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Unit 1 Standard of Measurement: Structure
Unit 1 Standard of Measurement: Structure
Standard of
Measurements
Structure
1.1
Introduction
Objectives
1.2
Primary Standard
1.2.2
Secondary Standard
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10 Summary
1.11 Key Words
1.12 Answers to SAQs
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In order that the investigators in different parts of the country and different parts of
world may compare the results of their experiments on a consistent basis, it is necessary
to establish certain standard units of length, weight, time, temperature and electrical,
quantities. The National Bureau of Standards has the primary responsibility for
maintaining these standard in the United States. In India, Indian Standard Institute (ISI),
New Delhi has taken the responsibility for maintaining all the standard measurements.
To monitor the standard of measurements, the same Institute issues instructions to put
ISI mark on measuring instruments and items so that these may be compared with
non-standard ones.
In the measurement system, the quantity to be measured, in the direct method, is
compared directly against a standard of same kind of quantity. The magnitude of
quantity being measured is expressed in terms of a chosen unit for the standard and a
numerical multiplier. A length can be measured in terms of meter and a numerical
constant. Thus, a 10 meter length means a length ten times greater than a meter. Thus, by
the means of standard, it is possible to provide means of establishing and maintaining the
magnitudes of the various units. The simplest kind of standard is a physical object
having desired property. This standard can be used as a basis of comparison.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
Metrology and
Instrumentation
1 decimeter = 10 1 m
1 decameter = 10 m
1 hectometer = 102 m.
We also have some other units, which are frequently used for short and large lengths.
They are :
1 Fermi = 1 f = 10 15 m
Standard of
Measurements
1 Angstrom = 1 A = 10 10 m
1 light year 9.46 1015 m (distance that light travels in 1 year)
Note : Velocity of light is 3 108 m/s .
The fundamental unit of time, the second, has been defined in the past as
Metrology and
Instrumentation
Temperature
o
259.34
434.81
256.108
428.99
252.87
423.17
246.048
410.89
218.789
361.82
182.962
297.33
0.01
32.018
100
212.00
419.58
787.24
961.93
1763.47
1064.43
1947.97
259.194
252.753
Triple point, Ne
248.595
Triple point, N2
210.002
Boiling point, N2
195.802
78.476
Freezing point, Hg
38.862
Ice point
Temperature, oC
26.87
122.37
Freezing point, In
156.634
Freezing point, Bi
271.442
Freezing point, Cd
321.108
Freezing point, Pb
327.502
Freezing point, Hg
356.66
Freezing point, S
444.674
548.23
Freezing point, Sb
630.74
Freezing point, AI
660.74
Freezing point, Cu
1084.5
Freezing point, Ni
1455
Freezing point, Co
1494
Freezing point, Pd
1554
Freezing point, Pt
1772
Freezing point, Rh
1963
Freezing point, Ir
2447
Freezing point, W
3387
More recently, the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) has been adopted.
The fixed points for ITS-90 that are differ only slightly from IPTS-68. For ITS-90, a
platinum resistance thermometer is used for interpolation between the triple point of
hydrogen and the solid equilibrium for silver, while above, the silver point black body
radiation is used for interpolation.
Standard of
Measurements
Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of these base
units. For example, we can express the unit of speed in metre per second, the unit
of density in kilogram per cubic metre. Let us consider another physical quantity
like force. From Newtons second law of motion, force can be defined as the
product of mass and acceleration. We can therefore take the unit of force as 1
kilogram 1 metre/second2. We call this by the name, Newton for convenience.
The unit of energy is Newton-metre. We call this by the name Joule. The unit of
power is Joule per second. We call it Watt.
The conversion factor for various units are
1 H.P = 746 watt (J/s)
1 H.P = 550 ft-1b/sec.
1 H.P = 75 kg-m/sec.
Metrology and
Instrumentation
International Ohm
The international ohm is the resistance offered to the passage of an unvarying
electric current at the temperature of melting ice by a column of mercury of
uniform cross-section, 106.300 cm long and having mass of 14.4521 gm
(i.e., about 1 sq. mm in cross-section).
