions.
diti
Thi blind
This
bli d spott can be
b tested
t t d
by arranging a tapping switch which, when operated,
shifts the relay connection from the centre of the
resistor to a point a little to one side.
side
Alternatively, one half of the resistor can be
replaced by a non linear resistor which, since it
will change its value for different values of rotor
voltage, will continuously vary the effective
resistor tapping voltage as the field conditions
change.
A second method of detecting rotor
ground faults is shown above. The field
circuit is biased by a d.c. voltage, which is
applied to the rotor through a fault
d t ti
detecting
relay,
l
i series
in
i
with
ith a currentt
limiting resistor. A fault on any part of the
field system will pass a current of sufficient
magnitude through the relay to cause
operation.
The above sketch shows the arrangement of a
brushless exciter. With this arrangement there is
no external connection to the rotor field winding
g
and diodes. It is therefore difficult to apply rotor
ground fault protection to brushless exciters.
O
One
method
th d off applying
l i
rotor
t
ground
d fault
f lt
protection uses optical coupling to the rotor.
PhaseUnbalanceorNegativePhaseSequenceProtection
(46)
The function of g
generator negative
g
phase sequence
p
q
protection is to protect the machine against the
overheating effects, which occur as a result of
unbalance of the stator phase currents. Such
unbalance
b l
i usually
is
ll due
d to
t faults,
f lt or open-circuits
i it on
the external high voltage transmission system. This
causes a negative phase sequence component in the
stator currents,
currents and since this component produces an
armature flux rotating in the opposite direction to the
rotor, it induces eddy currents in the rotor mass. These
eddy currents,
currents which are at twice the system
frequency, will produce local overheating at the
periphery of the rotor.
PhaseUnbalanceorNegativePhase
SequenceProtection(46)
The ability of the machine to withstand this heating
p
to a large
g degree
g
on its
effect will depend
particular design features, but the temperature
rise of the rotor will depend on the duration of the
negative phase sequence current, as well as its
magnitude. The heating effects are proportional to
I2 x t.
t i.e.
i e The square of the negative phase
sequence current multiplied by the time.
Ph
U b l
N
i Ph
S
P
i (46)
PhaseUnbalanceorNegativePhaseSequenceProtection(46)
A typical Negative Phase Sequence protection
scheme is shown above. The generator C.T.s
supply a N.P.S. network, across which a relay is
connected The relay has a setting characteristic
connected.
which matches the generator heat build up
characteristic. There may be two stages. The first
stage is an alarm, set to annunciate a low level of
negative phase sequence current, and allow some
remedial action to be taken, such as reducing the
load on the generator. The second stage operates
for higher levels of N.P.S. current, and trips the
generator before damage from overheating can
result.
With todays modern microprocessorbased multifunction generator protection

relays the level of negative phase
sequence is calculated by the relay
microprocessor. The relay is programmed
to alarm and trip at the appropriate
settings.
InterturnProtection(60)
Split Phase Protection can be used to detect
Split-Phase
open or shorted stator turns (inter-turn faults). This
type of protection is only possible when each
phase of the stator winding is made in two similar
halves, connected in parallel.
The two halves of the winding
g are p
passed through
g a
C.T. in opposite directions as shown above. A
sensitive over current relay is connected to the C.T.
secondary With no fault on the stator winding,
secondary.
winding the
current in the two halves of the winding will be
equal, and no current will flow in the relay.
If an INTER-TURN fault occurs, then this will
create an unbalance in the two halves of the
winding, and current will flow in the relay,
causing it to operate and trip the generator.
generator
On larger generators where it is not practical to
use split phase protection,
protection very sensitive voltage
relays are used to detect INTERTURN faults.
Quadrature coils of the relay are supplied with a.c.
voltages from the generator V.T
V Tss. One pair of coils
on the relay is supplied with an open corner- delta
voltage, and the other pair of coils is supplied with
the V.T.
V T phase-tophase voltage.
voltage Under normal
healthy conditions the open corner delta voltage
is zero. If a fault develops there will be an open
corner delta
delta voltage,
voltage and the two voltages applied
to the relay will produce a torque to operate the
relay.
UnderfrequencyandOverfrequencyProtection(81)
This protection detects system disturbances,

