Albert Li Jia Wei

Science notes
PSLE preparations

Albert Li

Body system
The body system is made up of several different systems, including the digestive system, the
respiratory system vice versa. They are all interdependent and our body would not be able to
work properly without any one of them.

The digestive system

The process of digestion is rather complicated; therefore, I could be splitting them into smaller
parts to explain. I would first be talking about the uses of each part in the system, then, I
would move on to explain how to answer some commonly seen questions in the test paper.

Processes
There are four processes that will take place in our gut. Glands are also connected to parts of
our guts to release enzymes. The four main processes are ingestion, digestion, absorption and
egestion. Ingestion is the process whereby food is put into the mouth. Digestion is the process
whereby food is broken down into smaller, soluble substances. Absorption is the process
whereby digested food molecules move through the walls the walls of the small intestine into
the bloodstream where they are transported to different parts of the body. Egestion is the
process whereby undigested food is passed out of the body through the anus.

The Mouth
When food is placed in my mouth, we will chew the food into smaller pieces with our teeth. The
teeth will cut and grind the food into smaller pieces and speed up the process of digestion and
aid in the swallowing process. The teeth are also made up of different types. The front ones,
known as incisors, will cut and break the food into smaller pieces. Then, the grinding teeth at
the back of our mouth cavity, known as molars, will mash the food up into pieces. The process
does not involve any chemical change of food substances; hence, we can say that the teeth play
a part in the mechanical digestion of the food we eat. The salivary glands will secrete saliva
which serves to digest the cooked starch into maltose as saliva contains salivary amylase.
However, the food usually does not stay in the mouth long enough for all the starch to be
digested into maltose. Saliva will also soften the food and make it easier for us to swallow the
food. The tongue then rolls the food into a ball and sends it to the back of the mouth cavity, so
that we can swallow. The food then enters the oesophagus through the process of swallowing.

The oesophagus
The oesophagus or the gullet joins the mouth to the stomach. Peristalsis then occurs in the
gullet as the oesophagus move the down the alimentary canal. Peristalsis refers to the wave-like
muscle contraction of the gut, to propel food forward. The gullet contains muscles. The
contraction and relaxation of the muscles help to push the food substances through the
systems. Hence, the
alternate contraction and
relaxation of the muscles
along the wall of the
oesophagus forces the
food ball down towards
the stomach. Although no digestion occurs on the oesophagus, digestion of the starch by the
saliva amylase may still continue.

The stomach
The stomach is a muscular bag that contracts and relaxes. Peristalsis of the stomach will break
the food down into smaller pieces to speed up the rate of digestion, and to mix the food
substances with the gastric juices. The gastric juices in the stomach are secreted by the
gastric glands found on the wall of the stomach. The gastric juice contains protease that will
digest protein into polypeptides. Dilute hydrochloric acid which provides acidic medium for the
proteases to function optimally. The acid also kills any harmful bacteria present in food. The
stomach also contains water. The walls of the stomach will produce mucus which functions to
lubricate the food and protect the walls of the stomach from being corroded by the acid
produced. This is also why if we do not eat our meals regularly, the digestive juices and acids will
be secreted on an empty stomach, leading to gastric ulcers on the walls of the stomach as the
acid digests the stomach wall. The food will stay in the stomach for about two to six hours and
will appear as a black liquid after some time.

The small intestine

The small intestine is the main organ in the digestive system that is involved in the process of
digestion. The small intestine is a long coiled tube of about six meters long. It is also connected
to two other important glands, the liver and the pancreas, which secretes digestive juices into
the small intestine. In the small intestine, food is mixed with intestinal juices secreted by
glands found on the intestinal walls. Amylase, protease and lipase, from the pancreas can be
found in the intestinal juices. Bile from the liver can also be found. Absorption of food through
the walls of the alimentary canal into the bloodstream will occur in the small intestine. Digestion
will be complete in the small intestine. However, not all the food that we eat can be digested in
the small intestine.

*Absorption
The absorption of food takes place in the small intestine. Digested
food, which exists as small soluble molecules, will pass through the walls
of the small intestine into the bloodstream during absorption. Hence,
the movement of food though the walls of the alimentary canal is called
absorption. Only small, soluble and diffusible substances such as
glucose and amino acids can pass through the walls of the small
intestine. Larger particles like starch or protein cannot pass through and be absorbed. In the
small intestine, finger-like projections, known as Villi are present. The diagram above shows a
cross section of a single villus in the small intestine. There are thousands of Villi present n the
small intestine. The Villi are highly convoluted or coiled up, and contain blood capillaries that will
transport the absorbed nutrients to all parts of the body. The Villi bring blood closer to aid in
absorption. It also increases the surface area to speed up the rate of absorption .

The liver
The liver is a large reddish gland that is responsible for the secretion of bile into the small
intestine. Bile is a yellowish-green liquid that is produced by the liver and stored in the gall
bladder before being secreted into the small
intestine via a bile duct. While bile does not contain

any

digestive enzymes, it plays an important role of

breaking the fats down into smaller oil droplets. This

will

increase the area for lipase to act on. Hence, the

rate

of digestion will increase in the presence of bile.

The pancreas
The pancreas is a gland that produces alkaline digestive juices. The pancreatic juice contains an
amylase, a protease and a lipase. The alkaline nature of the juice helps to neutralize the acid in
the food from the stomach. It is also necessary to have an alkaline medium for the enzymes
secreted into the small intestine to
function optimally. Hence, some of the
processes that will take place in the
presence of the pancreatic juice
includes, the complete digestion of
maltose by pancreatic juices, the
digestion of maltose by maltase, the
digestion of polypeptides to amino acids
by protease and the digestion of fats to
fatty acids and glycerol by lipases.

Large intestine
The large intestine is where undigested food substances like fibers, will enter the body. It is
important to include fiber in our diet since it provides the bulk of the food masses passing
through the alimentary canal. The fiber also absorbs the poisonous wastes, it can help too to
satisfy our hunger and can help to control and maintain our weight. Fiber can be obtained from
whole meal bread, wheat, fruits and vegetables. The large intestine is about 1.5 meters long and
consists of colon, the rectum and the anus. In the large intestine, water is absorbed and mineral
salts such as zinc, iron and calcium, which are necessary for the development of the body, are
also absorbed. The absorption of water and minerals occur at the colon, leaving behind an almost
solid waste known as feaces. The feaces is then stored temporarily in the rectum and is
excreted from our body through the anus.

Frequent questions***

Define digestion:

Digestion is the process whereby large, insoluble food substances

are broken down into smaller, diffusible molecules so that they can be absorbed
by the body.

How do the Villi help in the absorption of food:

The Villi

finger-like projections in the small intestine and are highly convoluted or coiled
up, they contain blood capillaries that will transport the absorbed nutrients to all
parts of the body. The Villi bring blood closer to aid in absorption. It also
increases the surface area to speed up the rate of absorption.