International Ampere
The international ampere is the unvarying current which when passed through a
solution of silver nitrate in water deposits at the rate of 0.0001118 gm per second.
The International Volt and Watt
The international volt and watt defined in terms of International ohm and ampere.
As constructing standards, which did not vary appreciably with time, was difficult
and also as, by 1930, it was clear that the absolute ohm and ampere could be
determined as accurately as the international units. The International committee on
Weights and Measures decided in October, 1946 to abandon the international units
and choose January 1, 1948 as the date for putting new units into effect. The
change was made at appropriate time and the absolute system of electrical units is
now in use as the system on which electrical measurements are based.
SAQ 1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Temperature,
(ii)
Current,
(iii)
(iv)
Amount of substance.
SAQ 2
10
(a)
(b)
(c)
One gallon equal 231 in3. Derive a conversion factor to convert automobile
fuel economy from miles/gallon to kilometer/litre.
(d)
Standard of
Measurements
SAQ 3
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
1.10 SUMMARY
On the basis of the accuracy of measurement, the standard can be classified into two
categories, viz. Primary standard and Secondary standard.
The meter is considered as one of the fundamental units upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, the other systems of length are based.
The kilogram is considered as fundamental unit upon which, through appropriate
conversion factors, other systems of mass are based.
The standard units of time are established in terms of known frequencies of oscillation of
certain devices. The fundamental unit of time is second.
Both Farenheit (oF) and Celsius (oC) scales are widely used for measurement of
temperature. The absolute Farenheit scale is called Rankine (oR) scale and absolute
Celsius has been designated as the Kelvin (K) scale. The relationship between these
scales is as follows :
K = oC + 273.15
o
R = oF + 459.67
In mechanical systems, the fundamental units in SI system are meter, Newton, kilogrammass, second, and joule.
International units of electrical systems are ohm, ampere, volt and watt.
The SI unit of luminous intensity of light is Candela (Cd) and the SI unit of amount of
substance is mole (mol).
Standard Meter
Standard Kilogram
11
Metrology and
Instrumentation
(c)
1
1.8
0.4536
848 m-kgf/kgm-mol.K
1545 0.1383
(d)
(e)
SAQ 2
(a)
Q 1 W/m3
44.24 ft-pound/min.m3
44.24
B.T.U./min.m3
778
1
B.T.U/h-ft 3
35.314
= 0.0966 BTU/h-ft3
3.4118
(b)
P 1 Ibf/m2
1 Ibf
1
in 2
1550
1
1.45 10
1
N/m2
1550
4.45 N/m2
1
Ibf / inch 2
1550
14.42
kg f / cm2
1550
12
9.174 10 3
10
kg f / m2
9174 kg f /cm2
(c)
F 1 miles / gallons
Standard of
Measurements
1.609 km
231 in 3
6.965 10 3 km / in3
6.965 10 3
km / cm3
1
0.0610
(d)
D 1 g / cm3
10 3
10
SAQ 3
(a)
Q 1 cm3 / s
10 3
1 litre / min.
60
60 10 3 0.2642 gallon / min.
(b)
K = o C + 273.18
o
R = o F + 459.67
F = o C + 32.00
R = o C + 32 459.67
K 273.18 + 32 + 459.67
= K + 218.51
(c)
C = 1 kJ / kg o K
1 10 3
kcal / gm o K
4.2
= 0.238 10 3 kcal / gm o K
= 0.238 10 3
3.968 103
1
Bt u / lbm o F
2.205
33.8
= 0.01267 Bt u / lbm o F .
(d)
Q 1 lit/hr
1000 cm3
3600 sec
1000
10 3600
6
m3 / sec
0.028 10 5 m3 / sec
13
Metrology and
Instrumentation
(e)
1J
1
cal
4.2
Joule/sec = Watt
1 cm = 10 2 m
K 0.2
1
10 2 Joule/sec-m-k
4.2
4.76 10 4 W m1 k 1
14