rather than generator faults.
faults A major power
system break-up can result in either an excess,
or insufficient generating power for the remaining
connected load. In the first case, over frequency,
with possible overvoltage results because of the
reduced load demand.
demand Operation in this mode
will not produce overheating unless rated power
and approximately 105% rated voltage is
e ceeded The generator controls should
exceeded.
sho ld be
promptly adjusted to match the generator output
to the load demand.
With insufficient generation for the connected load,
under
d frequency
f
results,
lt with
ith a heavy
h
l d demand.
load
d
d
The drop in voltage causes the voltage regulator to
increase excitation. The result is that overheating can
occur in both the rotor and the stator. At the same
time, more power is being demanded, with the
generator less able to supply it at the decaying
frequency.
Automatic or manual transmission system load
shedding should
sho ld ideally
ideall adjust
adj st the load to match the
connected generation before a total power system
collapse occurs.
generator problems, Under
As well as these g
frequency and over frequency conditions can
cause serious damage to steam turbines. Turbine
bl d
blades
are designed
d i
d and
d tuned
t
d for
f continuous
ti
operation at normal synchronous speed. At other
speeds serious vibrations,
vibrations
and possibly
resonance, can occur and result in blade
damage,
g , p
particularly
y on the longer
g blades at the
low pressure end of the turbine.
Under frequency protection for a 60 Hertz

generator is typically arranged to trip the
high voltage circuit breaker if the
frequency drops below 57.5 Hz for 10
seconds,
d
or instantaneously
i t t
l
if the
th
frequency drops to 56 Hz. For a 50 Hz
generator typical settings are 47.5
47 5 Hz for
10 seconds, or instantly at 46 Hz.
Ideally,
automatic
load
shedding
from
Frequency Trend Relays, Rate-of-Change of
Frequency, or Under frequency relays on the
Frequency
distribution system or transmission system will
coordinate with the generator under-frequency
protection to match the connected load to the
available generation, before generators trip.
Under-frequencyy protection trips onlyy the H.V.
circuit breaker, and allows the unit to keep
running, and available for service when the
transmission system is restored.
restored
Out-of-Step Protection (21-78)

Out-of-Step protection detects a condition caused by
power system disturbances, rather than generator faults.
An un cleared, or slow clearing fault on the transmission
system can cause generators to start slipping poles, or
go out-of-step with the rest of the system.

Such
S
h a condition
di i
i undesirable
is
d i bl because
b
harmful mechanical stresses are exerted on
the shaft, and the severe power swings have
a disturbing effect on the power system
voltages. Out-of-Step protection detects the
condition when the generator slips itits
s first
pole, and causes the generator breakers to
trip. The turbine is not tripped, enabling the
machine
hi
t be
to
b re-synchronized
h i d after
ft
th
the
system disturbance is cleared

This protection can be considered
complementary to Loss
Loss of Excitation
Excitation
protection. The out-of-step condition
occurs with the generator at full field,
field and
the loss of synchronism due to under
excitation occurs when the generator has
no field.
Out-of-Step
p Protection (21-78)
(
)
Out-of Step protection uses three impedance

measuring relays. These relays are supplied
by the generator C.T.s
C T s and V.T.s,
V T s and
measure the generator load impedance.
y detect a p
power swing
g condition
These relays
if the three relays operate in the correct
sequence, and will initiate tripping of the
H V circuit breakers.
H.V.
breakers The three relays have
operating characteristics as shown above.
For tripping to occur, the locus of the
generator load impedance must be within
the circle, and must cross both of the
parallel lines.
p
f
( )
LossofExcitationProtection(40)
When a generator loses excitation (or field),
reactive power flows from the power system
into the generator. The generator then loses
synchronism and runs as an induction
generator,
t above
b
synchronous
h
speed.
d
Above synchronous speed the rotor will start
to oscillate in an attempt to lock into
synchronism, resulting in overheating and
other damage. As long as the system is
stable MVARS will flow into the generator
stable,
and the machine will continue to put out
MW.
f
( )
Loss of field protection uses a relay that
detects the change in Reactive flow, from
the normal LAGGING condition,, to MVARS
LEADING. A typical Loss of Excitation
Protection scheme uses an Offset Mho
relay to measure the generator load
impedance, and has an operating
characteristic as shown above. The Offset
Mho impedance relay is a single phase
Mho
relay, and is supplied from the generator
C.T.s and V.Ts.
The Loss of Field relay will operate if the
locus of the load impedance falls within
the operating characteristic of the relay. A
timing relay is included to initiate tripping
of the machine if the LEADING MVARS
condition persists for 1 second.
second
Over excitation Protection (59)