Concept map (abstract)

Breaks down
food into
small, soluble
substances

Absorpti
on

Peristal
sis

Functio
n

Proces
ses
Digestion
in animals

Human
digestive
system
Mouth
Teeth breaks up food into smaller pieces
Saliva moistens the food and salivary amylase
starts digestion of starch into maltose
Oesophagus
Passage that joins the stomach to the mouth
Peristalsis moves food down into the stomach
No digestion occurs
Stomach
Glands secrete gastric juices into the stomach
Gastric glands juices include protease and
dilute hydrochloric acid
Digestion of protease occur
Pancreas
Secretes alkaline
pancreatic juices
containing amylase,
protease and lipase

Liver
Secretes bile that is
stored in the gall bladder
Bile emulsifies fat

Small intestine
Enzymes in the intestinal juices and pancreatic
juices will complete the process of digestion
Contains Villi that help in the absorption of food

Large intestine
Consists of colon, rectum and anus
Absorption of water and mineral salt occurs
Feaces from the body will be removed

Circulatory system
The Heart
The heart is a ball of muscles that pumps blood to all parts of the body. It has two atria, the
chambers which receive blood returning to the
heart and two ventricle, the chambers that
pump blood out of the heart. Oxygen rich blood
from the lungs enters the left atrium of the
heart and into the left ventricles of the heart
before exiting to the rest of the body, while
deoxygenated blood enters from the right
atrium of the heart and into the right ventricle
before exiting to the lungs. Valves are located in the heart to prevent blood from flowing
backwards.

Heart beat and pulse

Each cycle of the contraction and relaxation of the heart is called a heartbeat. With each heart
beat, blood is pumped through the blood vessels, causing them to expand and relax. After each
heartbeat, a pressure wave passes along the blood vessel, pushing the blood through them. This
is known as the pulse. We can take out pulse rate by pressing our finger along the blood vessels
in our wrist or neck, and count the number of heartbeat per minute. The normal pulse rate of a
healthy young male is 60 to 70 pulses per minute. This is measured when a person is at rest. Our
heart beat rate varies with our age and the type of activities that we carry out. The faster the
heart beat, the faster the pulse rate. The beats faster when we exercise as our bodies need
more food and oxygen to release enough energy from the food for use. More carbon dioxide is
thus produced. The heart pumps faster so that the blood can supply more food and oxygen to
the cells rapidly remove carbon dioxide produced.

The blood vessels

There are three different types
of blood vessels in our body,
artery, vein and the capillaries.
Each vein has a different use.
The vein is used to carry the de-oxygenated blood back to
the heart; the artery is to transport the oxygenated blood
to all parts of the body. Lastly, the capillaries are for transporting both types of blood as it
connects two main vessels, they are also the ones that spread to cover all parts of our body. The
arteries have thick walls so that it can sustain the pressure
at which the blood is pumped from the heart. The veins have
slightly thinner walls than arteries. The capillaries have a
very thin, one cell thick, permeable walls to allow exchange of
materials between the blood and cells.

Blood
Blood is the circulating tissue composed of fluid plasma and cells. The main components of the
blood are the red blood cells, the white blood cells, plasma and the platelets. The blood actually
acts as a medium of transportation of substances around the body. Through the circulatory
system, blood is pumped to all parts of our body. By transporting blood throughout the body, it
connects the aqueous environment of all the body cells together.

Blood cells
There are all together three types of blood cells, the red blood cells, the white blood cells and
the platelets.

The red blood cells

Red blood cells are the most numerous blood cells. Its function is to transport diffused
oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in our body for cellular respiration. Red blood
cells are characterised by their biconcave disk shape and their bright red colour. They
contain haemoglobin which allows oxygen from the lungs to bind loosely to them. The
oxygen will eventually be given up to other cells. What makes the red blood cell

different is that they do not have a nucleus, thus they cannot self divide and, red blood
cells are actually produces by the bone marrow.
Platelets
Platelets are small fragments of cells. They help to clot the blood and stop bleeding. When we
bleed, the platelets with gather at the point of the bleeding and form something like a plug and
plug up the cut and clot up the blood, preventing excess blood loss

White blood cells

The main function of the white blood cells is to fight off infection. They do so by producing
antibodies. They play an important role is our body, as without them, we would be prone to
diseases and would not be able to fight them off.

Plasma
Majority of the blood volume consists of liquid plasma. The blood and other blood cells are
suspended in the plasma along with many other substances. Carbon dioxide, dissolved nutrients,
waste product together with antibodies, blood protein, hormones and ions can be found in plasma
blood. It is now known as tissue fluid. The tissue fluid acts as a medium between cells and blood.
The exchange of waste substances for useful substances occurs between cells and the tissue
fluids by osmosis, diffusion or active transport.

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Respiratory system
The respiratory system is very important to our body. It helps us to respire, as respiration is a
very important process, without it we will die.

Lung
The lungs of mammals have a spongy texture and are honeycombed with epithelium, having a
much larger surface area in total than the outer surface area of the lung itself. The lungs of
humans are a typical example of this type of lung.
Human lungs are located in two cavities on either
side of the heart. Though similar in appearance, the
two are not identical. Both are separated into lobes
by fissures, with three lobes on the right and two on
the left. The lobes are further divided into
segments and then into lobules, hexagonal divisions
of the lungs that are the smallest subdivision visible
to the naked eye. The connective tissue that divides
lobules is often blackened in smokers and city
dwellers. The medial border of the right lung is nearly vertical, while the left lung contains a
cardiac notch. The cardiac notch is a concave impression moulded to accommodate the shape of
the heart. Lungs are to a certain extent 'overbuilt' and have a tremendous reserve volume as
compared to the oxygen exchange requirements when at rest. Such excess capacity is one of
the reasons that individuals can smoke for years without having a noticeable decrease in lung
function while still or moving slowly; in situations like these only a small portion of the lungs are
actually perfuse with blood for gas exchange. As oxy gen requirements increase due to exercise,
a greater volume of the lungs is perfusing, allowing the body to match its carbon dioxide or
oxygen exchange requirements. Additionally, due to the excess capacity, it is possible for
humans to live with only one lung, with the other compensating for its loss.
The environment of the lung is very moist, which makes it hospitable for bacteria. Many
respiratory illnesses are the result of bacterial or viral infection of the lungs. Inflammation of
the lungs is known as pneumonia; inflammation of the pleura surrounding the lungs is known as
pleurisy. Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that a person can exhale after maximum
inhalation; it can be measured with a spirometer. In combination with other physiological
measurements, the vital capacity can help make a diagnosis of underlying lung disease.