The purpose of over-excitation protection is to
prevent the core of the main output transformer
from being saturated during generator start-up
or shutdown.
h td
O
Over
excitation
it ti
can be
b explained
l i d
by the following expression:
Over excitation Protection (59)

For the core flux B to remain below the
saturation point, the generator voltage may
only be increased as the frequency (or speed)
is increased.
increased If the excitation is increased too
rapidly, then this over excitation condition must
be detected, and the field breaker tripped. Over
excitation
it ti
protection
t ti
schemes
h
use Volts
V lt per
Hertz relays. These relays have a linear
characteristic, and will operate if V, the Voltage,
divided by the frequency exceeds the set
value.
OverexcitationProtection(59)
ReversePowerProtection(32)
Reverse power protection is provided to detect a
condition when the generator is acting as a
motor. This condition occurs when the steam (or
water) supply to the turbine fails, and the
generator draws power from the transmission
system. In steam turbines the steam acts as a
coolant maintaining the blades at a constant
coolant,
temperature. Failure of the steam supply can
cause overheating of the blades. On some
machines the temperature rise is very low, and
motoring can be tolerated for a considerable
time.
IIn such
h cases the
h Reverse
R
P
Power
protection
i
will annunciate an alarm condition, to allow
corrective action to be taken without tripping
the generator.
Reverse Power protection uses a power
di ti
directional
l relay
l
t monitor
to
it
th generator
the
t
load. The relay is supplied from the
generator C.T.s and V.Ts as shown,, and
g
will operate when any negative power flow
is detected.
SupplementaryStartProtection(50)
Phase supplementary start protection is provided to
detect a condition where a fault exists when the
generator is being run up to speed. Generators
must not, of course, be started-up into a load or into
a fault condition. To p
prevent this,, a scheme of
protection is used that switches into service low-set
over current relays ONLY if the frequency is below
52 Hz on 60 Hz power systems, and 42 Hz on 50
H systems.
Hz
t
Wh the
When
th generator
t is
i ready
d to
t pick
i k up
load the Over current trip must, of course, be
disabled. This is accomplished by a contact of an
under frequency relay which opens when the
under-frequency
generator approaches synchronous speed.
SupplementaryStartProtection(50)
PhaseBackupProtection(21B)
Back-up protection is provided to detect un
cleared faults in the generator,
generator the transformer,
transformer or
the H.V. bus work. A typical phase back-up
protection scheme, shown above, uses three
impedance relays,
relays supplied by the generator C.T.
C T ss
and V.Ts. These impedance relays measure the
absolute load impedance. If the measured
impedance falls below 84% of the combined
impedance of the generator and the generator
transformer, then tripping is initiated. The
impedance relay has a circular,
circular or MHO,
MHO charactecharacte
ristic of, say, 7 ohms radius, and tripping occurs if
the minimum load impedance falls within the
circle.
circle
GeneratorOvercurrentProtectionVoltage
Controlled&VoltageRestrained
Over current relays are often

O
f
used to provide
primary protection for small generators. For
larger generators over current relays are
applied as Back-up protection. The purpose
of the over current p
protection is to detect and
trip the generator for fault conditions.
The over current relays are not intended to
provide overload protection, as the relay
characteristics are in no way related to the
thermal characteristics of the generator.
generator
GeneratorOvercurrentProtectionVoltage
Controlled&VoltageRestrained
The over current protection C.T.s