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Processes of breathing
Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm at the bottom of the thorax. Contraction
of the diaphragm pulls the bottom of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed downward,
increasing volume and thus decreasing pressure, causing air to flow into the airways. Air enters
through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the larynx and into the trachea, which
branches out into the main bronchi and then subsequent divisions. During normal breathing,
expiration is passive and no muscles are contracted (the diaphragm relaxes). The rib cage itself
is also able to expand and contract to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and
accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs. This
type of lung is known as bellow lungs as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows.When you inhale, the
diaphragm and inter costal muscles (those are the muscles between your ribs) contract and
expand the chest cavity. This expansion lowers the pressure in the chest cavity below the
outside air pressure. Air then flows in through the airways (from high pressure to low pressure)
and inflates the lungs. When you exhale, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax and the
chest cavity gets smaller. The decrease in volume of the cavity increases the pressure in the
chest cavity above the outside air pressure. Air from the lungs (high pressure) then flows out of
the airways to the outside air (low pressure). The cycle then repeats with each breath. In
humans, the trachea divides into the two main bronchi that enter the roots of the lungs. The
bronchi continue to divide within the lung, and after multiple divisions, bronchioles are given
rise. The bronchial tree continues branching until it reaches the level of terminal bronchioles,
which lead to alveolar sacs. Alveolar sacs are made up of clusters of alveoli, like individual
grapes within a bunch. The individual alveoli are tightly wrapped in blood vessels and it is here
that gas exchange actually occurs. Deoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon
dioxide in the haemoglobin of the erythrocytes. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via
the pulmonary veins to be pumped back into systemic circulation. Within each air sac, the oxygen
concentration is high, so oxygen passes or diffuses across the alveolar membrane into the
pulmonary capillary. At the beginning of the pulmonary capillary, the hemoglobin in the red blood
cells has carbon dioxide bound to it and very little oxygen. The oxygen binds to hemoglobin and
the carbon dioxide is released. Carbon dioxide is also released from sodium bicarbonate
dissolved in the blood of the pulmonary capillary. The concentration of carbon dioxide is high in
the pulmonary capillary, so carbon dioxide leaves the blood and passes across the alveolar
membrane into the air sac. This exchange of gases occurs rapidly (fractions of a second). The

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carbon dioxide then leaves the alveolus when you exhale and the oxygen-enriched blood returns
to the heart. Thus, the purpose of breathing is to keep the oxygen concentration high and the
carbon dioxide concentration low in the alveoli so this gas exchange can occur! You don't have to
think about breathing because your body's autonomic nervous system controls it, as it does
many other functions in your body. If you try to hold your breath, your body will override your
action and force you to let out that breath and start breathing again. The respiratory centers
that control your rate of breathing are in the brainstem or medulla. The nerve cells that live
within these centers automatically send signals to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to
contract and relax at regular intervals. However, the activity of the respiratory centers can be
influenced by several factors. Oxygen can affect the activities; specialized nerve cells within
the aorta and carotid arteries called peripheral chemoreceptor monitor the oxygen
concentration of the blood and feedback on the respiratory centers. If the oxygen
concentration in the blood decreases, they tell the respiratory centers to increase the rate and
depth of breathing. Carbon dioxide too, peripheral chemoreceptor also monitor the carbon
dioxide concentration in the blood. In addition, a central chemoreceptor in the medulla monitors
the carbon dioxide concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that surrounds the brain and
spinal cord; carbon dioxide diffuses easily into the CSF from the blood. If the carbon dioxide
concentration gets too high, then both types of chemoreceptor signal the respiratory centers to
increase the rate and depth of breathing. The increased rate of breathing returns the carbon
dioxide concentration to normal and the breathing rate then slows down. Stretch receptors in
the lungs and chest wall monitor the amount of stretch in these organs. If the lungs become
over-inflated (stretch too much), they signal the respiratory centers to exhale and inhibit
inspiration. This mechanism prevents damage to the lungs that would be caused by overinflation. Signals from higher brain centers, nerve cells in the hypothalamus and cortex also
influence the activity of the respiratory centers. During pain or strong emotions, the
hypothalamus will tell the respiratory centers to speed up. Nerve centers in the cortex can
voluntarily tell the respiratory center to speed up, slow down or even stop (holding your breath).
Their influence, however, can be overridden by chemical factors (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
pH). Nerve cells in the airways sense the presence of unwanted substances in the airways such
as pollen, dust, noxious fumes, water, or cigarette smoke. These cells then signal the respiratory
centers to contract the respiratory muscles, causing you to sneeze or cough. Coughing and
sneezing cause air to be rapidly and violently exhaled from the lungs and airways, removing the

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offending substance. Of these factors, the strongest influence is the carbon dioxide
concentration in your blood and CSF followed by the oxygen concentration.
Sometimes the respiratory centers go temporarily awry and send extra impulses to the
diaphragm. These impulses cause unwanted contractions (hiccups). The same thing happens in
unborn children; many pregnant women often feel their babies hiccup. This happens because the
respiratory centers of the developing child's brain are working just like those of an adult even
though they are not yet breathing air.

Respiration (Human, Fishes & plants)

Respiration is the process in which oxygen is taken in and together with the glucose from the
food that we eat. The mixture is then, used to release the energy in the food and carbon
dioxide, together with water are by products. They are then released from the body through
the trachea. The energy meanwhile will be used by the cell at which cellular respiration took
place.
Fishes do not have lungs to respire, instead, they have gills. Their gills function such that it has
many fine blood vessels on each gill to take in the dissolved oxygen from the water as it drinks
the water and the water pass through. After the exchange of gases at the gill, the water is
then released through the two flaps on the gills as they open and the process would repeat
itself again.
As for plants, it is different. The plants respire by releasing air through the openings on the
underside of the leaves called stomata. Oxygen will be given out together will excess water in
its gaseous state. The stomata have two guard cells and help to control the size of the pore to
regulate the amount of water lost to the surrounding through respiration. This is why when the
sun is very hot, the stomata will become smaller. It seemingly acts like our nose and allow air in
and out.

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Magnet Notes
A magnet is a special piece of metal that can attract other objects. But it can only attract
objects made of iron, steel, nickel or cobalt. These materials are called magnetic materials. A
magnet can be natural or man-made. Natural magnets are made of lodestones. Man-made
magnets are made from materials such as iron or
steel. Magnets can also come in many different

Stroking Method

shapes and sizes. The most common shapes are

button, ring, bar, strip, rod, U-shaped and

horseshoe shape. The strongest parts of a

magnet are its two poles, the North and the South. The centre of the magnet is usually very
weak. A freely suspended magnet will always hang in a North- south position. Like poles of a

Electrical method

magnet (North-North) repels each

other while the unlike poles
(South- North) attract each other.

Magnetic force can pass through

non-magnetic substances like glass,

wood, plastic. But it cannot pass through magnetic substances. Magnetic

strength of a magnet can be reduced by hitting it many times or by heating
it continuously. Electromagnet can be formed using two methods. Either by
stroking a magnetic substance with a magnet or by twirling wires over it
and connect it to batteries. The second method is usually used in factories to retrieve large
pieces of metal from the pile of rubbish as it can be turned on and off and is stronger than the
stroking method. So when we slam refrigerator doors often, we are reducing the strength of
the magnet strip on the door.

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Solar System
The sun, the moon, Earth and the other planets make up the solar system. The names of the
names of the planets from the nearest to the furthest are, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The planets travel on their own orbit, which is a fixed
path that an object takes around something else. The planets can be seen because they reflect
the light from the sun to our eyes, so we are able to see them. Planets are objects that revolve
around the sun and do not give off light on its own.