C T s should be
located at the neutral end of the stator
winding, particularly for a single generator
supplying an isolated system. If the C.T.s are
located at the terminal end of the generator
winding, phase
phase-to-phase
to phase faults may be
undetected. There is difficulty in applying
inverse time over current protection to
generators because a phase-to-phase
phase to phase fault
near the terminals of the generator will cause
the terminal voltage to decrease.
GeneratorShortCircuitCurrent
In the event of a short
short-circuit
circuit close to the
terminals of the generator the time
variation of the fault current is
considerably affected by the specific
characteristics of the generator.
The fault current first rises to a high initial
value and then decays to the continuous
value,
shot circuit current, as shown in the
typical generator decrement curve.
curve
Toacloseapproximationthegeneratorshort
circuit
currentcanbedividedintothreecomponents:
S b
SubtransientComponent
i
C
TransientComponent
ContinuousComponent
This p
progression
g
of the short-circuit current
is determined by the electromagnetic
process that occurs within the generator
and
d the
th resulting
lti effect
ff t on the
th voltage.
lt
In practice, however, it is usual for the
representation
t ti
and
d calculation
l l ti
off shorth t
circuit characteristics to be based on a
constant voltage,
voltage and on an assumption
that the decay of fault current is due to an
increase in the reactance of the generator.
generator
I the
th eventt off a short-circuit
h t i it close
l
t the
th
In
to
terminals of the generator the time variation of
the fault current is considerably affected by the
specific characteristics of the generator. The
fault current first rises to a high initial value, and
then decays to the continuous shot-circuit
current, To a close approximation the generator
short circuit current can be divided into three
short-circuit
components:
Subtransient Component
Transient Component
Continuous Component
p
Corresponding to the above postulated
current components,
components the associated
reactances are:
S bt
Subtransient
i t Reactance
R
t
Xd.
Xd
Transient Reactance Xd.
Synchronous Reactance Xd.
The Subtransient Reactance influences
the fault current for only about the first 0.2
seconds. For a typical
yp
value of Xd of 0.11
p.u. the sub transient symmetrical short
circuit current is:
The Transient Reactance influences the
fault current for about the first 1 second.
For a typical value of X
Xd
d of 0.19
0 19 p.u.
p u the
transient symmetrical short-circuit current
is:
The Synchronous Reactance determines
the sustained short
short-circuit
circuit current,
current and for
a typical value of Xd of 1.35 p.u., the
continuous generator short
short-circuit
circuit current
is:
G
t P t ti S t
GeneratorProtectionSystem
Endofthis
End
of this
Section
Section11
HighVoltageTransmissionLine
Protection
Section13HighVoltageTransmissionLineProtection
InterconnectedSystemswithTwoWayFlowof
FaultCurrent.
DistanceorImpedanceProtectionSchemes.
Distance or Impedance Protection Schemes.
PhaseComparisonProtectionSchemes.
LineDifferentialProtection.
Li Diff
ti l P t ti
CommunicationChannelRequirements
BetweenTerminals.
Interconnected Systems with Two Way Flow of Fault

InterconnectedSystemswithTwoWayFlowofFault
Current
Time-graded over current protection cannot be
successfully
f
applied to high voltage transmission
lines because there are usually many
interconnected sources of fault current.
The requirements of protection schemes for
high voltage transmission lines are:
The protection system must be able to detect all
faults on the protected line.
The protection system must be able to
di i i t between
discriminate
b t
faults
f lt on the
th protected
t t d line
li
and faults on adjacent lines, buses, transformers,
etc.
InterconnectedSystemswithTwoWayFlow
ofFaultCurrent
Theprotectionsystemmustbeabletoclear
p
y
faultsveryquickly,(i.e.inlessthan0.1
)
p
y
g
seconds)beforethepowersystemgoes
unstable.
The protection system must be dependable
Theprotectionsystemmustbedependable,
andmustbecapableofclearingfaultswhen
any single piece of equipment has failed
anysinglepieceofequipmenthasfailed.
InterconnectedSystemswithTwoWayFlowof
FaultCurrent
Protection
schemes
on
high-voltage
transmission lines are usually duplicated to
ensure that
th t no single
i l componentt failure
f il
will
ill
result in a failure to detect and clear a fault.
The two protection schemes may be
supplied by separate C.T. cores, and use
duplicate station batteries.
batteries The high voltage
circuit breakers have duplicate trip coils, and
breaker failure protection is applied.
applied
DistanceorImpedanceProtection
The basic element of this type of protection scheme is
the impedance relay. This relay is supplied with current
and voltage from the line C.T.s and V.T.s. During a fault
condition there is a very high current,
current and the line
voltage falls. The relay therefore measures line
impedance Z.
The relay operates if the ratio