Man-made Satellite
Man-made satellites are used in many different ways in space.

The Sun
The sun is a huge star that gives off its own light. It is made up of a huge ball of gases. It
provides plans with light to perform photosynthesis as it cannot take place without light. It also
allows us to see things around us. Heat energy is also given off by the sun to warm us up and
prevent us from freezing. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Direct staring at sun
can cause us temporary blindness. If too much ultra-violet ray reach the Earth, our skin will
become darker and we may have skin diseases.

The Earth
It is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. The earth is mostly made up of rock metal and
water. It is also surrounded by a layer of gas which traps heat for within the earth and shield

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the earth from the suns harmful ultra-violet rays, and this layer of gas form the atmosphere.
The earth does not give off its own light, instead, it reflects the light from the sun so, is visible
when we look at it in space. The rotation of the earth on its own axis which takes 24 hours each
round, gives rise to the day and night cycle. It takes one year to rotate on complete round

around the sun and each year is 365

1
4

days. We are only able to live on earth as its position

is just right from the sun and there is food for us to eat and air for us to breathe, whereas
water also exist in liquid state.

The Moon
There is no air or water on the moon so it does not support life. It does not give off its own
light as it merely reflect the suns light allowing us to see
it at night. It is the earths one and only natural satellite.
The regular movement of the moon and the gravity of the
moon give rise to the high and low tides.

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Simple Machine notes

Force
A force can be push or a pull. A force can change the shape of an object, move a stationary
object, stop a moving object, slow down a moving object, and change the speed of an object and
change the direction an object moves in. we cannot see a force but we can feel the effects of
force after it interacts with another object or substance (ECT. Gravitational force) Energy is
needed to produce force. We get energy from the food we eat. A force is a pull or a push. Many
actions such as kicking a ball involve forces. A force cannot be seen but we can see what a force
can do. Some forces can act at a distance, but others cannot.

Types of forces
Magnetic force: Magnetism is the force that electric currents exert on other electric currents.
Magnetism may be created by the motion of electrons in the atoms of certain materials, which
are called magnets. Magnetic force may also be produced by ordinary electric current flowing
through a coil of wire, called an electromagnet. The magnetic force may cause attraction or
repulsion--that is, it may pull magnets together or push them apart. A magnet attracts iron,
steel, nickel, and certain other materials. The attracted materials then become magnets
themselves in a process called magnetization. A steel nail placed near a magnet, for example,
becomes magnetized and can attract a second nail. Magnetization occurs because the magnet
causes spinning particles called electrons in the atoms of the nail to align along the magnet's
field lines. The atoms with aligned electrons then act like tiny bar magnets.

Force of a magnet is strongest at the poles

Like poles repel, unlike poles attract

It can act at a distance

The strength of a magnet does not depend on its shape or size

The strength of a natural magnet, a lodestone, cannot be increased

Earth is the largest piece of magnet

The strength of a magnet varies

The strength of a magnet can be decreased by hammering, dropping or heating it

Temporary magnets can be created using the stroking and electromagnetism methods

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Elastic spring force: It is the force founding the spring when it is compressed or stretched.
When this force is exerted on a spring, the spring will in turn exert a force on whatever is
stretching or compressing it.

The weight of the object stretches the elastic band or spring

The heavier the object, the greater the extension

Gravitational force: It is the force of attraction between the Earth and any object
on Earth.
Gravity is a force that prevents things from falling out of the Earth
Gravity causes falling objects to fall downwards
Gravity causes a spring to stretch or extend
A very strong force is needed to resist the pull of gravity
There is zero gravity in space

Weight is the gravitational force put forth on an object by the planet on which the object is
located. The weight of any object depends on the distance from the object to the centre of
the planet and the mass of the object. An object's weight is largest if the object is on the
surface of the planet. The weight becomes smaller if the object is moved away from the planet.
The object has no weight in space where the gravitational force acting on it is too weak to be
measured. The weight of an object also depends on the mass of the planet. If the mass of a
planet is smaller than that of the earth, the gravitational force there is smaller. For example, a
man who weighs 91 kilograms on the earth would weigh only 15 kilograms on the moon. He would
weigh 34 kilograms on Mars, 82 kilograms on Venus, and 234 kilograms on Jupiter.
Friction is the property that objects have which makes them resist being moved across one
another. If two objects with flat surfaces are placed one on top of the other, the top object
can be lifted without any resistance except that of gravity. But if one object is pushed or
pulled along the surface of the other, there is a resistance caused by friction. Friction has
many important uses. It makes the wheels of a locomotive grip the rails of the track. It allows
a conveyor belt to turn on pulleys without slipping. You could not walk without friction to keep
your shoes from sliding on the pavement. This is why it is hard to walk on ice. The smooth
surface of the ice produces less friction than a pavement and allows shoes to slip. Friction also
has disadvantages. It produces heat that may cause objects to wear. This is why oil and other

19

lubricating liquids are used to fill spaces between moving machinery parts. The liquid reduces
friction and makes the parts move more easily and produce less heat. Laws of friction: The
basic law of friction says that the force needed to overcome friction is proportional to the total
normal, or perpendicular, force pressing one surface against the other. That is, when the
weight of a box being pulled across a floor is doubled, the force necessary to pull it must be
doubled. When the box weighs four times as much, four times as much force must be used to
pull it. The ratio between the weight being moved and the force pressing the surfaces together
is called the coefficient of friction (C.F.). The value of the C.F. depends on the type of surfaces
moving against each other. The coefficient of friction equals the force needed to move an
object divided by the force pressing the surface together. This can be written C.F. = F/P.
The advantages of friction

It lets people walk without slipping

It enables car wheels to stop spinning and thus stop a moving vehicle

It starts movements without slipping

It enables us to hold on to things

It produces heat

The disadvantages of friction

It slows down movement
It causes wear and tear
It forces us to use more energy
Friction can be reduced by using:

Rollers

Wheels

Ball bearings

Lubricants

Water

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Simple Machines
Machines help us to do work more easily, quickly and efficiently. A force is needed to operate
these machines. Simple machines also help us to do work easily by reducing the distance
travelled by the load, distance the effort needs to travel, by reducing the effort needed to lift
the load. There are many types of simple machine. When, more than one simple machine is used
in one object it is complex machine.

Lever
A lever enables us to use a smaller force to overcome a larger force. When we want to lift a
heavy load with the least effort, place the fulcrum as near to the load as possible, apply effort
as far from the fulcrum as possible. hen an effort moves a greater distance than the load, less
effort is used to lift the load.

Pulleys
A pulley has a wheel that
rotates freely. The load
is tied to a rope that
winds around the wheel.
There are two types of
pulley, moveable and fixed
pulley.

21

Pulley System
It which consists of a fixed and a movable pulley is often used to raise heavy loads. It changes
the direction of a force and also reduces the effort needed to lift a load.
The load and effort move in opposite directions. It is commonly used in lifts and cranes.

Inclined plane
An inclined plane is a sloping surface. It helps us to do work by reducing effort to move heavier
load from a lower level to a higher level. The longer the slope, the lesser the effort needed to
travel up but the effort has to travel a longer distance.
Factors that affect the amount of effort needed:
The angle of inclination
The weight of the load
The steepness of the inclined plane
The roughness of the inclined plane

Gears
Gears are wheels with teeth that can interlock one another.
They help us do work by changing the direction of rotation or applied force or changing the
speed at which an object moves. Gears move in the opposite directions of the next gear
interlocked with it. Gears are usually placed together with other gears so that the tooth of one
gear fits into the notches of the other. Gears can be connected by a chain. Examples are eggbeaters and bicycles.

Wheel and Axle

A wheel and axle is made up of a large wheel connected to a rod called axle. It makes us to use
a smaller force to overcome a bigger force at the axle.
Examples:

Screwdriver

Doorknob

Steering wheel

Pencil sharpener

Cross spanner

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Faucets

A key

A simple machine is made of a small rod stuck to a big wheel. It is actually a lever; the
fulcrum is at the centre of the rod. If the wheel is bigger than the axle, less effort is
required. However, the distance moved by the effort is greater than the distance moved by
the load.

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Plants
Plants are living things; they play a very important role in maintaining the amount of
oxygen and controlling the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere for us to respire. A plant
is generally considered as a living organism that manufactures its own food (autotrophic). A
plant is usually immobile and functions on the spot. However, they are able to move and respond
to changes. A good example would be plant left in a dark box with only a small hole at the other
end of the box. A few weeks later, you will find that the plant is growing towards the hole.
Doesnt that show that plants are able to move and respond to changes? A plant is basically
made up of leaves, stem and roots. A mushroom is definitely not a plant. It is a fungus as it does
not have leaves, stem or roots. Moreover, it cannot make its own food.

Leaves

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The leaf of a plant can have many textures, smooth, hairy, waxy and rough. The plants
leaves have special designs. There are toothed edged, lobbed edges, and entire edges. These

W
a
t
e
r

C
a
r
b
o
n
D
io
xi
d
e

are a few of the most common ones. The plants can also be

In
the
pre O
sen x
ce y
of g
ligh e
t
n
and
Main
chlo
Vein
rop
Leaf
hyll
stalk

classified by the veins. Leaves help the plant to make food

S
u
g
a
r
/
Gl
u
c
Brancho
Vein s
Ap
e

ex

Leaf
Blade

and are also called, the plants kitchen. The leaf contains
chlorophyll which causes the leaf to appear green. Some
leaves may also appear yellow or orange, but they still
contain chlorophyll as it is hidden under the color pigments
of the leaf. The
chlorophyll absorbs
sunlight and
together with
water from the roots
and the carbon dioxide

that it gets, it photosynthesizes and makes food and

oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis. It will be given out by the plant for us to respire and
give out carbon dioxide for the plants.

The plant has veins on the leaves that will

transport water from the roots to all parts of the leaf and also collects the food at the stalk of
the leaf and wait to be transported to other parts of the plant. There are two different types
of veins, the network vein and parallel vein. The network vein is like a network just as its names
states and branches to all parts of the leaf. The parallel veins are positioned in a parallel
position. The cactus has adapted to have needle-like leaves to minimize water lose through
transpiration.
The plant respires and gets carbon dioxide for photosynthesis from this small opening
found on the underside side of the leaf. It also releases excess water as water vapor. It is
mostly located at the underside of the leaf to prevent too much water loss as the sun might dry
the leaf up. It acts like our nose and allow air in and out.

Roots
The root may look plain and useless, but actually, it plays a vital role in ensuring that the
plant survives. When the plant photosynthesizes, the water that is needed comes from the root.
The root takes in water and the water is transported to the leaves. It also anchors the plant

25

firm in the ground and prevents it from flying out of the soil at the slightest wind. The two
most common types of root are the fibrous root and the tap root

Other types of root

Storage Root It stores food in the roots

Breathing RootIt is able to take in air with its roots

Aerial RootIt is able to respire with its roots
Clasping Root It can clasp on other plants and steal minerals and water from them.
Buttress root It can keep a heavy trunk erected.
Tap root It has a long thick main root and has smaller roots growing from it. It is good
at anchoring and can reach deep into the soil.
Fibrous rootIt is a cluster of roots growing, they are all about the same size and it can
reach widely and reach further across the soil.
Prop rootspenetrate the soil deeply
Creeping roots It grows on the stem of other plants and this stem anchors them

The Stem
The stem is a very important part of the plant. Stems have a circular layer of cells
called the cortex under the epidermis, a thin, skin-like layer of cells lying in seeds, plants and

X
y
l
e
m

P
h
l
o
e
m

ferns which will protect he plant parts. Bundles of Xylem tubes, that
transport water and dissolved minerals absorbed by the roots, and
Phloem tubes, that transports food made by the leaf, are arranged in a
ring beneath the cortex. The xylem lies towards the inside of the
bundle, and the phloem tube is towards the outside. Dicotyledonous

stems also have a band of cells called the cambium, which lies between the Xylem tube and the
Phloem tube within the bundle. It also helps to keep a plant upright. Some plants have weak
stems, so they cannot stand up on their own; they cling on to supports or other plants for
support.

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Flower
The flower is a very interesting part of a plant. It grows when a plant matures. The flower is
made up of two parts, the male and female parts. Not all
types of plant have both the male and female parts in one
flower. The basic part of a flower is the petal, stigma,
ovary, style, ovule, filament, anther and sepal. The anther,
where the male reproductive cells are, is supported by the
filament. The stigma is the female part of the plant where
the pollen sacs will land on. The style is the passage that
leads to the ovary and the ovules are female reproductive
cells that will fuse with the male reproductive cells to form seeds. After the flower is
fertilized, the petals will drop off, the ovary will start to swell and a fruit is formed over time.
The sepal is the part that protects the plant when it is still a bud.
Pollination is the process whereby the pollen lands on the stigma. The pollen can be
transferred through several ways. Insects like bees and butterflies lands on flowers to such the
nectar and the pollen grain will stick to their legs and will drop off when they land on the next
plant. Another way is for the wind to blow the pollen and the pollen will land on the flower,
fertilizing it. But this method is only workable for flowers with large droopy and feathery
stigma to catch the pollen in the air. Flowers pollinated this way does not need to have colorful
petals as they do not need to attract insects.
Pollination can also be grouped into two types, self pollination and cross pollination. Self
pollination is the pollen of the same plant fertilizing the flowers of the same plant, while cross
pollination is the pollen of one plant fertilizing the flowers of another plant. The advantage of
self pollination is that the good points of one plant will continue to be present in the young plant.
The disadvantage is that if the adult plant has a disease of is prone to a disease, the young plant
would also be diseased or prone to that disease. The advantages of cross pollination are that the
plants may get good points of both the plant that fertilized it and the plant that is fertilized.
The disadvantage is that the plant that fertilizes the plant may have some unknown disease and
pass it on to the young plant.
Fertilization occurs after pollination. The pollen rain that lands on the stigma makes a
pollen tube and travels to the ovary where its nucleus will fuse with the nucleus of the female
reproductive cell of the flower, the ovule. After the ovule is fertilized the ovary becomes the

27

fruit and the other parts of the flower outside the ovary wilts and dies, leaving the fruit to
grow. The fruit will contain and protect the seeds that are needed to ensure the continuity of
the species of plant.