setting
g of the relay
y in OHMS.
falls below the
In the above example the impedance of
the line is 3 OHMS.
To determine the impedance measured by
the relay the primary OHMS must be
converted to secondary OHMS by
multiplying by the C.T./V.T.
C T /V T
Ratio
Ratio.
Secondary OHMS = 3 x 500 / 2000 = 0.75
OHMS
This is the impedance measured by the relay. For
any fault on the transmission line, the
impedance from the circuit breaker (where the
C T are located)
C.T.s
l
t d) to
t the
th fault
f lt will
ill always
l
b less
be
l
than 3 Primary OHMS, or 0.75 Secondary
OHMS and the relay will operate.
OHMS,
operate For any fault
beyond the end of the transmission line, the
impedance
p
will be g
greater than 3 Primaryy
OHMS, and therefore the relay will not operate.
The relay will operate for fault currents both into
the transmission line and out of the line.
In order to use this type of relay in a practical
protection scheme it would require a directional
relay to supervise it and ensure that tripping
occurs only when fault current flows into the line.
line
Di
I
d
P
i
h
DistanceorImpedanceProtectionscheme
Almost all modern Distance or Impedance
protection
t ti
schemes
h
use relays
l
with
ith MHO
directional impedance characteristics as
shown above.
above The MHO relay has a circular
characteristic which is set to cover the
transmission line as shown above.
The relay will operate for any value of
impedance which lies within the circle. The
maximum
i
value
l
off Z for
f
operation
ti
i
is
represented by the diameter of the circle
which is shown at 75
75 to the R axis.
axis
Let us now apply such relays to a practical protection
scheme for a high-voltage transmission line. We require
relays (or relay elements) to detect all possible fault
conditions i.e.
conditions.
ie
PhasetoPhaseFaults
AtoB
BtoC
C to A
CtoA
PhasetoGroundFaults
AtoGrnd
BtoGrnd
C to Grnd
CtoGrnd
Other fault conditions, such as two phases-toground, or three-phase faults can be considered
as combinations of these basic fault conditions.
It is
i nott practical
ti l to
t sett an impedance
i
d
relay
l
t
to
measure exactly the impedance of the line up to
the breaker at the remote end.
end This is because
of errors in such things as C.T.s, V.T.s, Relays,
calculation of line impedance,
p
, etc.
DistanceorImpedanceProtectionSchemes
Because of this we set the relay to measure, or
reach, some impedance less than the full length
of the line. This reach is normally chosen as
75% off the
th line
li impedance,
i
d
and
d is
i called
ll d ZONE
1.
We must be certain that the ZONE 1 reach
does not extend beyond the remote end of the
line.
line
Schemes
A second relay, or relay element, is used to cover the
remainder of the line.
line The reach of this relay must
extend beyond the remote end of the line. This reach
is normally chosen as 125% of the line impedance,
and is called ZONE 2. We must be certain that the
ZONE 2 reach extends beyond the remote terminal
off the
h line.
li
Thecompleteschemethereforecomprisesthefollowing
relays,orrelayelements,todetectallofthevariouslinefault
conditions:
The ZONE 1 relays cause the local circuit
p with no intentional time delay.
y
breaker to trip
The ZONE 2 relays cause tripping after a time
delay of typically 0.4 seconds.
Faults on the transmission line are therefore
cleared as follows:
For a fault at F1 the ZONE 1 relay sees it and
operates and trips the circuit breaker at station
A with no intentional time delay.
For a fault at F2 the ZONE 2 relay operates
and trips the breaker at station A after a time
delay of 0.4
0 4 seconds.
seconds
If station B has similar relays to station A,
faults F1 and F2 will both be detected by the
ZONE 1 relays at B. The relays will therefore
trip the station B breaker without intentional
time delay for both faults.
With this scheme of protection we can see that
we do not get high-speed clearance for all faults.
i.e. Faults within 25% of either terminal are
cleared at the far terminal after a time delay.
By adding a communication channel in each
direction, between the two terminals, we can
coordinate the operation of the relays at each end to
give instantaneous clearance for all faults on the
line. This channel is known as an acceleration or
permissive channel. The acceleration signal
p
g
is sent
to the other end whenever the ZONE 2 relays
operate. When an acceleration signal is received it
by passes the ZONE 2 time delay,
by-passes
delay and makes ONE
2 tripping instantaneous.
LineDifferentialProtection
The line differential relays at each end of the
transmission line compare data that is
exchanged
g via a fiber-optic
p link between the two
terminals. Many utilities have a fiber-optic cable
embedded in the grounded shielding conductor
off H.V.
H V transmission
t
i i
li
lines.
Th relays
The
l
compare
the magnitude and phase angle of the current
entering the line at one end,
end with the current
leaving the line at the other end.
LineDifferentialProtection
If the two are not equal, within a reasonable
tolerance, then a fault condition is detected, and
the line is tripped.
pp
The relayy also has various
other
protection
elements,
such
as
instantaneous over current, timed over current,
phase
h
and
d ground
d directional
di ti
l over current,
t and
d
distance (or impedance). The distance, or
impedance element is often used for back-up
protection. Direct tripping is provided between
the two terminals of the transmission line.
BetweenTerminals
In order to achieve high