Seed dispersal
Different plant can have different methods of seed dispersal. The seed is dispersed so
as to prevent the young plant from growing too near to the adult plant and to prevent
overcrowding and the competition for water and nutrients, promoting healthy growth of the
young plant.
A common type of dispersal is by wind. The seeds dispersed by wind are small and light.
They may also have special structures like umbrella structures or wing-like structures that
enable them to float for a longer distance away from the adult plant. The wind can also carry
away seeds that have a fluffy covering.
Fruits that disperse its seeds by water can float on water and have a fibrous husk that
can trap air. They also grow just beside rivers or seaside so that their seeds can be carried
away by water. Although fruit like coconut which is dispersed by water is heavy, when their
kernel, which contains water dries up, they simultaneously lose a lot of weight.
Fruits which are dispersed by splitting must be dry and can open with explosive force.
When the seed is dispersed, they seed flies in all directions at high speed. There are also other
types which just split open, but with no explosive force as the wind will carry the seeds away.
Some fruit disperse seeds with the help of animals. There are two types of animal
dispersal; the first type is the animal eats the whole fruit and the hard indigestible seeds will
pass out as feaces and the plant will grow. Plants dispersing seed in this way has nice smelling
and nice tasting fruit to lure animals to eat them. Another type is that the seeds have stiff
hooks and cling onto the fur of passing animals and drop off after a while as the plant moves.
Plants can also reproduce in many other ways. One of them is by suckers. The adult plant
matures and a sucker will grow from its stem and that will be the young plant. The young plant
will get nutrients directly from the adult plant and as the young plant grows larger, the adult
plant dies. The advantage of this is that the adult plant will provide it food and ensures that the
young plant grows healthily. Another ways is by using underground stem. The method is by
digging the stem out, cutting the part of the stem that has the bud and growing it. Some plants

28

also can use their roots to reproduce by cutting the head of the root and planting it. As time
passes, a young plant will grow from it. But these only apply for special plants that have specially
adapted roots and underground stem. Plants also can reproduce from spores. But that only
applies for ferns. Ferns do not flower, thus they do not need pollination or flowers. They
reproduce by spores which are carried by the wind and when the spores land, the new fern grow.
Each fern has a lot of spore so as to ensure that some of the spore will develop into adult ferns
as it is not confirmed that the spores would land on a spot which is suitable for the growth of
the young fern.

Photosynthesis & Respiration

All green plants can photosynthesize. Plants get energy from the food the produce
through photosynthesis. Humans or other living things are unable to make their own food.
However green plants like algae and certain bacteria can trap sunlight to make food. The food

in

C
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r
b
o
n
D
io
xi
d
e

W
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t
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r

In
the
pre
sen
ce
of
ligh
t
and
chlo
rop
hyll

produced is glucose; glucose is a carbohydrate that is

O
x
y
g
e
n

S
u
g
a
r
/
Gl
u
c
o
s
e

the basic fuel and basic building material for life. All
organisms depend on sugar as an energy source. Human
and other animals are unable to produce it on their own
and must rely ultimately on the sugar produced by plants
the process called photosynthesis. The leaves of plants
that can make food are usually green as they contain
chlorophyll which aids in trapping sunlight for sunlight
for photosynthesis. Without chlorophyll, the plant
cannot make its food. The chlorophyll is embedded in

the chloroplast. Coleus, croton and copper leaf plants are plants with colorful leaves. They also
have chlorophyll that is hidden under the red and yellow pigments of the leaves.
Glucose and oxygen are products of
photosynthesis. Plants produce sugar in glucose
for many uses. It can be used to build leaves,
flowers, fruits and seeds; it can also be

Photosynthesis

converted cellulose in building of their cell wall.

An extremely important product of

photosynthesis is oxygen. The oxygen that the plants give off is what we breathe in for
respiration and the carbon dioxide that we breathe out is taken in by the plants for

29

photosynthesis. Some plants not only carry out photosynthesis but also trap insects to get more
nutrients.

Food Source & Energy Source of Animals

All life on Earth depends, directly on directly, on photosynthesis as a source of food, energy,
and oxygen, making it one of the most important biochemical processes known. Plants usually
make more sugar than they need. The excess sugar is converted into starch and stored in
different parts of the plants. These stored reserves are used by plants for extra energy or
building materials. The storage part of the plant can be either the roots, seeds or stem. Iodine
is used to test for starch. In a starch test, there is iodine in a substance if the iodine turns
dark blue. As plants can make their own food, they are called food producers. Animals and other
organisms do not have the ability to make food so they depend on other organisms and are called
food consumers. There are several types of food consumers:
Herbivores: Plant eaters
Carnivores: Meat Eaters

Insectivore*: Insect eaters

Frujitivore*: fruit eater

Omnivores: Plants and meat eater

Respiration
All living things respire. Unlike photosynthesis which only takes place in the presence of light,
respiration takes place all the time. During respiration,
glucose and oxygen are converted into energy for work,
carbon dioxide and water. Living things take in oxygen

Respiration

and give out carbon dioxide during respiration. When

they breathe in oxygen, glucose is converted to energy

used to do work. Limewater is used to test the presence. It will turn chalky when comes into
contact with carbon dioxide. And remain clear if there is no presence of carbon dioxide.

30

Germination
Germination can only occur under certain conditions. These conditions include the availability of
air, the presence of water and warmth. Without any one of these, the seed would not be able to
germinate without any one of these conditions. However, at the germination stage, the plant
would not require light since it does not make its own food and would get food from the seed
leaves (cotyledons).

Conditions of habitat
Desert
The desert is very hot during the day and is very dry. Thus some animals have special
adaptations to survive in such conditions. Some animals only come out during the night
to avoid the high temperatures in the day. Others have adaptations to reduce water
loss like the camel which sweats very little and give little urine. The fennec fox is
another example as it has large ears to reduce heat gained. The most common plant

31

there is the cactus. The cactus has needle-like leaves to reduce water loss through
transpiration and it has a storage stem to store the water in its stem. It is very airy
there and the temperature fluctuates from day to night.

Rotting log
The rotting log community always contains a rotting log as its name states and the log
has to be in the process of decomposing, thus it is called the rotting log. The rotting
log community must contain decomposers like the termite, fungus or bacteria to
decompose the log. The decomposing log provides accommodation and food for the
animals living in it. The rotting log is softened when it is decomposing thus easier for
the organisms in it to digest it. The organisms that can be found there include the
millipede, the centipede and spiders. The air there is quite stale.

Seaside
The seaside community contains sandy soil and can retain little water thus the plants
there have to have roots that can absorb water fast enough for photosynthesis. The
animals there include crabs, starfishes. It is well ventilated there and the temperature
is very much the same there all the time.