high-speed
speed tripping
for faults on transmission lines, reliable
communication channels are required
between
the
protective
relaying
equipment at each terminal of the line.
BetweenTerminals
High quality communication channels are
required for the following functions associated
with transmission line protections:
Acceleration or Blocking signals for Distance or
Impedance protection schemes.
schemes
Communication
channel
for
Phase-Comparison
p
protection.
Direct Tripping channel between terminals of the line.
Communication channel for Pilot-Wire protection
L90 Line Differential System
Thanks

Power System Protection Guide

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Contents

Feeder Over current Protection

Section 6 Coordination of Protection

Power System Faults

Power System Faults

Incidence of Faults on Power System

Incidence of Faults on Power System

Incidence of Faults on Power System

Incidence of Faults on Power System

Incidence of Faults on Power System

Incidence of Faults on Power System

Effects of Power System Faults:

Effects of Power System Faults:

Effects of Power System Faults:

Effects of Power System Faults:

Effects of Power System Faults:

Magnitude of Fault Current:

Magnitude of Fault Current

Magnitude of Fault Current

Magnitude of Fault Current:

Requirements of Protective Relaying Systems:

Requirements of Protective Relaying Systems:

2- DEPENDABILITY AND RELIABILITY

Procedure For Calculating Maximum

Resistance R & Reactance X.

3. Although fault current can be calculated using the

7.Calculate the THREE-PHASE (SYMMETRICAL)

Calculate the PHASE-TO PHASE FAULT CURRENT

Calculate the PHASE-TO-GROUND FAULT CURRENT

determine the asymmetrical fault current,

= 4 times Motor Full

Full Load Current.

Example of Fault Current Calculation

Short Circuit Calculations

Phase to Ground Fault

Example of Fault Current Calculation

Example of Fault Current Calculation

Section 2 Components of Protection Schemes

Components of Protection Schemes:

Components of Protection Schemes

Fault Detecting Relays:

Fault Detecting Relays

Fault Detecting Relays

Timed Over current Relays

shown on the next page.

Timed Over current Relays:

feeder. The induction disc relay normally

Timed Over current Relays:

Timed Over current Relays

1 Overvoltage and undervoltage relays

These AC relays are normally supplied from

Impedance relays are supplied from both the

Differential relays are used in Bus Protection and

Timed Over current Relays

The Transition from Electro-Mechanical Relays

The Transition from Electro-Mechanical Relays to

The Transition from Electro-Mechanical Relays

The Transition from Electro-Mechanical Relays

Microprocessor-based relays are gaining

Tripping and Other Auxiliary Relays

A typical 230kV circuit breaker rating is 70

Current Transformers & Voltage Transformers