Garden
The garden community is very common to most of as most of us have a garden. The
garden community has garden soil that contains many dead organisms to be decomposed
and be simplified into simple substances and return to the soil as nutrients for the
plant. The soil there is thus the most optimum for the growth of the plants. The
animals found there include butterflies, caterpillar and all types of animals that we
usually see along the road. The air there is also very airy and the temperature is very
much the same.

32

Pond
The pond community unlike other habitats has a lot of water and fishes live there.
There are also many plants that live around or in the pond like the arrowhead, hydrilla
and many others. Basically, these plants can be classified into three groups, floating,
partially submerged and fully submerged. There are also many insects living around
there, like the dragonfly nymph, the water spider and many others. The air there is
very airy and the temperature maintains at around the same range.

Leaf litter
The leaf litter community is rather damp and stuffy. There is bound to be many trees
around as the dead leaves would fall and create a heap, called the leaf litter community.
The leaves are decomposing and many insects live in them and feed on them. The air
there is stuffy and the area of the community is not very large.

Field Community

Pollutions
Pollutions
Pollutions occur when substances which can make the environment dirty or unhealthy are
released into the environment.

Air pollution

33

CFCs
and the
ozone
layer

Ozone is a thin layer of gas

in the atmosphere which
shields the earth from most of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. In the recent

34

years, the ozone layer has been depleted by humans as they release chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
into the environment.

Water Pollution

Acid rain
Acid rain often occurs when rainwater dissolves harmful gases in the air to form a weak acid.

Negative impacts
Destruction of trees in the environment
Organisms that live in the rivers or lakes are harmed.
Our water supply is contaminated.
Acid rain can react with stones and metals, causing buildings to corrode

Land Pollution
Biodegradable products are able to be broken down into simpler forms by decomposers and can
be recycled in nature. Non-biodegradable products cannot be broken down by decomposers and
will not decay.

35

Noise Pollution

Deforestation
Deforestation is the clearing of forest. This affects our environment a lot as the trees which
take in the carbon dioxide that we breathe out and turns them into oxygen, are cut down. That
causes the carbon dioxide and oxygen to be unbalanced. Then the carbon dioxide that we
breathe out would be accumulated and there will be global warming. The water cycle is also
affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into
the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this

36

water, resulting in a much drier climate. The cutting of tree prevents the trees from getting a
grip on the soil and the will also is soil erosion.

Environment
Living organisms are also known as organisms. Organisms are often found in groups with other
organisms of its same species. A population consists of all the organisms of the same kind that
live and reproduce in a particular place. For example, all the duckweeds plant in pond is
considered as a population. The population size is the total number of live organisms in a
population. Adults and young must be when counting the population size. The place where a
population lives is its habitat. A habitat provides the living thing with everything that it needs to
stay alive. There are many different types of habitats, like forest, field, garden and many
others. All these habitats are for various organisms. The living conditions are different
habitats. Thus, the types of organisms found in different from the types of organisms found in
another habitat. For example, many of the organisms that can live in the pond would not be able
to live in the forest community.
Populations of several kinds are interdependent on each other. They depend on each other for
survival, or for competing with one another for food. The animals depend on the plants for food,
shelter and oxygen. While the plants on the other hand, are dependent on animals for seed

37

dispersal, pollination and nutrients. Populations living together in a habitat form a community
together.

Pond Community
A pond community is
aquatic. Aquatic means
anything relate to water.

Leaf litter
community
Leaf litter forms from
fallen leaves, bits of bark and dead plant matter. It s usually found wherever there are a lot of
plants. A leaf litter habitat is made up of leaf litter and the soil below the leaves is dark and
warm, with little air movements. It may be damp. Many populations of organisms can be in a leaf
litter habitat. The leaf litter is food for bacteria, fungi and some other animal population. Other
animal population in the leaf litter community feeds on each other.

38

Cells
Cells are the smallest building block of life and can be large or small relative to a regular cell.
Cells can also group together to form a larger organism, however, they can also live as individual
organisms.

Cells structure
Plasma Membranes
The plasma membrane is a thin layer of semi-permeable covering of the cell made of protein and
fats, that allows certain substances in and others out and it is very flexible and appears in most
cells. It increases the surface area for absorption of nutrients and disposal of wastes, it also
prevents larger molecules like starch and protein from leaving the cell so that certain
substances can be prevented from leaving the cell. The cell membrane is also there to separate
one cell from an adjacent cell.

Nucleus
The nucleus is the most prominent organelle in the cell and is the control center of the cell
where all the commands are given out. It is usually spherical in shape and found near the center

39

of the animal cell. It is bound by the nuclear membrane and isolates the genetic materials of the
cell from there rest of the cell. The nuclear membrane has many perforations and it is
scattered all over the nuclear membrane. In the cell, there is one or more of a small, spherical
structure called nucleolus which is not bound by a membrane and is in charge or forming
ribosome. There is also nucleoplasm in the cell that acts like cytoplasm and fills up the nucleus;
it contains chromatin which is made up of DNA. The nucleus is involved in cell division and
carries out instructions for protein synthesis. The nuclear pores on the membrane allow certain
molecules to enter or leave the nucleus.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is what fills up the cell apart from the organelles and is a median for cellular
activities to occur. It is jelly-like and metabolism takes place.

Mitochondria
The mitochondria often appear in a rod or cylindrical shape. It is a permanent structure in the
cell. It can also be said to be the power house of the cell and it is where aerobic respiration
occurs to generate energy from the glucose molecules in the cell. It is involved in chemical
energy conversion during metabolic activities of the cell.

Vacuole
Vacuoles are sacs filled with sap, a watery solution of sugar, salts, and pigments. These are the
excess food stored in the cell after digestion. In plants, the vacuoles appear as one large
section of the cell in the middle, however, in animal cells, they appear as tiny granules.

Ribosome
Ribosome is made up of two sub units that aids in protein synthesis and is the biological
catalysts and makes reactions of metabolisms. Many types of cell have vast numbers of
ribosome and they also construct a type of acid known as nucleic acid.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum consists of a network of folded membranes, forming interconnected
sheets, tubes or sacs. The structure originates from the outer membrane of the nucleus, to
which they may stay attached to. The cytoplasm of metabolically active cells is usually packed
with endoplasmic reticulum. There are two distinct types of endoplasmic reticulum, the rough ER
(RER) and the smooth ER (SER).

40

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum has no ribosomes attached to it and is the site of synthesis for
substances needed by the cell. The SER is also responsible for the manufacturing of lipids. In
the cytoplasm of voluntary muscle fibers, a special form of SER is at the site of storage of
calcium ions which have an important role in the contraction of muscle fibers.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to it and vesicles are formed from swelling
at the margins that get pinched off. A vesicle is a small spherical organelle bounded by a single
membrane, which is used to store and transport substances around the cell. For example, RER is
the site of synthesis for protein such as digestive enzymes. These are packaged in the vesicles
and are discharged from the cells.

Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of a stack-like structure that is a collection of flattened
membranous sacs. One side of the stack of membranes is formed by the fusion of membranes of
vesicles from ER. At the opposite side of the stack, Vesicles are formed from swellings at the
margins that become pinched off. The Golgi apparatus is present in all cells, but is especially
prominent in metabolically active cells such as secretary cells. It is the site of synthesis for
certain chemicals, including hormones and polysaccharide macromolecules, which are then
packages into vesicles. In animal cells these vesicles may form lysosome, while those in plant
cells my contain polysaccharide for cell wall formation.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are small spherical vesicles bound by a single membrane. They contain a concentrated
mixture of hydrolytic enzymes, which are produced by either the Golgi apparatus or by the ER.
Lysosomes are involved in the breakdown of contents of imported food vacuoles. An example
might be a harmful bacterium that has invaded the body and been engulfed by one of the bodys
defense cell. It is then broken down, and the products of digestion escape into the liquid of the
cytoplasm. Lysosomes may also fuse with and digest any broken-down organelles in the
cytoplasm. When an organism dies, the hydrolytic enzymes in the lysosome of the cells escape
into the cytoplasm and cause self digestion.

Cell wall
The cell wall in plant cells is a firm and turgid layer of cellulose that gives the cell its shape and
it does not interfere with the cell membranes work of regulating entry and exit of substances
as the perforations in it is large enough for almost all substances to go through.

41

Chloroplast
In plant cells, there is another unique cell part, the chloropast which is the part in the cell that
contains chlorophyll and trap sunlight to make food. Without the chloroplast, the plant cells
would not appear green and would not be able to photosynthesize.

Division of Labour
Division of labour is needed since each cell has specified jobs and not any other cell is able to
take over the job of a specified type of cell. For example, a cheek cell is definitely not able to
replace a brain cell thus, cell specialization in the division of labor is very important. This allows
multiple processes to go on concurrently.

Diffusion & Osmosis

Osmosis is generally the net movement of water molecules across a partially permeable layer
from a substance of higher water potential to a substance of lower water potential. Water
potential is the density of water molecules in a certain area. The water would move across from
the substrate of higher water potential until both sides have an equal water potential. When a
substrate has a higher water potential than the average water potential in your cell, it is said
that the substance is hypotonic and water moves into the cell and a plant cell would become
turgid while an animal cell would lyse. When the substrate has an equal water potential as the
average water potential in you cell, it is called isotonic and there is no net movement of water in
and out of the cell. When the substance has a lower water potential than the average water
potential in your cell, it is said that the substance is hypertonic and water would move out of the
cell, causing it to be flaccid. Diffusion is quite the same thing as osmosis except that it involves
a substance that can move and travel across in natural, for example, the diffusion of gas in the
or air, or the diffusion of blue paint in a beaker of water. Diffusion is affected by many
different factors like the temperature of the substance since it affects the movement of
molecule, the thickness of the barrier separating the two substances and the size of the
molecule these factors all can affect the rate of diffusion and osmosis.

42

Digestive System
The process of digestion
Mouth
The mouth is the place where digestion starts. The teeth start helping by chewing and tearing
the food up into smaller pieces (mastication) so that digestion can occur over a larger surface
area for enzyme reaction and digestion can happen faster. The tongue secretes enzyme amylase
which helps to catalyse the digestion of starch into maltose in the food. It is also to soften the
food. The tongue then rolls the chewed up food into a ball called bolus and it is rolled to the
back of the tongue so that it can go down into the throat. The saliva also contains mucus that
helps to make food more slippery and allows it to go down the esophagus more easily.

Gullet
The gullet or the esophagus is a passage way which connects the mouth to the stomach. The
food from the mouth is pushed down this tube by peristalsis; this is the action of the muscles
contracting and relaxing, pushing the ball of food down. This is an involuntary action. No
chemical reaction occurs here apart from the digestion of starch into maltose. The gullet itself
is just a long tube of muscles.

43

Stomach
The stomach is a muscular bag that contains hydrochloric acid and it is also where most of the
digestion takes place. The food is kept in the stomach for about 2-4 hours and remains there
until mostly digested. The food that has been churned by the stomach is called chime. Alcohol
and glucose are also absorbed here. The hydrochloric acid in the stomach is highly acidic and
thus the average pH of the stomach is about 2. This acidic environment allows many of the
processes in the stomach to go on and also kills the bacteria in the food. The hydrochloric acid
also helps to loosen the bonds in the meat, to render easy absorption of calcium and iron at a
later stage in the process of digestion.
Due to its acidic environment, the stomach has to secrete mucus in order to prevent the
hydrochloric acid from digesting the walls of the stomach. In the stomach, various enzymes are
secreted, pepsin, rennin and peptides. The pepsin aids in breaking down the protein into peptides
and the rennin converts protein into insoluble curds for hydrolysis of pepsin. The pyloric
sphincter controls the entry of food to the duodenum.

Liver
The liver is one of the crucial parts of the digestive system and it is where green bile that is
needed for emulsification of fats is formed and sent to the gall bladder to be stored and
transferred to the small intestine to emulsify the fats and allow a larger area for reaction of
lipase, making it easier for the digestion of fats and lipids in the food.

Pancreas
The pancreas is one of the main secretor of alkaline enzymes in the digestive system. The
pancreas is a feathery like structure that secretes enzymes like amylase, trypsin, lipase and
even water as it helps in hydrolysis of food. It also secretes insulin to convert excess glucose to
glycogen in the liver.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is where the final stages of digestion take place, it is also where bile is
secreted into the digestive system, and the bile helps to emulsify the fats so that the digestion
of fats into fatty acid and glycerol can occur at a faster rate. The pH here is relatively normal
as it is pH7 since the pancreatic juice is alkaline and thus the hydrochloric acid from the
stomach may be neutralized so that the acids in the pancreatic juice can be activated. In the
duodenum, the last stages of digestion take place and are completed and the food moves on to
the duodenum. Just to name a few of the reactions that occur, the peptides are digested into

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amino acids, lactose is digested into glucose and galactose, sucrose is digested into glucose and
fructose and the maltose is digested into sucrose. In the ileum, the walls of the small intestine
are covered with tiny protrusions called micro-villi. The villi are present to aid in the absorption
of nutrients into the bloodstream as the surface area for absorption is increased and is more
efficient. On the villi,
there are millions of
micro-villi, each villus has
blood capillaries linked to
the hepatic system and in
the middle of the main
villi, and there is the lacteal which is linked to the lymphatic system of the body. The fats and
lipids are absorbed into the lacteal, into the lymphatic system to the liver. The other nutrients
however, are absorbed into the blood capillaries and transported to all parts of the body.

Large Intestine
The large intestine is the alimentary canal and is mainly made up of the colon; the colon is the
part where no enzyme activity takes place, however, water is absorbed from the food into the
body The large intestine pushes the digested food through the large intestine by peristalsis.
Since there are no chemical to neutralize the enzymes from the small intestine, the walls of the
large intestine secretes mucus to prevent the enzymes from harming the walls of the large
intestine.

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